psyg-11-607274 Decembe 4, 2020 Time: 13:2 # 1
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 08 Decembe 2020
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2020.607274
Edi ed by:
Rosa io Cabello,
Uni e si y o G anada, Spain
Re iewed by:
Claudio Longoba di,
Uni e si y o Tu in, I aly
Adelinda A aujo Candeias,
Uni e si y o E o a, Po ugal
*Co espondence:
Bá ba a Lo ence-La a
[email p o ec ed]
†
†
†ORCID:
Alicia Muñoz-Sil a
o cid.o g/0000-0001-8906-178X
Bá ba a Lo ence-La a
o cid.o g/0000-0001-6154-8852
Manuel Sanchez-Ga cia
o cid.o g/0000-0003-3375-8347
‡These au ho s ha e con ibu ed
equally o his wo k
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
De elopmen al Psychology,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Psychology
Recei ed: 16 Sep embe 2020
Accep ed: 16 No embe 2020
Published: 08 Decembe 2020
Ci a ion:
Muñoz-Sil a A,
De la Co e de la Co e C,
Lo ence-La a B and
Sanchez-Ga cia M (2020)
Psychosocial Adjus men
and Sociome ic S a us in P ima y
Educa ion: Gende Di e ences.
F on . Psychol. 11:607274.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2020.607274
Psychosocial Adjus men and
Sociome ic S a us in P ima y
Educa ion: Gende Di e ences
Alicia Muñoz-Sil a1†‡, Cecilia De la Co e de la Co e1‡, Bá ba a Lo ence-La a2*†‡ and
Manuel Sanchez-Ga cia3†‡
1Depa men o Social, De elopmen al and Educa ional Psychology, Uni e si y o Huel a, Huel a, Spain, 2Depa men o
De elopmen al and Educa ional Psychology, Uni e si y o Se illa, Se illa, Spain, 3Depa men o Clinical and Expe imen al
Psychology, Uni e si y o Huel a, Huel a, Spain
The accep ance o ejec ion o classma es is one o he mos widely ecognized
de e minan s o wellbeing in childhood. This s udy analyses psychosocial adjus men
and sociome ic s a us in p ima y educa ion pupils, and possible di e ences by gende .
A c oss-sec ional su ey was unde aken in Huel a (Spain). The su eyed schools we e
selec ed using a s a i ied andom sampling echnique wi h bo h public and p i a e
elemen a y schools. Sample was composed o 247 4 h g ade s uden s. Da a e ealed
gende di e ences in psychosocial adjus men , pa icula ly in e ms o p osocial beha io
in gi ls and beha io al p oblems in boys. Popula and ejec ed s a uses p esen ed
opposing adjus men p o iles, pa icula ly in hype ac i e symp oms and beha io al
p oblems. When he sample was sepa a ed by gende , he di e ences be ween he
ypes o s a us in emo ional symp oma ology and p osocial beha io disappea ed. In
addi ion, he di e ences be ween s a uses we e g ea e in boys, and we e de ined
mainly by hype ac i i y, whils o gi ls hese di e ences we e mo e appa en in
beha io al p oblems.
Keywo ds: sociome ic s a us, adjus men , beha io al p oblems, gende di e ences, educa ion
INTRODUCTION
Wo ldwide, 10–20% o child en and adolescen s su e om psychia ic diso de s, bu only one
i h a e co ec ly diagnosed. Mo eo e , signi ican numbe s o o he child en and young people
ha e psychosocial adjus men p oblems ha , whils no mee ing he diagnos ic c i e ia o a
men al diso de , a e s ill a sou ce o su e ing and discom o , bo h o hemsel es and o he
people a ound hem. These mino s mus also ecei e e alua ion and help (Asociación Española
de Neu opsiquia ía, 2009;Mundy e al., 2017). Fu he mo e, he ea ly p esence o emo ional
and/o beha io al p oblems inc eases he isk o de eloping a men al diso de in he la e s ages
o de elopmen (Cos ello e al., 2003;Kim-Cohen e al., 2003;Widige e al., 2009). Conc e ely, in
la e childhood — ou wo k is ocused on his de elopmen al s age — beha io al and/o emo ional
diso de s a e pa icula ly p onounced (Na a o-Pa do e al., 2012).
On he o he hand, he di e ences be ween boys and gi ls in hei psychological adjus men
ha e been well s udied. In gene al, boys show a g ea e numbe o ex e nalizing diso de s han
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Muñoz-Sil a e al. Psychosocial Adjus men and Sociome ic S a us
gi ls (Wena and Ke ig, 2000;Na a o-Pa do e al., 2012).
Mo eo e , and wi hou igno ing he high p esence o beha io al
p oblems in gi ls du ing childhood and adolescence ha has been
ound in some s udies (Aláez e al., 2000), gi ls su pass boys in
in e nalizing pa hologies such as dep essi e and anxie y diso de s
(Rei z e al., 2005;Na a o-Pa do e al., 2012). I is no ewo hy
ha hese gende di e ences can be seen in di e en coun ies
and cul u es such as Aus alia, Belgium, China, Ge many, G eece,
Is ael, Jamaica, Holland, Pue o Rico, Sweden, Thailand, and he
Uni ed S a es (C ijnen e al., 1999).
F om middle childhood o p eadolescence he school con ex
has been shown decisi e o he psychosocial adjus men o
child en. And in his con ex , he e a e wo de e mining
ac o s: (a) he eache -s uden ela ionships and (b) he pee
ela ionships. The quali y o eache -s uden ela ionships has
been shown o be a p o ec i e ac o agains inc easing
in e nalizing and/o ex e nalizing p oblems while s imula ing
p osocial beha io in child en (Longoba di e al., 2019, 2020).
In his sense, some wo ks poin ou ha eache s play an
impo an media ion ole in con lic s be ween classma es by
co ec ing some beha io s and encou aging o he s (Gas aldi
e al., 2015). Simila ly, a good quali y eache -s uden ela ionship
is a p o ec i e ac o agains he isk o ic imiza ion o exclusion
om he g oup (Ma engo e al., 2018). The second ac o –
pee ela ionships in school con ex and i s associa ion wi h
psychosocial adjus men – is a cen al opic o his wo k.
Rela ionships wi h pee s a hese ages play an impo an ole in
unde s anding he emo ional and beha io al di icul ies o hese
child en. Du ing hese ages, child en unc ion in he p esence o
hei pee s o a la ge p opo ion o hei day, making he pee
en i onmen e y impo an o hei de elopmen (S ou e e al.,
2005;Rubin e al., 2015). In pa icula , he accep ance o ejec ion
o pee s is one o he mos widely ecognized de e minan s o
socio-pe sonal de elopmen and adjus men (Buhs and Ladd,
2001;Bie man, 2004;P ins ein and La G eca, 2004;B endgen
e al., 2005;Rubin e al., 2006;Lau sen e al., 2007;M ug e al.,
2012;Pla e al., 2013;Badenes-Ribe a e al., 2019). Thus, he
accep ance o pee s is associa ed wi h g ea e sociabili y, sel -
e icacy, and adequa e sel -es eem, while he absence o such
ela ionships o con inued ejec ion a e ela ed o isola ion,
dep ession, low sociabili y, poo p osociali y, and dis up i e
beha io . In pa icula , he class oom g oup is usually he
scena io pa excellence in which social ela ionships a e s udied
a hese ages (Newcomb e al., 1993) and he e a e a ious s udies
showing ha he deg ee o accep ance and ejec ion o pee s in
he school en i onmen is also associa ed wi h he de elopmen
o academic li e and schola ly compe ence (Buhs and Ladd, 2001;
Gi o d-Smi h and B ownell, 2003;Wen zel, 2003).
Gi en he impo an epe cussions o he accep ance
o ejec ion o pee s, i is no su p ising ha nume ous
in es iga ions ha e ocused on s udying he social s a us ha
boys and gi ls occupy in class oom se ings. P ima ily because
o child en du ing elemen a y school yea s a e embedded in
an age s a i ied g oup o such a la ge po ion o hei ime
(Hawley and Bowe , 2018). One o he mos widely employed
ways o de e mining he accep ance o ejec ion o pee s is
h ough he analysis o sociome ic s a us, s udied h ough
a ious me hodologies, o which he sociome ic echnique
de eloped in he 1930s by Mo eno is pa icula ly p ominen
and is he mos widely chosen p ocedu e (Jiang and Cillessen,
2005). The applica ion o his echnique allows us o ob ain
he ollowing p o iles: a e age, popula , ejec ed, neglec ed and
con o e sial. A e age s a us g oup is composed by child en
ecei ing a mode a e numbe o likes and dislikes and i is
he e e ence g oup wi h whom he mo e ex eme g oups a e
compa ed. Popula child en ha e high liking sco es and low
disliking sco es. Rejec ed a e ac i ely disliked by hei pee s while
neglec ed a e simply ba ely nomina ed by hei pee s as liked o
disliked. Finally, con o e sial child en ecei e bo h high liking
and disliking sco es (Coie e al., 1982).
In Spain, he mos common sociome ic s a us in school
child en is a e age, ollowed by neglec ed, ejec ed, popula , and
con o e sial (Ga cía e al., 2013). The s abili y o his s a us o e
he yea s was examined in he s udy o Jiang and Cillessen (2005),
wi h he olde boys and gi ls showing mo e s abili y han he
younge child en. The s abili y o sociome ic s a us o e ime is
special ele an because s eng hen he po en ial o social s a us
on child en ou comes (Geukes e al., 2018;Ilma inen e al., 2019).
Simila ly, he associa ion be ween sociome ic s a us and
pe sonal adjus men is well documen ed (Ges e al., 2001;
Bie man, 2004;Geukes e al., 2018;Ilma inen e al., 2019).
In his ega d, i is wo h no ing ha he e a e a g ea e
numbe o s udies ha examine sociome ic s a us in ela ion o
ex e nalizing p oblems as opposed o in e nalizing p oblems. In
gene al, ejec ed child en, in con as wi h hei mo e popula
pee s, p esen mo e un a o able indica o s o in e nal and
ex e nal adjus men (Newcomb e al., 1993;LaFon ana and
Cillessen, 2002) whils e en less p osociali y has been obse ed
in child en wi h his s a us compa ed wi h hose o o he s a us
ca ego ies (Wen zel, 2003;Plazas e al., 2010). An isocial mino s
(Plazas e al., 2010) and hose wi h hype ac i e symp oms (M ug
e al., 2012;Ros and G aziano, 2018) a e mo e ejec ed by
hei pee s. Fo his eason, child en wi h hype ac i i y end
o be mo e highly ep esen ed in he ejec ed ca ego y. The
indings, howe e , a e no so clea when s udying agg essi eness,
whe e i has been ound ha he s a us o agg esso s depends
on he ype o agg ession ha is p edominan ly used when
in e ac ing wi h hei pee s (Ka men and Te an, 2013). Rega ding
in e nalizing p oblems, i has been shown ha anxious and/o
dep essi e symp oma ology appea s o main ain and exace ba e
social ejec ion (Newcomb e al., 1993;B endgen e al., 2005).
Taken oge he , i appea s ha wo con lic ing s a uses can
be obse ed acco ding o he adjus men cha ac e is ics o
he child en: popula and ejec ed. Fu he , a e age, and e en
neglec ed child en ha e ecei ed less a en ion because hese
a e sociome ic p o iles wi h adjus men p oblems ha a e o
ela i ely li le conce n. Finally, in spi e o he ac ha he e a e
bo h simila i ies and di e ences be ween he cha ac e is ics o
he ejec ed and con o e sial s a uses, he la e s a us is one o
he leas s udied due o i s low ep esen a i eness in g oups and
ins abili y o e ime (Newcomb e al., 1993).
The high p e alence o psychosocial adjus men p oblems
in childhood, oge he wi h i s link wi h sociome ic ypologies
explains he in e es in hese ypes o s udies. Du ing p ima y
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educa ion, child en a e inc easingly conce ned abou hei own
social s a us wi hin hei closes pee g oup, i.e., hei g oup-
class. In addi ion, on he basis o de elopmen al psychology
s udies i is known ha he e a e di e ences in he social
adjus men o boys and gi ls a hese ages, and hese mus be
aken in o accoun (LaFon ana and Cillessen, 2002). I is also
known ha un il he adolescence, gende seg ega ion domina es
he socializa ion o boys and gi ls (Pe ce , 2002). O he s udies
ha e ound di e ences be ween boys and gi ls in e ms o
he deg ee o accep ance o ejec ion hey ecei e om hei
pee s, wi h boys being mos ep esen ed in he ejec ed s a us
ca ego y (Plazas e al., 2010). Howe e , ela i ely ew s udies ha e
examined whe he he associa ion be ween sociome ic s a us and
emo ional and beha io al symp oma ology a ies acco ding o
gende (B endgen e al., 2005;Escoba e al., 2010).
Thus, he p esen esea ch speci ically aims o analyze he
psychosocial adjus men o child en, hei sociome ic s a us, and
he possible ela ionships be ween hese a iables in a sample o
p ima y school s uden s, whils explo ing how his associa ion
may a y acco ding o gende . The ul ima e goal o his wo k is
o unde s and he ac o s which p edic he posi i e adap a ion
o child en and adolescen s o hei school en i onmen s.
This will, in u n, in o m he de elopmen o in e en ion
p og ams ocused on he mos impo an ac o s o p omo ing
he psychological wellbeing o pupils, bo h emo ionally and
pe sonally as well as in e ms o social and pee ela ions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Pa icipan s
The s udy popula ion was 4 h g ade p ima y school s uden s
(a ound 9 yea s o age) in Huel a (Spain). The es s we e
adminis e ed in six educa ional cen e s, wi h a inal sample o 247
s uden s composed o 112 boys (45.3%) and 135 gi ls (54.7%).
The sample, he e o e, ep esen s 14.26% o he popula ion
en olled in he 4 h yea o p ima y school in Huel a. We
can assume ha he sample is ep esen a i e o he popula ion
(1,732 s uden s) wi h a con idence le el o 95%, and maximum
es ima ion e o o 5.7%, assuming an a e age e ec size and a
powe o 99%. The age o he pa icipan s anged be ween 8 and
10 yea s, wi h an a e age o 9 yea s (SD = 0.343).
The sample was selec ed using a s a i ica ion p ocedu e
g ouping he schools acco ding o hei owne ship (public o
p i a e). Wi hin each o he s a a we decided o apply he es s
in as many cen e s as possible, using he ollowing c i e ia:
- Pupils en olled in he ou h g ade o p ima y school (bo h
gi ls and boys).
- Accep ance o he esea ch by he educa ional cen e .
- W i en in o med consen o he pa en s/gua dians o he
child en.
Table 1 shows he socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he
sample. Only child en who we e unable o a end any o he
2 days used o ieldwo k in each school cen e we e excluded
om he sample.
TABLE 1 | Socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he sample (N= 247).
Dis ibu ion
Gende
Boys 112 (45.3%)
Gi ls 135 (54.7%)
Owne ship o he cen e
Public 120 (48.6%)
P i a e 127 (51.4%)
Age Mean (S.D.) = 9 (0.343)
8 yea s 15 (6.1%)
9 yea s 218 (88.3%)
10 yea s 14 (5.7%)
Ins umen s
Se e al in o man s pa icipa ed in his s udy. The s uden s o his
s udy epo ed o hei sex, gende (socio-demog aphic da a), and
sociome ic s a us; and he eache s in o med abou hese pupils’
psychosocial adjus men .
Socio-Demog aphic Da a
Age and gende o he pupils.
Sociome ic S a us
This was ob ained using he Pee -Nomina ion Ques ionnai e
(Ga cía-Bace e, 2008). The ques ions asked we e: “Who a e
he THREE membe s o you class ha you choose as BEST
FRIENDS?,” and “Who a e he THREE membe s o you class
ha you like LEAST AS FRIENDS?” F om hese wo i ems
ou s anda dized sco es we e calcula ed o each pa icipan :
To al nomina ions as “Bes iend,” To al nomina ions as “Wo s
iend,” Social impac , and Social p e e ence. F om hese ou
s anda dized sco es, pa icipan s we e ca ego ized in o he i e
sociome ic s a us g oups al eady desc ibed (Coie e al., 1982):
Popula , Rejec ed, Neglec ed, Con o e sial, and A e age.
Psychosocial Adjus men
This was e alua ed using he S eng hs and Di icul ies
Ques ionnai e (SDQ-Cas; Goodman, 2001) a alida ed b ie
men al heal h-sc eening ques ionnai e, designed o e alua e he
beha io o child en and adolescen s be ween 3 and 16 yea s
o age om he pe spec i e o pa en s and eache s. In his
wo k we used he e sion o eache s in Spanish ( aken om1),
which is composed o 25 i ems dis ibu ed in o i e subscales
wi h i e i ems each: Emo ional P oblems (α= 0.66, in his
sample), Conduc P oblems (α= 0.73), Hype ac i i y (α= 0.88),
Pee p oblems (α= 0.69) and P osocial beha io (α= 0.84).
Sco es on each one o he i ems a y be ween 0 “No ue”
and 2 “Absolu ely ue.” Fo each o he i e scales he sco e
can a y om 0 o 10. We also used he g ouping in o wo
second-o de ac o s ha was implemen ed by he au ho s o
he scale (Goodman e al., 2010), ob aining a dis inc sco e o
in e nalizing symp oma ology (α= 0.88), which is composed
o Emo ional P oblems and Pee P oblems, and ex e nalizing
1h p://www.sdqin o.o g/py/sdqin o/ 0.py
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Muñoz-Sil a e al. Psychosocial Adjus men and Sociome ic S a us
symp oma ology (α= 0.77), composed o Hype ac i i y and
Conduc P oblems.
P ocedu e
All p ocedu es pe o med in his s udy we e in acco dance wi h
he e hical s anda ds o he ins i u ional and/o na ional esea ch
commi ee and wi h he 1964 Helsinki decla a ion (p o ocol
o Helsinky) and i s la e amendmen s o compa able e hical
s anda ds. W i en in o med consen was ob ained om pa en s
o all mino s pa icipan s included in he s udy a e ho oughly
eading and ully unde s anding he in o ma ion. A copy o he
signa u e page was e ained. No pa ien s we e included in his
s udy and no e hics commi ee app o al was needed.
The i s s ep in he p esen in es iga ion was o conduc
an in e iew wi h he managemen eam o each school o
explain he me hodology o he s udy. They we e gi en speci ic
in o ma ion abou he objec i es o he esea ch, making clea
ha he aim was o conduc a mo e in-dep h sea ch o a iables
ha migh imp o e he social adap a ion o child en, hus
a o ing he en i onmen and wel a e o he s uden s in he
educa ional cen e s. They we e gi en a le e o mally eques ing
collabo a ion wi h he s udy. A e ob aining he consen o he
cen e , a le e was w i en o he pa en s o he s uden s whe e
hey we e in o med ha a esea ch eam om he Uni e si y o
Huel a had eques ed he assis ance o he school o conduc
a s udy ha aimed o e alua e he adap a ion o child en in
hei class ooms. In his le e , pa en s we e in o med ha he
es s we e o be applied in he class oom and du ing school
hou s, and he du a ion was speci ied. In he same le e , he
signed au ho iza ion o he pa en s/gua dians was eques ed so
ha hei child could be included in he s udy. Finally, each
school appoin ed a 4 h g ade p ima y u o o be p esen in each
class oom when he es s we e adminis e ed, accompanying he
pe son who e alua ed he s uden s o ensu e ha p e-es ablished
class ou ines, including b eak imes, we e espec ed.
Da a Analysis
All he s a is ical analyzes we e ca ied ou using SPSS . 20.0.
Fi s ly, we examined he p esence o missing da a, checked
e oneous da a, and all ha is implied by he pu i ica ion o
da a h ough his s a is ical p og am. Secondly, we compu ed
desc ip i e s a is ics (i.e., mean and s anda d de ia ion) o
he s udy a iables. The in e nal consis ency o he subscale
sco es o he SDQ was also e i ied by C onbach’s alpha
coe icien . We analyzed he ela ionships be ween psychosocial
adjus men and gende ( - es ), and be ween psychosocial
adjus men and sociome ic s a us (one-way ANOVAs). Fo
hese analyzes, we es ima e he e ec size (Cohen, 1988,
1992): Cohen’s d alues om | 0.20| o | 0.49| ep esen
small e ec sizes; hose anging om | 0.50| o | 0.79| e lec
medium e ec sizes; and alues o | 0.80| o g ea e indica e
la ge e ec sizes. E a-squa ed alues om | 0.01| o | 0.05|
ep esen small e ec sizes; hose anging om | 0.06| o
| 0.13| e lec medium e ec sizes; and alues o | 0.14|
o g ea e indica e la ge e ec sizes. Finally, we used chi-
squa e es o analyze he ela ionships be ween sociome ic
s a us and gende .
RESULTS
Psychosocial Adjus men and
Sociome ic S a us o P ima y Educa ion
Pupils
Table 2 shows he desc ip i e da a o each o he i s and second
o de subscales ha make up he SDQ ins umen . In gene al,
he pa icipan s show mo e ex e nalizing han in e nalizing
p oblems [ (1,246)= 7; p<0.001; Cohen’s d= 0.45]. The sco es
ob ained on he i s -o de subscales (emo ional p oblems, pee
p oblems, conduc p oblems, hype ac i i y, and p osociali y)
p esen a e ages ha all wi hin no mali y, as es ablished in he
co ec ion o he scale (Goodman, 2001).
The compa isons o means by gende e eal s a is ically
signi ican di e ences in e ms o To al P oblems, hese being
mo e equen in boys compa ed wi h gi ls (see Table 2).
Speci ically, hese a e he ex e nalizing p oblems, wi h conduc
p oblems being pa icula ly highligh ed in he boys. In con as ,
gi ls sco e highe han boys on he p osocial scale.
The echnique o pee nomina ion allowed o iden i ying
he social s a us o each child in his/he class oom g oup (see
Table 3). The pe cen age o pupils wi h a e age s a us exceeds
50% o he o al sample, whils he s a uses o neglec ed, ejec ed,
TABLE 2 | Desc ip i e S a is ics o he SDQ Subscales by Gende .
To al Boys Gi ls d
M (SD) M (SD) M (SD)
To al p oblems 7.53 (6.83) 8.46 (7.13) 6.75 (6.50) 1.97*0.25
In e nalizing p oblems 2.91 (3.12) 3.15 (3.04) 2.72 (3.17) 1.08 0.14
Emo ional p oblems 1.59 (1.85) 1.76 (1.89) 1.44 (1.80) 1.33 0.17
Pee p oblems 1.33 (1.75) 1.39 (1.72) 1.27 (1.78) 0.53 0.07
Ex e nalizing p oblems 4.61 (4.57) 5.31 (5.05) 4.03 (4.05) 2.21*0.28
Conduc p oblems 1.36 (1.85) 1.67 (2.11) 1.10 (1.55) 2.44*0.31
Hype ac i i y 3.26 (3.11) 3.64 (3.31) 2.93 (2.90) 1.79 0.23
P osociali y 8.52 (1.93) 8.20 (2.16) 8.79 (1.68) −2.40*0.31
*p <0.05; = S uden ’s - es ; d = absolu e alue o Cohen’s d e ec size.
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TABLE 3 | Compa ison o he pe cen ages o pupils in each s a us ca ego y
acco ding o gende .
To al N(%) Boys % (Z) Gi ls % (Z)
Popula 32 (13.0%) 14.3 (0.6) 11.9 (−0.6)
Rejec ed 36 (14.6%) 17.9 (1.3) 11.9 (−1.3)
Neglec ed 42 (17.0%) 22.3 (2.0) 12.6 (−2.0)
Con o e sial 10 (4.0%) 2.7 (−1.0) 5.2 (1.0)
A e age 127 (51.4%) 42.9 (−2.5) 58.5 (2.5)
Pea son Chi-squa e = 9.02, deg ees o eedom = 4; p = 0.059;
Z = s anda dized esiduals.
and popula all s and ou o a lesse ex en , wi h he con o e sial
s a us being he leas ep esen ed ca ego y.
The Pea son Chi-squa e s a is ical echnique — used o
compa e he pe cen ages o pupils gi en each sociome ic s a us
acco ding o gende — ailed o e eal a s a is ically signi ican
alue, al hough i is e y close o signi icance. Fo his eason, he
s anda dized esiduals (co ec ed o he es ) we e in e p e ed.
I is obse ed ha in gi ls he a e age s a us ype was eco ded
mo e equen ly han in boys. In he o he hand, he neglec ed
s a us was mo e p edominan in boys bu no in gi ls.
Psychosocial Adjus men and I s
Rela ionship Wi h Sociome ic S a us
Acco ding o Gende
In his sec ion we examine he associa ion be ween he
indica o s o psychosocial adjus men o he SDQ and he
di e en ypes o sociome ic s a us o he en i e sample (see
Table 4). Fo hese analyzes, hose pupils wi h a con o e sial
s a us we e no aken in o accoun , gi en hei low numbe
in he g oup. In gene al, da a e ealed ha he e a e wo
opposing g oups in e ms o adjus men : popula e sus
ejec ed. In addi ion, he child en in he ejec ed g oup
show he poo es adjus men sco es in compa ison wi h hose
in he emaining sociome ic s a us ca ego ies, wi h hese
di e ences being mo e ma ked o ex e nalizing p oblems
(conduc p oblems and hype ac i i y). The child en in he
neglec ed s a us g oup p esen ed a simila p o ile o hose
in he popula and a e age ca ego ies, excep o emo ional
p oblems, whe e he e we e no di e ences om hose in he
ejec ed ca ego y.
These analyzes we e eplica ed acco ding o he gende o
he pupils. The compa isons o boys and gi ls, espec i ely,
a e p esen ed in Tables 5,6. When he sample was sepa a ed
by gende , he di e ences be ween he ypes o s a us in
emo ional symp oma ology and p osocial beha io disappea ed.
Fo bo h gende s, di e ences we e ound be ween he ou
ypes o s a us o hype ac i i y, conduc p oblems, and pee
p oblems, wi h boys and gi ls in he ejec ed g oups p esen ing
mo e adjus men p oblems han he es o he g oups, and
wi h ejec ed boys exceeding he no mal alues es ablished by
he scale o hype ac i i y and conduc p oblems (Goodman,
2001). As well, he di e ences be ween ypes o s a us in
boys we e o g ea e magni ude han in gi ls and we e
de ined mainly by hype ac i i y, whils o gi ls he la ges
di e ences we e e iden in e ms o conduc p oblems ollowed
by hype ac i i y.
DISCUSSION
Fi s ly, ou s udy p o ides e idence o gende di e ences wi h
espec o he psychosocial adjus men o pupils. Thus, gi ls
s and ou o ha ing highe sco es on p osocial beha io s,
a inding ha is compa ible wi h hose o p e ious s udies
(Plazas e al., 2010). In addi ion, boys ha e a g ea e numbe
o conduc p oblems, which is in line wi h o he in e na ional
s udies (Ka eman e al., 2009;Chen, 2010), and hose
wi hin ou coun y (Aláez e al., 2000;Na a o-Pa do e al.,
2012). Howe e , ou da a di e om hose o he la e
s udies in ha we obse e ha ex e nalizing p oblems a e
g ea e han in e nalizing p oblems in bo h boys and gi ls,
as opposed o he inding ha in e nalizing p oblems a e
mo e p e alen in gi ls. This inding could be explained by
i ue o he ac ha compa a i e s udies o en co e a
wide age ange — including adolescen s — and in e nalizing
p oblems each highe le els (and a e o g ea e equency)
in la e childhood and du ing adolescence, pa icula ly in gi ls
(Jau eguiza e al., 2012). On he o he hand, his esul
may be explained by he ac ha child en, pa en s, and
eache s usually only epo ex e nalizing p oblems as adjus men
p oblems, as hese a e ega ded as annoying beha io s o
o he s as opposed o in e nalizing p oblems ha a e no
conside ed as adjus men p oblems in child en o hese ages
(Del Rocío and Palos, 2005).
The dis ibu ion o he s uden s ac oss he sociome ic
s a us g oups was as expec ed, wi h he majo i y being
posi ioned in he a e age s a us g oup and he mino i y
in he con o e sial s a us g oup (Ga cía-Bace e, 2008).
Wi h ega d o gende , al hough his was a non-signi ican
di e ence, we obse ed ha boys we e ep esen ed mo e
in he neglec ed g oup compa ed wi h he gi ls who
we e ep esen ed mo e in he a e age g oup. Unlike
p e ious s udies (Plazas e al., 2010), we did no ind
ha mo e boys we e ep esen ed in he ejec ed g oup
compa ed wi h gi ls. Finally, i should be no ed ha
he low numbe o s uden s in he con o e sial s a us
g oup, as well as he p oblem o ins abili y o e ime
de ec ed in p e ious s udies (Newcomb e al., 1993),
led us o exclude he da a om hese boys and gi ls in
subsequen analyzes.
The associa ion be ween sociome ic s a us and psychosocial
adjus men was also con i med in his esea ch. Fi s ly, he
ejec ed s a us g oup p esen ed an adjus men p o ile opposi e
o hose in he popula s a us g oup. Fu he mo e, and in line
wi h M ug e al. (2012), ejec ion by pee s was mo e s ongly
co ela ed wi h adjus men indica o s han accep ance. Thus,
we ound ha hose in he ejec ed g oup di e ed om hose
in he es o he sociome ic s a us g oups in almos all o
he p oblems ca ego ies, wi h no such di e ences being ound
be ween he membe s o he emaining s a us g oups. These
di e ences we e pa icula ly ma ked o ex e nalizing di icul ies,
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TABLE 4 | Sociome ic s a us. Means (S anda d De ia ions) and F es o means based on SDQ measu emen s o he sample.
Popula Rejec ed Neglec ed A e age Fη2
M(SD)M(SD)M (SD) M (SD)
Emo ional p oblems 0.94 (1.13)a2.58 (1.95)b1.48 (1.95)a,b1.57 (1.88)a4.96** 0.060
Conduc p oblems 0.41 (0.91)a3.00 (2.60)b0.90 (1.68)a1.28 (1.60)a15.07*** 0.162
Hype ac i i y 1.47 (2.14)a6.47 (3.10)b2.60 (2.89)a3.02 (2.85)a21.05*** 0.213
Pee p oblems 0.84 (1.17)a2.61 (2.61)b1.02 (1.59)a1.25 (1.52)a8.17*** 0.095
P osociali y 9.16 (1.17)a7.61 (2.14)b8.64 (2.07)a,b8.55 (1.94)a,b3.96** 0.048
**p <0.01; ***p <0.001; η2= e a-squa ed e ec size. The di e en supe sc ip s (a, b) indica e s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Tes : Fac o ial ANOVA. Pos hoc
compa isons: Sche é. No supe sc ip s indica e ha he e a e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween g oups.
TABLE 5 | Sociome ic s a us. Means (S anda d De ia ions) and F es o he compa ison o means acco ding o he SDQ measu es o he sample o boys.
Popula Rejec ed Neglec ed A e age Fη2
M(SD)M(SD)M (SD) M (SD)
Emo ional p oblems 1.06 (1.24) 2.70 (1.95) 1.56 (1.85) 1.81 (1.99) 2.53 0.067
Conduc p oblems 0.69 (1.20)a3.45 (2.74)b1.12 (1.81)a1.60 (1.85)a7.49*** 0.176
Hype ac i i y 1.44 (1.86)a7.15 (3.08)b2.64 (2.87)a3.60 (2.97)a14.46*** 0.292
Pee p oblems 0.63 (0.96)a2.55 (2.82)b0.92 (1.15)a1.50 (1.34)a,b5.26** 0.131
P osociali y 9.13 (1.36) 7.20 (2.48) 8.24 (2.42) 8.21 (2.02) 2.46 0.066
**p <0.01; ***p <0.001; η2= e a-squa ed e ec size. The di e en supe sc ip s (a, b) indica e s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Tes : Fac o ial ANOVA. Pos hoc
compa isons: Sche é. No supe sc ip s indica e ha he e a e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween g oups.
TABLE 6 | Sociome ic s a us. Means (S anda d De ia ions) and F es o he compa ison o means acco ding o he SDQ measu es o he sample o gi ls.
Popula Rejec ed Neglec ed A e age Fη2
M(SD)M(SD)M (SD) M (SD)
Emo ional p oblems 0.81 (1.05) 2.44 (2.00) 1.35 (2.15) 1.42 (1.81) 2.28 0.052
Conduc p oblems 0.13 (0.34)a2.44 (2.37)b0.59 (1.46)a1.08 (1.39)a7.34*** 0.151
Hype ac i i y 1.50 (2.45)a5.63 (3.01)b2.53 (3.01)a2.67 (2.74)a6.79*** 0.141
Pee p oblems 1.06 (1.34)a2.69 (2.41)b1.18 (2.10)a,b1.10 (1.61)a3.74*0.083
P osociali y 9.19 (0.98) 8.13 (1.54) 9.24 (1.25) 8.76 (1.88) 1.54 0.036
*p <0.05; ***p <0.001; η2= e a-squa ed e ec size. The di e en supe sc ip s (a, b) indica e s a is ically signi ican di e ences. Tes : Fac o ial ANOVA. Pos hoc
compa isons: Sche é. No supe sc ip s indica e ha he e a e no s a is ically signi ican di e ences be ween g oups.
especially hype ac i e symp oma ology. In his ega d, a numbe
o s udies, as e ealed by he me a-analysis ca ied ou by
Ros and G aziano (2018), show ha child en wi h ADHD
expe ience a highe a e o ejec ion by hei pee s, which
may be ela ed o p oblems in he p ocessing o social
in o ma ion, as well as di icul ies in he sel - egula ion o bo h
emo ions and beha io .
We mus also men ion ha he child en in he neglec ed s a us
g oup p esen ed a simila p o ile o hose in he popula and
a e age ca ego ies, excep o emo ional symp oma ology, whe e
hey do no di e om hose in he ejec ed ca ego y.
The da a ob ained in his wo k also poin o he possibili y
ha he ela ionships be ween psychosocial adjus men and
sociome ic s a us should be analyzed di e en ly o boys and
gi ls, since he pa e n o esul s ound he e di e acco ding o
whe he we conside he sample as a whole o conduc sepa a e
analyses acco ding o gende . This conclusion is consis en wi h
o he s udies ha ha e examined he mode a ing ole o gende in
he ela ionship be ween sociome ic s a us and socio-emo ional
adjus men (B endgen e al., 2005;Escoba e al., 2010).
Despi e i s s eng hs, he cu en wo k is no wi hou
limi a ions. Fi s ly, his is a c oss-sec ional s udy in which
he ieldwo k was conduc ed a a speci ic poin in ime.
And whils his has allowed us o analyze he a iables
conside ed in his wo k and he possible ela ionships be ween
hem, his ype o design does no allow o es ablishing
causal ela ionships ha con i m he di ec ionali y o he
ela ionships ound, i.e., whe he he adjus men p oblems
de e mine he s a us o he child en, o ice e sa. Secondly,
wi h ega d o he pa icipan s, we did no use a clinical
sample o child en diagnosed wi h ex e nalizing o in e nalizing
p oblems, so he esul s migh di e i a clinical and non-
popula ion sample was used. As well, i would be con enien
o inc ease he size and he ep esen a i eness o he sample
o e i y whe he he same esul s could be ound in his
case. Thi dly, we used sel - epo es s, in which he s uden s
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Muñoz-Sil a e al. Psychosocial Adjus men and Sociome ic S a us
hemsel es p o ided he in o ma ion, whils he eache s also
comple ed a ques ionnai e. As demons a ed in he esul s o
o he s udies, i would ha e been in e es ing o complemen
his e alua ion wi h o he ques ionnai es comple ed by he
amily. In his ega d, and inso a as his is possible, i would
be ex emely use ul o employ he same ins umen s o he
pupils, pa en s/gua dians, and eache s, in o de o compa e
he di e en pe cep ions held by all pa ies on, o example,
adjus men p oblems.
Finally, and o add ess hese limi a ions, i would be
in e es ing i u u e esea ch could employ longi udinal
designs ha collec da a h oughou se e al educa ional
s ages, he eby allowing o an analysis o changes in he
a iables o e ime and o es ablish causal ela ionships
be ween hem. Also, some p e ious in es iga ions ha e
shown he he e ogenei y ha exis s in some ypes o s a us
(Ga cía-Bace e, 2008;Ka men and Te an, 2013). So, i
would be use ul o iden i y di e en p o iles o sub ypes
o each s a us, o know mo e in dep h which p o iles o
each s a us a e bes ela ed wi h indica o s o pe sonal and
schola ly wellbeing.
In summa y, as a inal conclusion, he s udy p o ide e idence
o sugges ha ejec ion o accep ance by he pee g oup has
impo an implica ions o he psychosocial adjus men o school
age child en, highligh ing he need o de elop in e en ions ha
could imp o e he social clima e in he class oom (Ga cía-Bace e,
2008;Ca asco e al., 2015;Jus icia-A áez e al., 2015) and always
being clea abou he decisi e ole o eache s in his ma e
(Longoba di e al., 2019, 2020). Such in e en ions migh be mo e
e ec i e a younge ages, gi en ha , in compa ison wi h olde
child en, sociome ic nomina ions a e signi ican ly less s able in
younge child en (Jiang and Cillessen, 2005).
P ac ical Implica ions
Despi e he p udence wi h which he esul s o a c oss-sec ional
s udy a e o be aken, ou da a poin o he need o wo k wi h he
class oom g oup in p ima y educa ion o imp o e he wellbeing
o child en. So, he s udy highligh s he suppo needs o boys
and gi ls wi h a p ominen p o ile in beha io al p oblems — and
pa icula ly hose wi h hype ac i e symp oms — o help wi h
hei in eg a ion and abili y o adap socially o hei classma es.
Taking in o accoun he ac ha his g oup is highly ulne able
o pee ejec ion, along wi h all he consequences ha his en ails
o hei de elopmen , i is essen ial o implemen in e en ion
p og ams ocused on imp o ing he sociome ic s a us o hese
pupils (Mikami e al., 2013a). The p og am de eloped by hese
au ho s also had a signi ican impac on he pee s o child en
wi h ADHD, since his in e en ion also dec eased hei social
p oblems, imp o ed hei sociome ic s a us, and allowed hem
o achie e g ea e ecip oci y in hei iendships. Mo eo e , hese
e ec s we e mo e signi ican o hose child en wi h highe le els
o dis up i e beha io (Mikami e al., 2013b). Taken oge he ,
all o his con i ms he use ulness o hese ypes o p og ams
o imp o ing coexis ence in he class ooms and he subsequen
psychological wellbeing o all he pupils, bu pa icula ly o
hose wi h psychosocial adjus men p oblems. In his sense, we
mus unde line he impo an ole o eache s, since a ious
s udies ha e highligh ed he p o ec i e ole o he eache -s uden
ela ionship wi h espec o psychological symp oms, in addi ion
o p omo ing p osocial beha io s, academic ou comes, school
adjus men and gene al psychological well-being o hei s uden s
(Longoba di e al., 2019, 2020).
Fo all he abo e men ioned, and in ag eemen wi h o he
au ho s (Sale no, 2016;Mundy e al., 2017) we ocus he
need o connec ion be ween educa ion policy and awa eness
and p omo ion o men al heal h in p ima y school child en.
Basically, h ough p og ams ha emphasize social and emo ional
skills o he p e en ion o bo h academic ailu e and school
disengagemen as mo e se ious men al heal h p oblems in
adolescence and adul hood.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be
made a ailable by he au ho s, wi hou undue ese a ion, o any
quali ied esea che .
ETHICS STATEMENT
E hical app o al was no p o ided o his s udy on human
pa icipan s because no pa ien s we e included in his s udy and
no e hics commi ee app o al was needed. W i en in o med
consen o pa icipa e in his s udy was p o ided by he
pa icipan s’ legal gua dian/nex o kin.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
All au ho s lis ed ha e made a subs an ial, di ec and in ellec ual
con ibu ion o he wo k, and app o ed i o publica ion.
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