Media and Communica ion (ISSN: 2183–2439)
2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72
DOI: 10.17645/mac. 6i1.1195
A icle
The Media P o es o Neighbou ing Associa ions, P omo e o Ci izen
Democ a ic Cul u e du ing T ansi ion in Sou he n Spain
Sand a Méndez-Mu os
Depa men o Jou nalism II, Uni e si y o Se ille, 41092 Se ille, Spain; E-Mail: [email p o ec ed]
Submi ed: 29 Sep embe 2017 | Accep ed: 6 Decembe 2017 | Published: 9 Feb ua y 2018
Abs ac
In he cu en con ex o placing alue on he neighbou ing mo emen wi hin he Spanish democ a ic T ansi ion, we se
ou o con i m ha he p ess ac i ely pa icipa es in he g owing conjunc ion o neighbou ing issues wi h poli ical con-
en and con ibu es o he idea ha his mo emen becomes a pa ame e o he democ a ic cul u e o he ci izen du ing
T ansi ion. Since he con lic is newswo hy, we conduc a mic o-social s udy o he neighbou ing p o es in he newspape
El Co eo de Andalucía, published in he sou he n Spanish ci y o Se ille. Th ough analysis o con en , we s udy he in o -
ma i e low and he epe oi e o p o es ollowing a ypology ha dis inguishes ou o ma s (demons a ions, s ikes,
speeches and associa ions) di ided in o wo le els o con lic . The analysis sample consis s o 33 ex s published be ween
No embe 1975 (F anco’s dea h and he accession o he h one o Juan Ca los I) and June 1977 ( he i s democ a ic
gene al elec ions). The main conclusion e eals ha he newspape becomes a pla o m ha gi es isibili y o he neigh-
bou ing mo emen , no malising beha iou s and p ocedu e ules h ough he p o es .
Keywo ds
ci il socie y; democ a ic cul u e; local p ess; media; media his o y; neighbou ing mo emen ; Spanish T ansi ion
Issue
This a icle is pa o he issue “Media His o y and Democ acy”, edi ed by Da id W. Pa k (Lake Fo es College, USA).
© 2018 by he au ho ; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu-
ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
1. In oduc ion
In Spain, he esu gence o he ci il socie y in he se -
en ies o he wen ie h cen u y acqui es pa icula con-
no a ions when coun ing he democ a ic T ansi ion as a
backd op, wi h he desi e o eedom and solu ions o
nume ous social and economic p oblems. In his con ex ,
he neighbou ing mo emen eme ges wi h a s ongly de-
manding a i ude owa ds issues ela ed o heal h, pub-
lic se ices, housing, educa ion, e c., along wi h he e-
ques o a democ a ic poli ical change which places i
on a local–global axis (Pé ez Quin ana & Sánchez, 2008,
p. 15) as a powe ul p essu e mo o .
The neighbou ing p o es o ecen yea s is no an
exclusi ely Spanish phenomenon. I alian ci ies such as
Rome, Milan o Tu in also expe ience a demanding p o-
cess p opelled by he accele a ed u ban de elopmen
and inep i ude o he uling poli ical class o apply e-
o ms capable o sol ing o mi iga ing he p oblems
(Alonso, 2011, p. 58; Lowe, 1986, pp. 183–185). The
same could be said abou F ance, Po ugal (Ramos Pin o,
2005) o Mexico (Bo ja, 1986, p. 40).
The peculia i y in he Spanish case lies in he ac
ha he local mo emen is bo n wi hin a b oade cycle
o p o es which ad oca es a poli ical change which con-
di ions he con en s o i s demands, i s o ganisa ional
s uc u e and i s o ms o in e nal and ex e nal ac ion
(assemblies, di ec o e, demons a ions, ci izen pa ic-
ipa ion, discussions, a ic cu -o s, e c.) (Sánchez, 2011,
p. 104). We can ind o he di e ences in which o eign ad-
minis a ions a e mo e e icien and esponsi e o social
demands and, in addi ion, ha ade unions and pa ies
assume hem as hei own (Angulo, 1978, p. 156).
Since he i s decades o he wen y- i s cen u y,
he neighbou ing mo emen in he public space o he
s ee has been p og essi ely aken in o conside a ion
wi h i s own en i y and essen ial con ibu ion o demo-
c a ic awa eness. Un il hen, despi e being de ined as
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 62
“ he mos widesp ead and signi ican u ban mo emen in
Eu ope since 1945” by sociologis Manuel Cas ells (1986,
p. 299), o decades he Spanish neighbou ing mo e-
men has been one o he g ea lagga ds among he con-
ibu ions ha explain he his o y o Spanish democ a i-
sa ion. The easons o hei lesse isibili y a e gene al,
connec ed wi h he ole o ci il socie y as a whole du ing
T ansi ion and he p eponde ance o o he mo emen s
such as he wo ke o he s uden , and a e conc e e, e-
ga ding hei blu ing in in e es s o o he g oups, espe-
cially poli ical pa ies.
Con e as (2012, p. 112) a gues ha he s udy o he
neighbou ing mo emen in Andalusia is a om making
new con ibu ions wi hin he na a i e published abou
T ansi ion due o se e al easons: 1) he la e s udy o u -
ban social p o es beyond he labou and s uden mo e-
men ; 2) he documen a y losses su e ed by he neigh-
bou ing associa ions hemsel es a hei headqua e s;
3) legal impedimen s o he documen a ion que y on he
neighbou ing mo emen in his o ical and in e media e
a chi es as well as in o icial eco ds; and 4) he biologi-
cal disappea ance o some o he p o agonis s who may
be in e iewed.
Al hough his o iog aphy and sociology ha e been in
cha ge o s udying he ole o he neighbou ing mo e-
men in he s ee , he e has no been any in-dep h s udy
on he media message abou he local mo emen when
he analysis o i s o ms, con en s, and languages may be-
come no only a documen a y sou ce o ob ain his o ical
da a, bu also a ool o comple e he easons conce ning
he lowe isibili y o he mo emen as a pa o he p o-
cess o democ a ic cul u e o local ci izenship, wi hin he
ecen Andalusian his o iog aphic ision.
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Ci il Socie y and P o es Mo emen s in T ansi ion
F anco’s dic a o ship has uined mos o he amewo k
o p og essi e ci ic, cul u al, and poli ical popula associ-
a ions h ough p ohibi ions and con ols. The adi ion
o democ a ic pa icipa ion is b oken wi h he conse-
quen lack o oppo uni y o he gene a ions bo n du ing
F anco’s egime o socialise (Ins i u D’Anàlisi i Social Poli-
iques Pùbliques & Fundaciò F ancesc Fe e I Guà dia,
2000, p. 205), bu i canno be a oided, since he 1950s
o he wen ie h cen u y, wo ke s, clandes ine poli ical
opposi ion, s uden s, and in ellec uals ha e been o gan-
ised, gi en ha he dissen is g ea e han ha allowed
by he Collec i e Labou Ag eemen s Ac o 24 Ap il 1958
and he Associa ions Ac o 24 Decembe 1964, al hough
he e is consen “ o pe sons linked o an i-F ancoism o
open spaces o eedom ha a e independen o F anco’s
o icialdom space” (Fe e , 2014, pp. 83–84). This law
b ings abou he appea ance o associa ions o amily
heads and housewi es in Spain, mainly in he pe iph-
e al qua e s wi hin he amewo k o he Na ional Mo e-
men as he i s s ep o u ban social mo emen . O he
o mulas we e he municipal collabo a ing councils, he
municipal dis ic councils, he neighbou ing communi-
ies, and he qua e mayo al ies.
In he 1960s, he e was a esu gence o social and
labou dispu e due o economic ans o ma ions and,
wi h i , he eme gence o a p o es mo emen which
p o ed o be be e p epa ed han he s a e o sol e so-
cial p oblems (Pé ez Díaz, 1996, p. 19), in he line posed
by Musil (2013, p. 24) whe e he s a es ha he opposi-
ion o F ancoism p ac ices i s ci izenship be o e becom-
ing a ci izen in o a democ a ic sys em, imposing and p ac-
ising democ a ic igh s such as eedom o p ess, opin-
ion, assembly, and associa ion. Un il he second hal o
he 1970s he p o es adop ed di e en and mul iple
o mulas (demons a ions, wo k-ins, si -ins, wo k place-
men s, s ikes) (O ega, 2004, pp. 351–370).
F om a his o ical and sociological poin o iew, he e
is s ill no consensus on he ci il socie y’s ole du ing
he democ a ic T ansi ion. Theo ies main aining ha he
poli ical change engine is he ci il socie y a gue ha
T ansi ion: 1) is he esul o ci il socie y’s ole which is
in ol ed in mobilisa ions and igh s o eedoms and
igh s wi hin he ci izen’s esu gence (Pé ez Díaz, 1987;
Th el all, 2008) o 2) is a “bo om-up” phenomenon o
wo decades be o e he p ocess and “ op-down” in he
p ocess i sel (Musil, 2013, p. 11). Mo eo e , he heo ies
ha suppo ha ci il socie y’s ole is no essen ial in he
p ocess o change, belie e ha T ansi ion is: 1) he esul
o he poli ical and economic libe alisa ion o F anco’s
egime du ing he 1960s; 2) an ac ion aken “ om abo e”
(Ga cía, 1981, pp. 89, 103) by he poli ical class gi en he
social demobilisa ion, o 3) he eadap a ion o he dom-
inan classes o democ acy in o de o main ain i s hege-
mony (Gine & Se illa, 1980, pp. 197–229). In his line,
Salgado (2014, pp. 271–295) ecognises he social mo e-
men s’ ole al hough hey a e no decisi e o s imula e a
change in he poli ical sys em.
All he a o emen ioned a gumen s lead hose au-
ho s who conside ha ci il socie y plays a undamen-
al ole in T ansi ion o he s udy o a ied mo emen s
(poli ical opposi ion, s uden s, wo ke s, cul u al cu en ),
among which he neighbou ing mo emen is no p e-
dominan . O e hese pas ew yea s, a ma ch wi h o he
mo emen s has been ecognised. Ma ínez i Mun ada
(2008, p. 2333) asse s ha he neighbou ing mo emen ,
on pa wi h he labou mo emen , is one o he mos
impo an scopes o pa icipa ion and mobilisa ion com-
ing om ela i ely la ge sec o s o he popula ion du -
ing he las yea s o F anco and T ansi ion in he main
u ban cen es.
The neighbou ing associa ions and he neighbou ing
mo emen in gene al ha e been ecognised as an in lu-
ence in he building o local democ acy, becoming “ he
i s s ep in he pa icipa ion o many ci izens” (Se ano
& Sempe e, 1999, p. 176), who lea ned and de eloped
a democ a ic cul u e om he closes scope using hei
eal expe ience. Fu he mo e, he neighbou ing associ-
a ions become “schools o democ acy and ci izenship,
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 63
eaching hei associa es how o ela e o adminis a ion,
pa icipa ion me hods and p ocedu es o choose lead-
e s” (Con e as, 2012, p. 113). Fe nandes (2014) also in-
dica es ha he e olu iona y pa hways owa ds democ-
acy in Po ugal and Spain ha e a posi i e impac on he
sel -o ganising capabili ies o popula g oups.
Mos o he s udies on neighbou ing associa ions
in Spain du ing he T ansi ion ha e a his o ical na u e
ag ee ha hei eme gence is due o he lack o ep-
esen a i eness o local ins i u ions and conclude ha
hese associa ions play a c ucial ole in he achie emen
o a democ a ic poli ical change. Some o hem ocus
on i s placemen alue in he Spanish con ex (Bo de-
as, 2014) o by egions, such as Andalusia, s udied by
Con e as (2013) and Escale as and Ruiz (2006), and he
ci ies o Mad id and Ba celona (Gail, 1979) o Za agoza
(Gómez Bahillo, 2006). In hese s udies, he ac ions o
neighbou ing mo emen s, socio-economic-cul u al di -
e ences/simila i ies o common poin s wi h o he mo e-
men s a e analysed om a desc ip i e pe spec i e.
Some hing simila has happened wi h s udies in
o he coun ies. In Ge many, Al haus (2000) s udies he
de elopmen o neighbou ing communi ies a he end
o he Second Wo ld Wa as a imely eme gency ha
assumed asks o he local go e nmen unde cons uc-
ion; in I aly, Alonso (2011) analyses hese mo emen s
in Rome be ween 1968 and 1976, obse ing hei s uc-
u es, demands, and o ms o ac ion; in Venezuela and
Colombia, Ramos Rollón (1995) conduc s a compa a i e
ield s udy be ween he ci ies o Bogo á and Ca acas;
in A gen ina, O aisón (2011) s udies he di icul ies o
hese ypes o communi ies o be ecognised and le-
gi imised h ough ins i u ionalisa ion; in Mexico, F u os
(2002) s udies how in 1988 he au onomous neighbou -
ing o ganiza ions in he Fede al Dis ic ied o sa e hei
adi ions and spaces o coexis ence ha ejec ed he
na ow legal amewo ks o poli ical pa icipa ion, and
Sa a (1998) analyses he ac o s ha ake pa in he
neighbou ing cons uc ion in he Fede al Dis ic . Bul -
mann, Hellmann, Maschka and Rojas (1995) showed in-
e es ed in he neighbou ing associa ions in Mexico and
Chile and hei democ a iza ion p ocess, s udying he be-
ha iou o ac o s and mo emen s.
We only ind ecen s udies ha add ess he ole o
neighbou ing associa ions om a communica i e poin
o iew in mo e ecen yea s, such as he one conduc ed
by Gonzalo (2015), who app oaches he neighbou ing
mo emen o Valladolid om he in e iew me hod du -
ing he T ansi ion in he p ess used as a sou ce o His-
o y. Ou side Spain, Ca asco (2011) analyses he ole o
communica ion in a local ci izen pa icipa ion p ocess in
a dis ic o Lima, Pe u.
2.2. The Newspape as an In e es Media o
Any ci izen ac ion is essen ially exp essed in wo spaces:
he s ee and he media. Democ a ic in e ac ion unc-
ions h ough he p omo ion o in e es s, and hese a e
usually se led in he media (Luna, 2003, p. 31). As
spaces o eedom a ise, he media assimila e in o ma-
ion om ci il socie y (associa ions, socie ies, g oups,
in e es g oups, pe sonali ies, e c.) and ans o m and
ansmi o poli ical powe a complex image o socie y
wi h i s con adic ions, demands, and equi emen s. The
newspape exe s a media ing unc ion by ela ing hese
demands, especially in unsol ed p oblems, ega ding he
social en i onmen and decision making by he poli ical
sys em, as well as s imula ing ci izens owa ds pa ici-
pa ion in social li e and con ibu ing o gene al s abili y
(Gomis, 1987, pp. 308–310).
The p ess acili a es he coexis ence and social in e-
g a ion in any socialisa ion p ocess by showing he neigh-
bou codes, a i udes, alues, dominan ideas, isions,
expec a ions, objec i es, e c. o o he ci izens who ap-
pea in he media. The neighbou hen ecognises his
social ego h ough me onymic ac ion by iden i ying wi h
and acing hese a ious aspec s. In his sense, he neigh-
bou ing mo emen ge s he media o p o ide “a g owing
co e age and exp ession which becomes a eal sound-
ing boa d o local ac ions” (Lande , 2006, p. 49) and,
ul ima ely, he newspape becomes a media sou ce o
democ a ic cul u e.
The p ess con ibu ed o he sp eading o democ a ic
ideology much mo e han mos poli ical g oups (Tusell,
1989, p. 203). Al hough, bo h Zugas i (2007, p. 69, 2008,
pp. 53–68), when analysing he Mad id p ess and speak-
ing abou “media accommoda ion”, as well as Mon e o,
Rod íguez and Ga cía (2008, pp. 293–296, 307), in hei
s udy o he Mad id, Ca alan, and Basque newspape s,
each simila conclusions on he olun a y collabo a ion
o jou nalism wi h he democ a ising objec i es o poli i-
cal powe , hough he la e e e ha his collabo a ion
is no based on an o icial ag eemen o an explici deal
o acili a e consensus.
The de elopmen o ci il socie y in he Spanish case
is inex icably linked o he media, especially encou -
aged by he p omulga ion o he P ess and P in ing Law
14/1966, h ough which newspape s can in o m ega d-
ing he ins i u ionalisa ion o he S a e, he ole o he
Na ional Mo emen in Spanish li e, poli ical associa ions,
Mona chy, he Chu ch, he ade union se ing, as well
as p oblema ic a eas o Spanish li e: uni e si y diso de s,
labou con lic s, egionalisms, e c. which make he idyllic
image o a Spain wi hou p oblems disappea (Ba e a,
1995b, p. 19).
This law, which was in o ce o a g ea ex en un il
he p omulga ion o he Cons i u ion o 1978 whe e in
i s a icle 20, he eedom o exp ession was ully ecog-
nised no only o he jou nalis ic union bu o all Span-
ish ci izens, i supp essed he p e ious censo ship, bu
he edi o s could check wi h he minis y in o de o pub-
lish ce ain news and opinions in o de o a oid admin-
is a i e eco ds, which could be called sel -censo ship.
Fu he mo e, he wa ning c ies o he edi o s con inued
h ough pe sonal o elephone con e sa ions. Be ween
1966 and 1975, 1,270 cases we e opened, as well as sanc-
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 64
ions ( ines, suspensions, con isca ions, p essu es) and
h ea s o p o essional disquali ica ion o edi o s ha , in
some cases, included a es and p osecu ion be o e he
Public O de Cou (Ba e a, 1995a, p. 106). Du ing hese
yea s, a jou nalis could be judged by six di e en cou
ca ego ies, including he mili a y.
This did no p e en he g ow h o he newspa-
pe ma ke and he appea ance o new magazines and
newspape s. A he na ional le el, new publica ions
eached he numbe o 129; he ci cula ion o newspa-
pe s eached wo and a hal million in 1967, and 915
publishing houses in 1971, and Spain eached i h place
in he wo ld in numbe o published i les (Sino a, 1989,
p. 267; Tusell, 1989, pp. 190–191).
Un il he publica ion o he Royal Dec ee-Law
24/1977 on F eedom o Exp ession, which was c ea ed
unde he Law o Poli ical Re o m, he adminis a i e
seizu e o publica ions was no pa ially supp essed, he
con o e sial a icle 2 was epealed by which eedom
o exp ession was submi ed o he P inciples o he Na-
ional Mo emen and he e was a egis e o jou nalis s
and jou nalis ic companies and he p e ious deposi o
copies o be examined and, jus in case, allow he seizu e
o publica ions.
Wi h all his, an a mosphe e o g ea e eedom o ex-
p ession was pe cei ed in all social o de s and his was
e lec ed in he p ess: new sec ions, in e p e ing jou -
nalis ic gen es, uno icial in o ma ion, ci izen sou ces,
e c. Howe e , he edi o s had o con inue esponding
o c imes commi ed by hi d pa ies and he accumula-
ion o h ee iles in one yea led au oma ically o hei
inabili y o con inue conduc ing hei du ies, and some
agg essions pe sis ed: he Public O de Cou con inued
o ac agains he p ess; he e we e mili a y p ocesses,
a ces o disc edi newspape s, and p essu es applied
o companies.
3. Me hodology
This wo k aims a con i ming ha he p ess ac i ely pa -
icipa es in he g owing conjunc ion o neighbou ing is-
sues wi h poli ical con en in i s in o ma ion and con-
ibu es o he idea ha he neighbou ing mo emen be-
comes a pa ame e o democ a ic cul u e o he Se il-
lians du ing he democ a ic T ansi ion. Acco ding o Héc-
o Bo a ’s (1989, pp. 28–29) classi ica ion ega ding he
ole o he newspape in social con lic s, we s a om
he idea ha he newspape goes h ough a h ee-le el
p ocess: ex a le el (ex e nal obse e ), in e le el (neu-
al in e media y in con lic ela ions) and in a le el (col-
lec i e ac o in ol ed in in e nal con lic s).
We conduc ed a mic o-social s udy o Se ille’s neigh-
bou ing p o es in he newspape El Co eo de An-
dalucía— he eal geog aphic co e age makes i a local
newspape in Se ille—bea ing in mind ha he con lic is
always newswo hy and ha na ional powe is p olonged
in e e y Spanish ci y wi hou excep ions, which is he
eason why T ansi ion o democ acy in Andalusia does
no di e a all om ha o he emaining Spanish e i-
o y (Gómez & González, 2000, p. 468; Pé ez Quin ana &
Sánchez, 2008; Vilà, 2016).
El Co eo de Andalucía was no he mos ead news-
pape in he s udy pe iod. In 1976–1977, i had a p in
un o 35,559 copies and a dissemina ion o 31,249 ead-
e s (Pé ez Vila iño, 1982, p. 68), while Abc de Se illa,
which was he mos widely- ead newspape , had a p in
un o 61,180 copies and a dissemina ion o 54,259 ead-
e s in he same pe iod (Iglesias, 1980, p. 453). Howe e ,
i became an an i-F anco emblem ha ea ned him he
p og essi e p ess p o ile and he quali ica ion o “ ed
scou ge” (De Pablos, 1981, p. 40) since he 1960s.
In 1975, he newspape le behind i s mos ebel-
lious pe iod wi h he wo Ca holic edi o s o he p o-
g essi e lus um (1967–1971), in which he newspape
hos ed opics and p incipals belonging o social sec-
o s ha we e no hea d in o he ci y media: uni e -
si y s uden s, wo ke s, p ies s, exiles and poli ical p is-
one s, ade unionis s, among o he s, wi h he common
idea o hei on al posi ioning o F anco’s egime. This
ea ned he newspape a mul i ude o sanc ions and kid-
nappings. The newspape became one o he mos un-
com o able o F anco’s egime and one o he wen y
Spanish publica ions ha su e ed he g ea es numbe
o iles (Fuen es & Fe nández, 1998, p. 298). These wo
edi o s accumula ed a o al o 27 disciplina y ac ions in
i e yea s.
A e he passage o he Edi o ial Ca ólica (1972–
1973) o i s sha eholde s, when he e was a decline in
he s uggle o eedom, he newspape again ied o
make use o he igh o in o ma ion. In 1974, he news-
pape conduc ed he i s in e iew in Spain wi h Felipe
González, hen gene al sec e a y o he Spanish Socialis
Wo ke s Pa y in hiding, which led o his a es and also
he in e iewe ’s. The new edi o accumula ed new iles,
ines, empo a y suspensions and jail eques s, as a e-
sul o he ep ession by he Minis y o In o ma ion in
he las mon hs o he dic a o ship agains he mos c i -
ical publica ions. Du ing he T ansi ion, he hen edi o
was also he a ge o elephone h ea s, ines, and is-
i s o he cou , in addi ion o he censo ship ega ding
in o ma ion abou he isi o mona chs Juan Ca los and
So ia o Se ille in Ma ch 1976. This did no sway he co -
esponden eam and i was g an ed he dis inc ion o
“Se illians o he yea 1975” in 1976 o being “ i eless
spokesmen o he mos g ie ing echoes” o he p o ince
and p omo ing colloquiums o dialogue and he na ional
coexis ence du ing he T ansi ion yea s.
The analysis sample consis s o 33 ex s (news, dec-
la a ions, con e ences, in e iews, and epo s) ela ed
exclusi ely o he s eam o esiden s’ demands and no
hose ha deal wi h he decisions made by he munici-
pal poli ical powe , which would mean mo e ex s, du -
ing 10 wo-mon h pe iods, which co espond o 100% o
he ex s published on he subjec . The newspape se-
lec ion was ca ied ou wi h copies o El Co eo de An-
dalucía, loca ed in he Municipal Newspape Lib a y o
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 65
Se ille. We a e acing a single media due o i s e y ep-
esen a i e ajec o y. We unde s and ha by he own
ideological cha ac e o he newspape , i would publish
all he demands conduc ed by he neighbou ing associ-
a ions, which a e much less nume ous han hose o igi-
na ed in wo ke o s uden scopes. Mo eo e , we mus
bea in mind ha no newspape is a ai h ul mi o o
eali y because in i s p oduc ion subjec i e ac o s ake
pa in he selec ion and hie a chy o in o ma ion.
Th ough he con en analysis (Ba din, 1996, p. 80),
we analyse he in o ma ion low om he quan i a i e
aspec o measu e he e olu ion du ing he s udy pe iod
(see Figu e 1) and, om a quali a i e poin o iew, we
obse e he o ma s o he p o es epe oi e (see Fig-
u e 2), ollowing Méndez-Mu os’s ypology (2013, p. 74).
The jou nalis ic ex s ha e been classi ied based on he
ou epe oi e o ma s ha a e as ollows: demons a-
ions, s ikes, speeches, and associa ions. In ou case,
we ocus on h ee ou o he ou o ma s, since he
neighbou ing p o es does no con empla e s ikes. The
p o es o ma s all in o wo le els o con lic : le el 1,
o high (demons a ions and s ikes) and le el 2, o low
(speeches and associa ions), acco ding o he public o -
de p oblems gene a ed and he consequen image o
he neighbou ing s uggle o he democ a ic igh s o
he eade . The con lic modula ion h oughou he anal-
ysis pe iod exp esses he assump ion deg ee o hese
democ a ic alues in socie y which is pe cei ed by ci i-
zens as he no malisa ion o p o es . The p esen a ion o
he esul s ollows a ch onological and diach onic h ead
in he e en p og ess and is di ided in o h ee s ages be-
ween No embe 1975 (F anco’s dea h and he accession
o he h one o Juan Ca los I) and June 1977 (celeb a ion
o he i s democ a ic gene al elec ions).
4. Resul s: The Neighbou ing Associa ions o Se ille as
a Case S udy
4.1. The Awakening o he Neighbou ing and
Democ a ic Consciousness
Since he dea h o F anco un il he end o 1975, El Co eo
de Andalucía (he eina e , ECA) does no publish ex s e-
la ed o he neighbou ing p o es ; in 1976 he newspa-
pe accumula es he highes eco ded da a in he whole
analysis pe iod wi h 69.6%, which na u al aking in o ac-
coun ha his is he longes ime pe iod, while in he
mon hs analysed in 1977, he emaining 30.3% is concen-
a ed. Gene ally speaking, p o es o ma s used by he
neighbou ing mo emen a e as ollows: demons a ions
(48.4%), speeches (33.3%), and associa ions (18.1%), and
he ou undamen al hema ic axes a e based on: 1) he
lack o housing, 2) he need o minimum se ices and
in as uc u es, 3) disag eemen wi h some public wo ks,
and 4) poli ical demands as a di ec consequence o he
in ensi ica ion o s uc u al imbalances in he p ocess o
poli ical and social ans o ma ion.
In Janua y–Feb ua y o 1976, he p o es co e s
12.1% o he o al, he lack o housing being he main
ocus. I is a p o es exp essed mainly h ough speeches
(50%), because he ex s dealing wi h associa ions and
demons a ions encompass he emaining pe cen age in
equal pa s. The e o e, he eques s o he Associa ion
o amily heads San Je ónimo e ol e a ound he insu i-
ciency o he wo ks being exe cised, he execu ion in he
qua e La Te cia, and a pho og aph o he a ec ed a ea
o he news “The unning cons uc ion wo k in he qua -
e La Te cia is conside ed insu icien ” is exposed (ECA,
1976a, le cen al page).
No .–Dec.
1975
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
Jan.–Fe .
1976
Ma .–Ap .
1976
12,12% 12,12% 12,12%
9,09% 9,09%
6,06% 6,06%
18,18%
15,15%
May.–Jun.
1976
Jul.–Aug.
1976
Sep.–Oc .
1976
No .–Dec.
1976
Jan.–Fe .
1977
Ma .–Ap .
1977
May.–Jun.
1977
Figu e 1. E olu ion o he neighbou ing p o es in ECA (1975–1977).
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 66

The poli ical ac o soon appea s and he newspa-
pe is no indi e en o he implici poli ical dimension.
F om he beginning o T ansi ion, he esiden s o some
qua e s p esen e iden demands o amnes y such as
he one shown in he piece “Residen s o i e neighbou -
hoods eques amnes y” (ECA, 1976b, p. 20). The same
happens wi h he au ho isa ion o denial o he demon-
s a ion pe mission. The lack o se ices is behind he
demons a ions o neighbou s ha a e ca ied ou ille-
gally in he San Diego qua e by he elec ic powe cu -
o as epo ed in he a icle “Demons a ion o neigh-
bou s wi h li candles” (ECA, 1976c, p. 19).
The p o es pe cen age (12.1%) is main ained in
Ma ch and Ap il, al hough speeches (25%) gi e way o
associa ions (50%), while demons a ions co e he es .
The lack o se ices is p esen in news such as a mee -
ing o he esiden s o he Palme e qua e o sol e hei
p oblems o sewe age, ligh ing, wa e , e c. (“Palme e’s
esiden s insis ”, ECA, 1976d, p. 15), bu social p ob-
lems a e inc easingly linked o he poli ical si ua ion, as
seen in a piece o news which equa es na ional and lo-
cal p oblems:
A housand people concen a ed on he esplanade o
he Nues a Seño a del Pila chu ch a abou eigh
o’clock. The e, once again, he p oblems o he coun-
y we e exposed, and mo e conc e ely, o he Polí-
gono San Pablo. A special men ion was made on he
unemploymen si ua ion. (ECA, 1976e, p. 19)
The law egula ing p ojec o he igh o assembly, pub-
lished in he O icial S a e Gaze e on Ma ch 1, 1976,
does no sol e he unlaw ul si ua ion o he p oceed-
ings o he neighbou assemblies. Then, he newspape
uses he mul iplie e ec o he news ha supposes o
publish any da a on pe mission o denial o au ho isa-
ion o demons a ions, assemblies, o mee ings. Pieces
o in o ma ion such as “A mee ing o neighbou s in El
Ce ezo” (ECA, 1976 , p. 19) o en appea in p i ileged
places (co e , back co e , odd pages, local sec ion, o
cen al pages) whe e he news on he ci izen p oblems
de ine an au hen ic eclaiming showcase a he ime.
This mo i a es ha , al hough he p o es dec ease in
May–June is h ee poin s (9.09%) compa ed o he p e-
ious mon hs, he o ma associa ions inc eases (66.6%)
and is he majo i y, compa ed o 33.3% o demons a-
ions. The newspape con inues o in o m, in e ms o
cases, o he demons a ions conduc ed by some o -
mal associa ions, h ough he neighbou s associa ions,
and some in o mal associa ions ha ga he s people li -
ing in he same neighbou hood o he ci y and a e mo-
bilised o a common good (ECA, 1976g, cen al pages)
o “The esiden s’ assembly o qua e C o he Polígono
San Pablo” (ECA, 1976h, p. 19).
Ci izens begin o be e en mo e awa e ha , o p ob-
lems which a e appa en ly unsol able, solu ions mus be
demanded om he compe en au ho i ies. In his way,
a dicho omous ela ionship be ween he local poli ical
powe , he Se ille Ci y Council, he mayo , and he neigh-
bou s as spokesmen o he in e es s o he qua e s is
p og essi ely es ablished. One o he clea es examples
is he Palme e qua e . In June, a neighbou ing p o es
mee ing asks o solu ions o he se ious p oblem o wa-
e supply and sewe age in he a ea. The newspape col-
lec s a pho og aph o he p o es e s en i led “Palme e
insis s” accompanying he piece o in o ma ion “Almos
h ee million in ce i ica es o wo ks in na ional schools”
(ECA, 1976i, p. 19).
4.2. P o es Rise and Inc easing Poli icisa ion
Se illians begin o obse e he esul s o he i s
democ a ising measu es o he i s Adol o Suá ez’s go -
e nmen om July 1976. Du ing he summe pe iod, he
in o ma ion on p o es s is educed o 6.06%, o which
100% a e speeches. O he ci izen equi emen s, such as
housing cons uc ion, shel e solu ion and necessa y in-
as uc u e in he neighbou hoods (sewe age, access
a angemen , ligh ing, public schools, ou pa ien clinics,
ma ke , s ee signage, e c.), he lack o which makes he
si ua ion o some qua e s unsus ainable whe e he i-
al condi ions a e deplo able o subhuman ex emes, a e
added o he demands o amnes y and eedom, a ai
wage, o he opening o schools.
This also ex ends o he disag eemen wi h some pub-
lic wo ks, in he case o he piece o in o ma ion “Man-
i es o o La Co a de la Ca uja” (ECA, 1976j, p. 32), in
which he p omo e boa d o he P o incial Con ede a-
ion o Neighbou ing Associa ions and he neighbou ing
associa ions in he p ocess o legalisa ion, a e seeing
how hey a e su e ing es ic ions in he ci y in he wa-
e supply since he beginning o he yea , c i icise he
wo ks o La Co a de la Ca uja and he delay in he con-
s uc ion app o al o he El Ge gal ese oi .
The p o es e u ns o eco e he pulse in he
Sep embe –Oc obe pe iod, ob aining he highes alue
o he whole pe iod analysed wi h 18.8%, which is es-
pecially demanding, since 100% o he answe p esen s
he o ma demons a ions ha al eady ha e au ho isa-
ion om which he newspape p o ides imely in o -
ma ion. In he sho news “The Associa ion o amily
heads eques s a demons a ion” (ECA, 1976k, p. 39), he
San Je ónimo Associa ion o amily heads asks he Ci il
Go e nmen pe mission o a demons a ion in which
hey eques a as egula ion o a ic ligh s in nume -
ous qua e c ossings. Th ee days la e , he news “The
demons a ion o San Je ónimo’s neighbou s o eques
a ic ligh s au ho ised” (ECA, 1976l, p. 12) is published,
whe e i is speci ied ha signs and pos e s will no be
ca ied and ha “ he demons a ion will ake place de-
spi e he news abou he Ci y Council ha ing al eady
aken ac ion”.
Mo e elemen s o clea poli ical con en a e p og es-
si ely in oduced in he ex s as seen in he news “Mo e
a ic ligh s!” (ECA, 1976m, le cen al page), which ex-
plains ha San Je ónimo’s neighbou s demand a ic
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 67
SpeechesAssociaons Demons aons
No .–Dec.
1975
100%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
0%
Jan.–Fe .
1976
Ma .–Ap .
1976
May.–Jun.
1976
Jul.–Aug.
1976
Sep.–Oc .
1976
No .–Dec.
1976
Jan.–Fe .
1977
Ma .–Ap .
1977
May.–Jun.
1977
Figu e 2. Typology o neighbou ing p o es in ECA (1975–1977).
ligh s holding nume ous placa ds wi h di e en slogans,
including he whi e and g een Andalusian lags, one o
which heads he demons a ion wi h he label “The San
Je ónimo associa ion equi es a ic ligh s” and ha he
episode “de elops in he mos comple e no mali y”. In
Oc obe , he newspape echoes he ac s o p o es in
he s ee as exp essed by he demons a ions o he
Palme e esiden s in which hey ask o a solu ion o
hei e e nal wa e and sewe p oblem. Addi ionally, he
un ul illed p omises o he mayo ha a e ecu ing a
he end o he yea s and ou : “App oxima ely 1,500
people demons a ed in Palme e” (ECA, 1976n, p. 39),
“Palme e’s esiden s cu he a ic on he Su Eminen-
cia oad again” (ECA, 1976o, p. 17) o “Palme e’s neigh-
bou s cu he a ic in Su Eminencia o an hou ” (ECA,
1976p, p. 39).
The a enua ion o he p o es in he mon hs o
No embe and Decembe causes i o e u n o he in-
dexes a he beginning o he yea (12.1%). The speeches
eappea and ha e he same pe cen age as he demon-
s a ions (50%), such as he one ha collec s he news
“Demons a ion o Palme e’s neighbou s” (ECA, 1976q,
p. 38), whe e a solu ion is eques ed o he issue
o he canal which hinde s he access o child en o
a kinde ga en.
The speeches ga he o h igh c i icisms owa ds he
au ho i ies: “We since ely hink ha he ac ion o he
Minis y o Housing—i no he same as he Polígono
Ae opue o—can be posi i e, al hough somewha slow”
(ECA, 1976 , p. 11) and ake owne ship o he neighbou -
ing issues: “Palme e is al eady in he hands o he Min-
is y o Housing” (ECA, 1976s, p. 15). The newspape is
no only a spokespe son o ci izens’ needs, bu i also
c i icises he local go e nmen , as p oposed in he mu-
nicipal e iew o 1976 which e lec s he eeling o pub-
lic discon en in con empla ing he pe pe ua ion o he
p oblems in he poo es neighbou hoods, essen ially o
shel e s (ECA, 1976 , cen al pages).
4.3. D i o he Municipal Opposi ion
An up u n o he neighbou ing p o es in he i s mon hs
o 1977 is no ed. Janua y and Feb ua y a e he mon hs
wi h he highes pe cen age in he ex s wi h he sec-
ond highes alue o he pe iod s udied (15.1%). In his
case, 20% is he o ma associa ions, while he pieces
o in o ma ion on demons a ions in many neighbou -
hoods in Se ille inc ease o 80% as in he La Oli a qua e
which come o shu hemsel es away in he local com-
muni y o p o es agains he negligen a i ude o he
Municipal Pa onage, acco ding o he ex “One hun-
d ed neighbou s we e held in he communi y p emises”
(ECA, 1977a, p. 31). A ano he ime, exp op ia ion o
a achmen is he objec o he piece o in o ma ion
“Housing and plo s will no be exp op ia ed” (ECA, 1977b,
p. 11), in which he consequences o he a ea inhabi-
an s a e explained.
The municipal c i icism agains he mayo is also in-
ensi ied in pieces o in o ma ion such as “P o es o
he p oceedings o he Se ille mayo ” (ECA, 1977c, le
cen al page), whe e he newspape exposes ha he e-
sponden s a e ep esen a i es o all neighbou ing asso-
cia ions o he se en h and eigh h municipal dis ic s be-
cause hey conside ha he mayo mus ha e been con-
ac ed by he democ a ic neighbou ing associa ions o
elabo a e on he Neighbou hood Eme gency Plan.
The Go e nmen au ho ises he egis a ion o he
pa ies in he Regis e o Poli ical Associa ions in Ma ch.
By hen, e e y hing is looded wi h poli ics. A mon h be-
o e, one o he p omo e s o he i s neighbou ing asso-
cia ion in i e yea s, he Uni o he Polígono San Pablo,
is in e iewed. Among he ques ions is he poli ical pu -
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 68
pose o he associa ion, whose esponse con ains demo-
c a ic eminiscences o he socio-poli ical momen :
Apa om he democ a ic cha ac e o he associa-
ion, we a e awa e ha he social aspec is o en in i-
ma ely ela ed o poli ics. Any decision be ween wo
social and economic app oaches is a poli ical decision.
Only in his sense can we be conside ed poli icians.
(ECA, 1977d, p. 22)
The p o es declines in Ma ch–Ap il o 9.09%; he
speeches cap u e he 100% which makes he neighbou -
ing answe mo e based on he dialogue and less comba -
i e in he s ee . The e a e news in which Se illians de-
mand public se ices and in as uc u e imp o emen s
in he i s pe son o on behal o an associa ion. Fol-
lowing his line, he headlines begin o be mo e s iking
and di ec as “Ci y council, wha is gi en is no emo ed”
(ECA, 1977e, p. 17), wo ds aken om he con e sa ion
wi h some membe s o he La Co za Associa ion o am-
ily heads. A he same ime, he ci izen as an indi idual
o collec i e en i y becomes a p o agonis o he piece o
in o ma ion wi h headlines such as “Do no wan o con-
inue li ing in La Co chuela” (ECA, 1977 , p. 19), news in
which he associa ion o amily heads o he qua e de-
sc ibes he si ua ion o he inhabi an s o he a ea.
In he las wo mon hs o May–June, he claim d ops
o 6.06%. Speeches and demons a ions di ide up o
50%. Among he speeches we ind he piece o in o ma-
ion “The esiden s o El Pol o ín equi e g een zones”
(ECA, 1977g, igh cen al page), whe e he main sou ce
used is he sec e a y o he owne ’s communi y, and is
headed by a pho og aph o one o he s ee s o he qua -
e . The baggage o p o es ac ions in June esul ed in he
on al clash wi h he municipal au ho i y in pieces o in-
o ma ion such as “P o es e s om La Co chuela did no
le he mayo d i e his ca ” (ECA, 1977h, p. 1, igh cen-
al page), whe e neighbou s aise hei oices mo e as
jou nalis ic sou ces.
5. Discussion
The p o es o he neighbou ing mo emen in he p ess
du ing T ansi ion in Se ille is a clea example o he ci i-
zen dissa is ac ion due o mul iple u ban p oblems, lack
o housing and basic in as uc u es. In his way, he
newspape publishes issues ela ed o he con lic and
he con o e sy, al e ca ions, demons a ions, speeches
and associa ions. The s a egies used ha e undamen-
ally been: imely and epea ed in o ma ion on he
holding o assemblies and au ho isa ion o demons a-
ions; ea men o p oblems in cases (Palme e and La
Co chuela); daily showcase o con lic ing news abou
he wo ld o neighbou hood and u ban p oblems; head-
lines wi h di ec and con o e sial language o make he
ension s a es o he neighbou s explici ; s o ies o un-
lucky encoun e s wi h he mayo ; he highligh s o he
con inui y o he same p oblems; usage o pho og aphs
wi h a desc ip i e unc ion o he social en i onmen and
gi ing e idence o he de iciencies o he mos humble
qua e s, and gene alisa ion o he sou ces usage as he
neighbou s and p esiden s o associa ions.
We ind he accompanimen om he beginning o
a clea poli ical con en in he ex s ha inc eases as
T ansi ion ad ances. Issues ela ed o he neighbou ing
mo emen a e also newswo hy i hey a e esco ed by
an a i ude ela ed o democ a ic change, eedom o as-
socia ion, and eques s o amnes y, and eplicas in an
a emp o p omo e local deba e, enhance he poli ical
nuance o neighbou ing associa ions and o es ablish a
se o opposing iews in he absence o poli ical pa ies.
The in o ma ion low o he neighbou ing answe coin-
cides wi h he poli ical ci cums ances o he momen ,
cons an in all s ages, especially in he i s wo. The me-
dia co e age o he p o es o 1976 is managed especially
h ough demons a ions and speeches, al hough he i s
a e p esen almos all yea which gi es an idea o he bel-
lige en a i ude wi hin he social mobilisa ion as a whole.
We obse e he awakening o local consciousness
(12.12%) be ween Janua y and Ap il 1976 wi h he
ex s published wi hin he o ma o le el 2 o con lic
(speeches and especially associa ions), which expose
small local ba les. Only a i s , he newspape shows i -
sel as an ex e nal obse e (ex a le el), bu when he
poli ical ac o in e ened in he neighbou ing demands
a he beginning o 1976, i assumes a le el o neu al in-
e media y exposing i s claims and se ing as a pla o m
(in e le el). F om he au umn mon hs, when he esul s
o he i s democ a ising measu es o Suá ez’s i s go -
e nmen begin o be obse ed, he e is a g ow h o de-
mand which eaches he highes alues o he en i e pe-
iod s udied in Sep embe and Oc obe (18.18%), being
mos ly o le el 1, o high le el, wi h high pe cen ages o
demons a ions. A a ime when an i-F anco poli ical op-
posi ion is no legalised, ex s dealing wi h neighbou ing
issues acqui e a g ea e deg ee o poli ical con en and
channel democ a ising ideas, demons a ing ha i does
no emain indi e en o poli ical and social eali y. The
newspape hen eaches an in a le el o ac o in ol ed
when i c i icises he local go e nmen and is accen u-
a ed by gi ing mo e s eng h o he c i ical oices ha
come om he neighbou s who exe cise he municipal
opposi ion in he ollowing yea .
The p o es esumes o g ow in he i s mon hs o
1977 (15.15%) wi h a high inc ease in demons a ions. As
he poli ical pa ies a e legalised and he i s democ a ic
elec ions in June a e app oaching, he p o es dec eases
un il eaching hal o he ini ially achie ed (6.06%). Du -
ing he sp ing, he speeches a e he main p o agonis s
a a ime when dialogue p e ails, al hough demons a-
ions eappea whe e he ole o he neighbou u ns up
as an opponen o local poli ical au ho i y con inced ha
he municipal changes go h ough democ a isa ion. By
hen, he decline o published ex s on he neighbou ing
mo emen coincides wi h he ans e o objec i es and
pe sonnel o o he g oups and especially o he poli ical
Media and Communica ion, 2018, Volume 6, Issue 1, Pages 62–72 69
sphe e. In his sense, he absence o ex s on associa ions
is no o ious un il he end o he pe iod.
6. Conclusions
Th oughou he T ansi ion p ocess, he neighbou is ep-
esen ed in he p ess as a ci izen in a local democ a ic
en i onmen , no malising beha iou s and pa e ns o ac-
ion h ough p o es . The p ess con ibu es o make he
neighbou , who publicly demands, esponds, and s ug-
gles on he s ee , becomes an example o he neigh-
bou who obse es him, assumes his ac ion and iden i-
ies wi h him by eading he ex published in he news-
pape . I he neighbou ing associa ions a e concei ed as
schools o democ acy, he p ess—especially o he in-
ol emen o he newspape s udied—con ibu es o he
sp eading and ampli ica ion o ci izen awa eness and o
educa e in democ a ic unc ioning om he p oximi y.
Wi h all o his, we can a i m ha , a a ime when
he local mo emen in he democ a ic T ansi ion is be-
ing alued, he p ess becomes an ally o he neighbou -
ing mo emen when i comes o publicising i s s ug-
gle, and se es as a pla o m o gi e isibili y o he
democ a ising cul u e du ing T ansi ion in Se ille, in
which he neighbou also lea ns o be a ci izen. None he-
less, he analysed newspape is only an ad anced ex-
ample by i s own p o essional ajec o y o s uggle o
democ acy. I would be con enien o conduc s udies
on o he con empo a y newspape s o compa e o oppo-
si e o simila iews in o de o ob ain a mo e comple e
global o e iew.
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho decla es no con lic o in e es s.
Re e ences
Alonso, N. (2011). The neighbou ing mo emen s in Rome
du ing he I alian p o es cycle (1968–1976). Segle XX.
Re is a Ca alana D’His ò ia,4, 57–77.
Al haus, C. (2000). Neighbou ing mo emen and di ec
democ acy in he ea ly 50s. Geschich e im Wes en
(GiW),15, 95–114.
Angulo, J. (1978). Municipali y, elec ions and neigh-
bou s. Fo some democ a ic councils. Mad id: La
To e Edi ion.
Ba din, L. (1996). Con en analysis. Mad id: Akal.
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