Art and Urban Regeneration in New York City: Doris C. Freedman’s Public Project

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Ma ía F. Ca ascal Pé ez
Uni e sidad de Se illa. [email p o ec ed]
To ci e his a icle: Ca ascal Pé ez, Ma ía F. “A and U ban Regene a ion in New Yo k Ci y. Do is C. F eedman’s Public P ojec .” VLCa qui ec u a 8, no.1
(Ap il 2021): 97-118. ISSN: 2341-3050. h ps://doi.o g/10.4995/ lc.2021.12709
A and U ban Regene a ion in New Yo k Ci y. Do is C.
F eedman’s Public P ojec
A e y Regene ación U bana en Nue a Yo k. El P oyec o Público
de Do is C. F eedman
Recei ed 2019.11.14
Accep ed 2020.09.23
Abs ac : Gi en i s posi i e economic, social and u ban impac , e en wi h low-cos o low- ech ma e ializa ion, he
u ban c ea i i y encou aged by he a s is o g ea in e es oday. This na a i e e iews one o he mos p oli ic
ca ee s in his ega d add essing he pionee ing wo k by Do is C. F eedman. The la e 1960s and he 1970s, in he
con ex o wo inancial c ises, saw a g oundb eaking e o o o malize inno a i e a is ic p og ams ha ecycled
he obsole e ci y and in eg a ed local communi ies in he p ocesses. Do is C. F eedman was he i s di ec o o NYC
Depa men o Cul u al A ai s, he Public A s Council, and leade o he o ganiza ion Ci y Walls. These ins i u ions
p omo ed an unp eceden ed imp o emen o he public u ban li e h ough he cul u al ac ion. Such expe iences led
F eedman o he concep ion o he las p ojec , he ele an and, s ill, ongoing Public A Fund o New Yo k Ci y. This
a icle ocuses on he ea ly p o essional yea s, when she began and consolida ed he sel in he ask o legi imizing a
as an u ban ins umen o shaping he ci y. This esea ch p o ides a con ex ualized c i ical analysis on F eedman’s
less-known expe imen al p ojec s be o e he ounda ion o he Public A Fund, enabling an ex ao dina y sou ce o
inspi a ion o a cu en c ea i e ci y-making.
Keywo ds: Public a ; public space; u ban a ; u ban egene a ion; New Yo k Ci y.
Resumen: Debido a su posi i a epe cusión económica, social y u bana, incluso con una ma e ialización de
bajo cos e y escaso desa ollo ecnológico, la c ea i idad u bana omen ada po las a es es de g an in e és
en la ac ualidad. Es e ex o e isa una de las ayec o ias más p olí icas en es e sen ido, abo dando el abajo
pione o de Do is C. F eedman. A inales de la década de 1960 y en la de 1970, en el con ex o de dos c isis
inancie as, se p odujo un no able es ue zo po o maliza p og amas a ís icos inno ado es que ecicla an
la ciudad obsole a e in eg a an a las comunidades locales en sus p ocesos. Do is C. F eedman ue la p ime a
di ec o a del NYC Depa men o Cul u al A ai s, Public A s Council, y una de las líde es de la o ganización
Ci y Walls. Es as ins i uciones p omo ie on una mejo a sin p eceden es de la ida pública u bana a a és de
la acción cul u al. Tales expe iencias lle a on a F eedman a la concepción de su úl imo p oyec o, el ele an e
y oda ía igen e Public A Fund en la Ciudad de Nue a Yo k. Es e a ículo se cen a en sus p ime os años
p o esionales, en los que se inició y consolidó en la a ea de legi ima el a e como ins umen o u bano pa a
con o ma la ciudad. La in es igación p opo ciona un análisis c í ico con ex ualizado sob e los p oyec os
expe imen ales menos conocidos de F eedman an es de la undación del Public A Fund, acili ando una
singula uen e de e e encias pa a una egene ación c ea i a de la ciudad ac ual.
Palab as cla e: A e público; espacio público; a e u bano; egene ación u bana; Nue a Yo k.
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INTRODUCTION. CITY AND ART
The widesp ead e en s o May 1968 in Pa is ha
eached he US, he igh o ci il igh s, he social
ejec ion and condemna ion o he Vie nam Wa ,
he Wa e ga e scandal and he A ab oil emba go, all
ga e way o he con o e sial decade o he 1970s,
when a is s, c ea o s and ce ain socially commi -
ed people saw in hei common u ban space he
igh place o wo k and exp ess hei ideas. In New
Yo k Ci y, his decade was pa icula ly a pe iod o
openness ega ding he ci y, which led o a e ision
o he concep o public, public space and public
a .1 Se e al cul u al o ganiza ions, balancing
u ban and a is ic esou ces, os e ed ad anced e-
la ionships be ween he new c ea i e o ms and he
ci yscape. The wo k by Do is C. F eedman om he
Depa men o Cul u al A ai s, Ci y Walls Inc., he
Public A s Council (PAC), and he Public A Fund
(PAF) p o ided a majo boos o New Yo k public
p ojec by expanding he a is s’ access o he ci y
in a con ex o c isis and u ban obsolescence. How
and when did his o igina e? Wha we e he social
and u ban condi ions o his s age o in ense pub-
lic c ea ion o occu ?
This ac would be d i en by he con luence o
c ucial dynamics: he u ban expansion o he a
ield, he des uc ion o a as numbe o u ban
symbols in he ci y, and an ex ensi e p oduc ion o
low-quali y public space. In his pe iod, he a de-
ba e was mo ing beyond i s adi ional bounda ies.
Many a g oups and indi iduals clea ly exp essed
a need o isibili y in hei en i onmen s, awaking
a pos mode n consciousness, mo e di e se and
inclusi e. The Black Eme gency Cul u al Coali ion
(1968), Gue illa A Ac ion G oup (GAAG, 1969),
Women A is s in Re olu ion (WAR, 1969) o Ad
Hoc Women A is s’ Commi ee (1970) we e some
o he al e na i e g oups c ea ed a he beginning
o he decade. A his o ian Julie Aul elabo a ed a
ch onology on he c ea ion o 69 al e na i e g oups
and places o e a wen y-yea pe iod (1965-1985) in
New Yo k Ci y.2 A is s ough agains he exclusion-
a y and igid p ocedu es o cul u al ins i u ions and
ounded ano he connec ion be ween hei wo k
and he eal ci y, also by challenging he adi ional
“monumen ali y” o public spaces.
Along wi h his, due o he in ense enewal p o-
cesses a ec ing New Yo k om he 1950s onwa ds,
he e was a p o ound symbolic c isis, a dis o ion
in he pe cep ion o u ban iden i ies caused by he
des uc ion o ex ensi e genuine u ban and social
ab ics. A e he G ea Dep ession, his ci y would
mainly ocus on de eloping i s anspo sys em
and enewing i s housing s ock, some hing ha was
o esul in he disappea ance o meaning ul build-
ings and u ban a eas, causing signi ican u ban
and social ac u es wi hin less weal hy neighbo -
hoods and communi ies.3 Th oughou he 1960s,
he p io i y was o expand o ice space in esponse
o he inancial ma ke up u n, c ea ing la ge e i-
cal business complexes ha ep esen ed he new
economic cha ac e o he ci y, which in u n also
in ol ed he des uc ion o he memo ies and iden-
i ies o he p e-exis ing si ua ion. Only, he igu e
o Jane Jacobs would challenge ha p e ailing logic
and, al hough add essing he wo k would exceed
he capaci y o his a icle and di e i s objec-
i e, he excep ional c i ique o hese p ocesses o
des uc ion-c ea ion and he mode n ci y and he
de ense o he local iden i y should be highligh ed.4
Fu he mo e, he e was ano he dynamic ha was
o a ec he p og ession o public a in he ci y,
he p omo ion o public spaces wi h li le social
signi icance. F om he mid 1960s, New Yo k mul-
iplied he c ea ion o public u ban si es. The 1961
Zoning Law led o a p oli ic p oduc ion o p i a ely
owned public spaces. I speci ied ha de elope s
had o be g an ed wi h ex a loo space o use in
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hei buildings i hei p ojec s included new open
p i a e spaces ha we e physically accessible o he
gene al public. In a decade, o e 500 such public
si es eme ged apidly among buildings and s ee s,
al hough hey we e spaces wi h ew ameni ies o
any a chi ec u al o symbolic a ibu e.5 Many o
hese plazas had no been used since hei c ea ion,
acqui ing a s a e o p ema u e obsolescence. In
ac , speaking o he u ban enewal o he B onx,
Ma shall Be man s a ed ha “when he cons uc-
ion was done, he eal uin had jus begun.”6 As
hese o ganiza ions abou public space would
no e, hese mu e and dehumanized si es we e also
“mode n uins” ha could easily become spaces o
oppo uni y, pla o ms o a is ic use.
In sum, he public pano ama would he eby be
de e mined by in e connec ed ac s: he in ensi e
des uc ion o New Yo k landma ks which dimin-
ished he e oca i e powe o he public space and
he speedy p oduc ion o new and dehumanizing
public spaces om he second hal o he 1960s
(Figu e 1). These would se he s age o hese a
o ganiza ions. In he 1970s, howe e , he a i al
o wo iscal c ises, in 1973 and 1979, would s op
hese dynamics ha caused de as a ion in he
name o p og ess. The in e up ion o cons uc ion
p ocesses esul ed in an u ban ecession ha p o-
oked he eme gence o nume ous acan spaces
and he de e io a ion o he exis ing public ma ix.
This obsolescen ci yscape, and he public space
in pa icula , became he desi ed ield o ac ion
o many a is s. Indeed, he expansion o he ield
o a , as no ed by a his o ian Rosalyn K auss,
had s ong impac on he sha ed en i onmen s.7
A di e se and expe imen al new public p oduc ion
was boos ed by he u ban a o he 1970s, which
celeb a ed a pos mode n socie y ha mis us ed
o g ea he oes, g a e dange s, and pu poses
ep esen ed in adi ional monumen s. The new
monumen s we e no e e ences o he pas bu he
u u e, c ea ing iden i y among he ex ended uins
o New Yo k. These a wo ks we e e y di e se. In
many cases, hey became concep ual, social, po-
li ical, as hey we e si e-based, in ol ed wi h hei
su oundings. They would eme ge om he old
uins o de as a ion o g ea u ban a eas, as well
as om he con empo a y uins in he o ms o
un o una e new p i a ely owned public spaces ha
do ed he ci y.8 Some a wo ks would use hese
si es as pedes als while o he s would eshape hem,
bu , in bo h cases, hey in oduced al e a ions ha
con ibu ed o enla ge “ he o es o symbols o New
Yo k Ci y,” quo ing Ma shall Be man.9 They could be
sculp u es, en i onmen s o mu als, ins alla ions o
many so s ha enhanced he inhe en na a i e
capaci y o public space.10
While he a scene o he 1970s, including he SoHo
phenomenon, has been la gely s udied by ele an
a his o ians and c i ics, such as Lucy R. Lippa d,
Rosalind K auss, Law ence Alloway o Julie Aul , as
much as he 1970s’ u ban scene by a chi ec u e
Figu e 1. Ae ial iew o Manha an Island a e 1973.
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expe s, such us Robe A. M. S e n, Thomas
Mellins and Da id Fishman o Rem Koolhaas, his
a icle builds on a lesse -known pa o New Yo k
Ci y his o y ha wo ked on bo h, he a is ic and
u ban eali y o his pe iod.11 The codi ica ion o
a in New Yo k public en i onmen s boos ed by
Do is C. F eedman was a big s ep o wa d in he
acknowledgemen o a con empo a y challenge:
he egene a ion o wes e n ci ies. In he d ama ic
economic ecession a e he oil c ises, om he o -
ganiza ions ha she di ec ed and ounded, Cul u al
A ai s, PAC, Ci y Walls, and PAF, a is s we e able
o go beyond he adi ional con ines o cul u al
expe ience and ecycle aluable ye neglec ed u ban
con ex s. They an icipa ed he a o able connec ion
be ween c ea i e expe imen a ion and obsole e
space, which u ban planne s and ci y heo is s we e
unawa e o un il he second hal o he 1980s – wi h
Be na do Secchi, and la e Ignasi de Solà-Mo ales –,
e en hen, no much a en ion was paid.12 F om he
1970s, PAF headed his inno a i e p ocess o e i-
alizing he public space using a , jus as i s ea lie
inca na ions, PAC and Ci y Walls, had done om
he 1960s. While PAF is s ill an ongoing widesp ead
p ojec , PAC and Ci y Walls a e less known, as is
he in e es ing p o essional pa h ha F eedman
ollowed o pionee his ield.
This a icle aims o ill his gap and add esses he
ea ly s age o Do is C. F eedman’s ca ee . This
esea ch is mo i a ed om he idea ha he wo k
p o ides a weal h o knowledge o he egene a ion
o he ci y o oday, which seems e en mo e pe i-
nen a e he e ec s o he Pandemic. In con as
o he dynamics o decay, displacemen , and
hype -de elopmen ha ha e cons an ly a ec ed
u ban con ex s in his millennium, he pos -Co id
e a is expec ed o ocus on a mo e sus ainable and
esilien way o managing he exis ing u ban li e.
As he ci y o he u u e is mos ly al eady buil o
he Eu opean and No h Ame ican wo ld, u he
explo a ion on inno a i e o ms o u ban egen-
e a ion should become inc easingly necessa y. This
manusc ip , ul ima ely, con ibu es o he cons uc-
ion o a mo e inclusi e his o y o he con empo a y
ci y when his excep ional woman is ea u ed as a
pionee in in oducing a as u ban ins umen , by
acknowledging he au ho ship in his ea ly c ea i e
egene a ion o New Yo k Ci y public space and by,
also, gi ing he a place o ele ance in he ield o
U ban His o y and Theo y.
DORIS C. FREEDMAN’S PUBLIC PROJECT
The use o a as an u ban ool was i s a emp ed
by Ame ican public o ganiza ions in 1933 wi h he
se ing-up o he Wo ks P og ess Adminis a ion
(WPA), concei ed o comba he high a es o un-
employmen wi h communi y se ices and ci ic
imp o emen s du ing he G ea Dep ession. O he
p og ams and agencies also con empla ed he
pa icipa ion o a is s. This was he case o he
Rese lemen Adminis a ion, a di ision o he
Depa men o Ag icul u e, which aimed o e i alize
exis ing a ms and houses. Ea ly on, b illian pho-
og aphe s eco ded he d ama ic u ban and social
con ex o se e al ci ies a his ime.13 The 1960s
saw he appea ance o a second wa e o ins i u-
ional suppo o public a in eac ion o di icul
ci cums ances. In addi ion o he A in A chi ec u e
p og am o he US Gene al Se ices Adminis a ion,
he Na ional Endowmen o he A s (1965) was
c ea ed as an independen US Go e nmen unding
agency, while Do is C. F eedman ounded and led
a cul u al ci y agency in he New Yo k Ci y admin-
is a ion, in many ways a o e unne o he Public
A Fund.14
New-Yo k-bo n F eedman (1928-1981) was he
daugh e o no ed a chi ec and builde I win
S. Chanin. A e a ending Alb igh College in
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Pennsyl ania, she g adua ed om Columbia
Uni e si y wi h a Mas e ’s deg ee in Social Wo k.
This educa ion would be ex emely use ul o he
u u e ca ee , as she was ac i e in public a ai s
mos o he li e. She wo ked owa d secu ing he
legisla ion, which allowed a is s o eside in SoHo
lo buildings, and was in ol ed in he Municipal
A Socie y’s igh o sa e G and Cen al Te minal.
Howe e , he ela ionship wi h public a did no
o icially begin un il 1967 when she was appoin ed
he i s di ec o o New Yo k Ci y Depa men o
Cul u al A ai s, a posi ion she held om 1967 o
1970 (Figu e 2). She was also a ounding membe
o Ci y Walls Inc. in 1968, and wi hin he Municipal
A Socie y she c ea ed he Public A s Council (PAC)
in 1972. These wo agencies la e me ged in 1977
o become he Public A Fund (PAF), an in luen ial
ins i u ion ac i e o his day, al hough i s s udy is
beyond he scope o his a icle. 15
Figu e 2. Do is C. F eedman (cen e ) and NYC Pa ks Employee a Cen al Pa k o ice, 1968.

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Each s age o Do is Chanin F eedman’s p o es-
sional ca ee p io i ized a speci ic ype o p ocedu e
ha ela es space and a p ac ice. The ollowing
ch onology o selec ed p ojec s e iews he pe iod
be ween 1968 and 1977 when Do is C. F eedman
was a he helm o Cul u al A ai s, Ci y Walls and
PAC, on he way o becoming one o he g ea ad o-
ca es o public a in New Yo k Ci y.
Depa men o Cul u al A ai s (1968-1972)
In 1968, Do is C. F eedman was appoin ed di ec o
o he ecen ly es ablished Depa men o Cul u al
A ai s a he New Yo k Ci y Pa ks, Rec ea ion and
Cul u al A ai s Adminis a ion when John Lindsay
was Majo o his ci y. In his yea , wi h cu a o Sam
G een, she p oduced Sculp u e in En i onmen
as he Ci y’s con ibu ion o a Cul u al Showcase
Fes i al (Figu e 3). This was he i s majo p og am
on public a in he ci y. Twen y- ou a is s, includ-
ing Claes Oldenbu g, Ba ne Newman and Louise
Ne elson, placed wen y-nine sculp u al wo ks in
nine ci y pa ks and i een public and co po a e
buildings and plazas.16 F om he public adminis-
a ion, excep ional spaces owned by he ci y we e
used as a empo a y and some imes pe manen
al e na i e a is ic a ena. “Sculp u e ha con on s
us on ou way o wo k, o on ou daily e ands, is
no longe he emo e objec belonging o he wo ld
o galle ies and museums, bu a special componen
o ou daily li es,” F eedman e ealed he pa icula
pe cep ion o a in u ban spaces in he New Yo k
Times.17
Nume ous a wo ks we e p oduced. In cases whe e
hese we e c ea ed wi h no speci ic loca ion, i was
up o F eedman o b ing he a wo k o li e by
selec ing he igh se ing. Alexande Calde ’s Li le
Foun ain wen o a Ha lem apa men building,
Ba ne Newman’s B oken Obelisk was placed
be o e he Seag am Building, Da id Smi h’s Zig
IV wen o Lincoln Cen e , Alexande Libe man’s
O e ing and Alpha we e placed in Ba e y Pa k.
All o e he ci y he wo k o majo a is s wen on
empo a y exhibi ion and Tony Rosen hal’s Cube in
As o Place was gi en o he Ci y as a pe manen
wo k.18
Howe e , special a en ion was also paid o si e-
speci ic p ojec s. Al hough ini ially he app oach o
public a p oduc ions was simila o ha o adi-
ional cu a o ship in galle ies – conside ing public
space a neu al pla o m un ela ed o he a wo k
– i was no long be o e his changed. F eedman de-
eloped a special “in e se” sensibili y o selec ing
and placing he a is s in he u ban en i onmen
(Figu e 4). He eam had o ei he ind he igh a
wo ke o a place o he igh con ex o an a is ,
bu bo h, he c ea o and he ci y, bene i ed always
om such alliances. A c i ic I ing Sandle poin ed
ou how hese shows we e “ ocused on he ac ha
he a is s’ desi e o he kind o spaces ha he
u ban en i onmen can p o ide coincid(ed) wi h he
ci y’s need o a . The esul an (was) a new bi h o
public a .”19 Two p ojec s especially illus a ed his
symbiosis: S ee A and Neighbo hood S ee
Fes i al.
Wi h he help o a NEA g an , om he Depa men
o Cul u al A ai s, Do is C. F eedman o ganized he
c ea i e p og am S ee A in he summe o 1968
(Figu e 5). This p og am se up wo kshops in dance,
music, hea e , isual a s, ilm-TV, c ea i e w i ing
and poe y in chu ches, communi y cen e s, social
clubs and s o e on s in inne ci y-a eas o New Yo k
Ci y. Di ec ed by local a is s and based on popula
adi ions, he aim o hese wo ks was o in ol e
he neighbo hood in he a is ic expe ience and
expand hei cul u e.20 In 1969, s ill as pa o his
ini ia i e, Cul u al A ai s p oduced Neighbo hood
S ee Fes i al, a po able e en ha used a uck
o access ci y neighbo hoods in summe (Figu e 5).
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Figu e 3. Selec ion o a wo ks om Sculp u es in he En i onmen (1967), om le o igh : Li le Foun ain and T iangle wi h Ea s by
Alexande Calde , Lenox Te ace Apa men Building, 40 W 135 h S ; The B oken Obelisk by Ba ne Newman, Seag am Building; O e ing
and Alpha by Alexande Libe man, Ba e y Pa k; Pe is yle II by Geo ge Rickey, Public Lib a y B yan Pa k; All S a Cas by Les Le ine, Time-
Li e Building; Alamo by Tony Rosen hal Sculp u e, As o Place.
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The echnical equipmen used o he s ee celeb a-
ions was s o ed in he Fes i al T uck. Acco ding o
F eedman, “ he design o he equipmen had o help
make he s ee s a meaning ul ame o e e ence,
had o ake in o conside a ion he no mal i ems o
s ee li e, which include i e escapes, s oops and
emp y lo s. The essence o he p oblem was o
design a gigan ic hinke oy ha also unc ioned
in use ul ways.”21 While he es i al was s ill in he
planning s ages, he Depa men commissioned
Michael Lax and Associa es o design he uck o
answe o he speci ic s ee si ua ions.
In his pe iod, ano he independen p ojec led by
F eedman was c ucial o he ci y-a ela ionship:
Ci y Walls. This p oposal o he symbolic es o a-
ion and cul u al di e si ica ion o he ci y con ex
was supe ised by a pa allel o ganiza ion sup-
po ed by he Depa men o Cul u al A ai s.
Ci y Walls, 1968-1977
CITYa s o med in 1968, con ibu ing o a social shi
in a p oduc ion. This g oup ga he ed a is s and
child en wi h he aim o hei c ea ing public a wo k,
mainly communi y mu als. Sligh ly mo e complex was
he use ha non-p o i o ganiza ion Ci y Walls made
o s ee walls, which became g ea blank can ases o
si e-based pain ings o high quali y. The i s p esiden
o his o ganiza ion was he Vice P esiden o he J.M.
Kaplan Fund, Joan K. Da idson –whose pos F eedman
ook o e a e wa ds. The Kaplan Fund, which ini ially
boos ed a is Geo ge Maciunas’s Fluxhouses in SoHo
–and would la e und he Wes be h A Complex–
was an in luen ial ins i u ion in he a scene o 1970s
New Yo k. The ex emely commi ed Municipal A
Socie y o New Yo k Ci y (MAS) also suppo ed he Ci y
Walls p ojec , as did he Depa men o Cul u al A ai s.
Bo h women we e ascina ed by he idea o ope a ing
he ci y as a collec i e d awing boa d. Da idson and
F eedman had wi nessed he beginning o he wall
pain ing mo emen in he ci y. F eedman explained: “In
he mid 1960’s, landscape a chi ec M. Paul F iedbe g
b ough a is s in o he u ban design p ocess o he
i s ime. F iedbe g had been commissioned by he
New Yo k Ci y Pa ks Depa men o con e en
deb is-laden acan lo s in o es pocke pa ks. As his
in en ion was o hese lo s o p o ide an en i onmen
o he social, physical, psychological and educa ional
needs o human beings, F iedbe g eques ed he col-
labo a ion o a numbe o a is s, including Tania
[Ta iana Lewin]. Tania’s i s commission a 10
E e g een A enue, B ooklyn, was comple ed in Ap il
1967, and was he i s p o essional non-comme cial,
ou doo wall pain ing in New Yo k Ci y.”22 A e ha ,
a young enginee and ci y planne , Da id B ombe g,
encou aged a is s o change he a mosphe e in he
ci y’s dep essed communi ies. Wi h he landlo d’s pe -
mission, he asked he a is Allen D’A cangelo o pain
a ou -s o y wall adjacen o a ubble-s ewn acan lo
Figu e 4. Van Co land Pa k, pu ing oge he uck acks o
es i al a Al Smi h Playg ound, Do is C. F eedman, 1969.
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a 340 Eas 9 h S ee in Manha an.23 The illusiona y
landscape c ea ed had an ex emely posi i e e ec on
he communi y and he ci y, and i s success apidly
p omp ed new ci y wall p ojec s.
Ci y Walls Inc. was ounded in 1969 as a public se ice.
I was a non-p o i o ganiza ion aimed a managing
wall a p ojec s wi h any necessa y unding secu ed
om he S a e, he Fede al A Council o p i a e oun-
da ions. Joan K. Da idson obse ed, “ he monumen al
pain ed walls o New Yo k a e banne s in he ba le o
make he ci y habi able o People… Pain ings on he
walls o he Ci y endow daily li e wi h a bi o gaie y
and deligh , ep esen an impo an mo emen in
con empo a y a , and se e as a kind o ci y planning
as well.”24 Da idson a icula ed a plan o in eg a ing
Figu e 5. S ee A /N.Y. A Pho o Essay, 1968. / Neighbo hood S ee Fes i al, 1969. New Yo k Ci y Pa ks, Rec ea ion and Cul u al A ai s
Adminis a ion’s Depa men o Cul u al A ai s.
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by 20%, while he ci y’s popula ion declined by 10%
be ween 1970 and 1980.31 Ne e heless, special ci -
cums ances allowed a ew p ojec s o be execu ed. In
1978, he Louise Ne elson Plaza was c ea ed hanks
o a collabo a ion be ween he Chase Manha an
Bank’s Building Depa men and MAS. This was a
con o e sial iangle o land a he in e sec ion o
William S ee , Libe y S ee and Maiden Lane in
Lowe Manha an. In 1974, he ci y’s plans o begin
wo k on he si e we e dashed by he s a o he i-
nancial c isis. Wi h he in en ion o eac i a ing hese
ypes o p ojec s, he Mayo ’s O ice o De elopmen
published a bookle en i led To p ese e a He i age
in which hey iden i ied u ban missions which could
be adop ed by he p i a e sec o .32 Al hough he Ci y
could no p o ide majo unding, i did o e as-
sis ance, while p i a e co po a ions de eloped and
execu ed he p oposals. This was o hem an oppo -
uni y o ep esen a ion and dissemina ion beyond
hei own p i a e domains in he ci y.
I was his bookle , in ac , ha p omp ed Chase
Bank’s decision o collabo a e in he cons uc ion o
his bow ie plaza. Do is C. F eedman ecommended
a is Louise Ne elson o he p ojec . Ne elson
c ea ed an in eg al wo k o a wi h se en o he
Shadows and Flags pieces, placing s eel conical
o ms on he plaza in e spe sed wi h ees and
benches (Figu e 11). Ne elson was an impo an
igu e in he bu geoning public a e i al o he
1960s, and c ea ed mo e han 22 public com-
missions in he li e ime. A ound he ime o his
wo k, Ne elson had p oduced public wo ks such
as Nigh P esence IV (1972) on Pa k A enue a
92nd S ee , Sky Ga e (1978) a he Wo ld T ade
Cen e , Celeb a ion (1976-77) a Pepsico Wo ld
Headqua e s, and Chapel o he Good Shephe d
(1977) a S . Pe e ’s Lu he an Chu ch. The plaza,
named a e he au ho , was one o he i s hono -
ing a emale a is in New Yo k.33
-Pla o ms o design. Subway s a ions o Pelham
Pa kway (B onx), Bo ough Hall/Cou S ee (B ooklyn),
81s S ee and 53 d S ee , 1975.
Pla o ms o design was a p ojec o ganized join ly
by he U ban Mass T anspo a ion Adminis a ion
(UMTA), he A and Business Council and PAC o
imp o e he unde g ound li e o he ci y. Despi e
i s limi ed a chi e he p ojec b ough abou sub-
s an ial change in his unique u ban con ex . In a
eam wi h Ken Ba wick – la e appoin ed di ec o
o MAS – F eedman ad oca ed a mo e s imula ing
and educa ional ole o public space, enhancing i s
po en ial o communica ion.
E e since he cons uc ion o he i s line om
Ci y Hall o 42nd S ee in 1902, he New Yo k Ci y
Subway Sys em had been an exempla y model o
echnological p og ess. By he 1970s, howe e , he
sys em emained in ac ye had no been upda ed
since i s ounda ion. I was e y de e io a ed and
ew s a ions had been p ope ly eno a ed.34 The
unnels had become da k humid holes o dus and
di , a imes in imida ing and e en dange ous.35
PAC planned a e i aliza ion p ojec o he sub-
way using a o en i onmen al imp o emen .
This was suppo ed by he Exxon Co po a ion,
which p o ided $25,000 unding, as well as o he
p i a e ins i u ions. F eedman app oached se e al
expe ienced g aphic designe s and a chi ec s and
selec ed ou i ms: Pe e B ad o d and associa es,
Samuel Lebowi z Design and Planning, Maye s
and Shi A chi ec s Planne s, and P oppe -Elman
Design-Planning. Each g oup had a limi ed $5,000
budge o co e design ees as well as ma e ial, ab-
ica ion and ins alla ion cos s. This a angemen
also included se e al mon hs o pos e space en al
and he designe s we e allowed o use he s a ion
billboa ds. In o de o manage a p ojec on his
scale, MTA a chi ec s Isaacs & Ka z had o p o ide

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suppo o he a is s. The i ms we e ee o use
any s a ion in he ci y bu i was eques ed ha hey
ela e hei p oposals o an abo eg ound cul u al
ins i u ion o communi y.36
The i m wo king a Wes 81s S ee , a he
Manha an IND S a ion, chose o link he a ins al-
la ion o he Museum o Na u al His o y, loca ed
nea his s op. They p oduced mu als o ex ao di-
na y imagina y animals and used li ely messages
such as “C ea e-a-C ea u e” o s imula e passen-
ge s’ imagina ion. O he in e en ions played wi h
he subway indica ions, using colo s and en i on-
men al d awings ha eached ceilings, walls and
loo s. A 52nd S ee IND S a ion on Fi h A enue,
P oppe -Elman Design-Planning picked a closely su-
pe ised place wi h almos clea walls o be used as
pa o he p oposal. Supe -g aphics, like eno mous
ainbows guiding he passenge s, we e c ea ed o
co e la ge su aces along he unnels (Figu e 12).
Wo k on he p ojec wen on o i een nigh s wi h
he help o 5 s uden s om he P a Ins i u e.37
O he i ms used ligh , concep ual maps and new
signage o os e an o iginal unde g ound image y
o he ci y. A he end o he p ocess, which las ed
se e al mon hs, a “how- o handbook” was pub-
lished. Mo e han a me e exempla y s o e on o
Figu e 12. P ojec s o Pla o ms o Design. P oppe / Elman
Design/ Planning, 1975. Subway s a ion a Eas 53 d S ee and
Fi h A enue.
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en i onmen al wo ks, Pla o ms o design se ed
as a pilo p ojec showing he p ocess o coo dina-
ion be ween ci y agencies and c ea o s o he
symbolic egene a ion o he in as uc u al space
o New Yo k.
Towa ds he Public A Fund
In 1977, he Public A s Council and Ci y Walls
me ged o es ablish he Public A Fund, which was
a unding o ganiza ion o p og ams adminis e ed
by he Bo ough Councils. I became he leading
non-p o i o ganiza ion in cha ge o p og amming
empo a y public a in New Yo k Ci y. This o gani-
za ion eme ged o suppo a p ojec s in plazas,
pa ks, subways, and land ills. F eedman a gued
ha i was possible o “enhance he quali y o li e
by e-in ol ing he a is s in he planning p ocess
o ou ci ies.”38 She pu a is s, a chi ec s, ci y plan-
ne s, and a p o essionals o wo k oge he wi h ci y
agencies and communi y g oups. Wi h he coun -
less p ojec s, F eedman was a majo con ibu o o
he e o mula ion o he concep o “public a ” in
New Yo k, being pa icula ly known o he e o
o codi y he a -ci y ela ionship in o new u ban
egula ions, mos no ably, he One Pe cen o A
Law.39 In 1980, F eedman was appoin ed hono a y
membe o he Ame ican Ins i u e o A chi ec s,
which s a ed ha she had “ ende ed dis inguished
se ices o he a chi ec u al p o ession.”40
Do is C. F eedman was a i eless de ende o
he healing p ope ies o a o unsuccess ul
public spaces in New Yo k. He ca ee shows he
de e mining commi men o ins i u ing a as a key
ins umen in he imp o emen o u ban li e. She
challenged he o icial s a emen s, ans o ming
he au ho ized channels and c ea ing public ins i-
u ions in o de o o mally accomplish he goals.
I is shown how, as di ec o o he Cul u al A ai s
Depa men o New Yo k, Ci y Walls and he Public
A s Council, she c ea ed inno a i e p og ams,
which li e ally anspo ed a o he mos o go -
en a eas o New Yo k, nu u ing he long-las ing
p ojec o he Public A Fund, which ob ained he
Public A Ne wo k Awa d by Ame icans o he A s
in 2005.
All he ins i u ions ac ed as media o s be ween he
Ci y and he a is s’ in e es s, be ween u ban and
symbolic conce ns, o e ing an inno a i e model
o u ban egene a ion h ough a . He ca ee
shows how he success o he in e en ions did
no ely on he condi ion o quali y o he wo ks o
a bu on he s a egy used: he choice o si e and
pe iod, he iden i ica ion o he social and u ban
p oblems in his con ex and he con o ma ion o
a sui able eam o c ea o s (a is s, a chi ec s, e c.)
o wo k he e. This media ion was as c ea i e as i
was unc ional o he ci y. The e o e, his esea ch
shows how impo an i is oday o ocus on he
ins i u ions o agencies ac ing in his posi ion.
Building also on he heo y ha – using he wo ds
o Ma jaz U sic – “lea ing he ield o public a o
spon aneous de elopmen also opens doo s o i s
exploi a ion and make i ulne able o economic
p essu es,” his a icle calls o he impo ance o
he “planne ” as an expe on he u ban and a is ic
con ex o he ci y.41
F om an u ban pe spec i e, hese ins i u ions had
an ad anced ision: an icipa ing which spa ial e-
sou ces could be po en ially inco po a ed in o he
symbolic ne wo k o he ci y, while also deciding
when his should be done and how long o – aking
in o accoun he li e cycle o hose spaces. These
o ganiza ions’ ac i i y demons a ed ha he man-
agemen o public space was as impo an as he
a is ic c ea ion i sel . In i s ea ly yea s, he public
esou ces used in F eedman’s p ojec s – walls,
in as uc u es abo e and below g ound, p i a ely
owned public spaces, pa ks and land ills – showed
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No es and Re e ences
1
Ja ie Made uelo, “El a e de hace ciudad,” in A e Pblico: Na u aleza y Ciudad, ed. Ja ie
Made uelo (Mad id: Fundacin Cesa Man ique, 2001), 38.
2 Julie Aul , “Fo he eco d,” in Al e na i e A , New Yo k, 1965-1985: A Cul u al Poli ics
Book o he Social Tex Collec i e (Minneapolis: Uni e si y o Minneso a P ess, 2002), 5.
Fi s ed. (New Yo k: The D awing Cen e , 1996), ca alog o he exhibi ion Cul u al economies:
his o ies om he al e na i e a mo emen , NYC a The D awing Cen e , New Yo k, Feb u-
a y 24-Ap il 6, 1996.
3 Real Es a e Reco d and Guide, ol. 201-205 (1967-1970). The o ice boom is pa icula ly ad-
d essed in he Fou h Chap e (IV.I. Li ing Down own), accessed July 3, 2015, h p:// e eco d.
cul.columbia.edu.
4 See An hony Flin ’s, W es ling wi h Moses. How Jane Jacobs ook on New Yo k’s Mas e
Builde and T ans o med he Ame ican Ci y (New Yo k: Random House, 2009).
5 Je old S. Kayden, “The 1961 Zoning Resolu ion,” in P i a ely Owned Public Space. The New
Yo k Ci y Expe ience (New Yo k: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2000), 10.
6 Ma shall Be man, “In he Fo es o Symbols: Some No es on Mode nism in New Yo k,” in All
Tha Is Solid Mel s In o Ai : The Expe ience o Mode ni y (New Yo k: Simon Schus e , Inc,
1982), 315.
7 See Rosalyn K auss, “Sculp u e in he Expanded Field,” Oc obe 8 (Sp ing 1979): 31-44, and
Hal Fos e e al., A Since 1900: Mode nism, An imode nism, Pos mode nism (London:
Thames Hudson, 2005).
8 See Michele H. Boga , Sculp u e in Go ham. A and u ban enewal in New Yo k Ci y
(London: Reak ion Books, 2018). This book con ex ualizes he public a p ojec om he 1950s
in New Yo k Ci y, e e ing some o hese p ojec s and gi ing a wide iew in ime on he subjec .
9 Be man, All Tha Is Solid Mel s in o Ai , 315.
10 Ma ía F. Ca ascal Pé ez, “Ci y and A : C oss-dialogue on Space. New Yo k in he 1970s” (PhD
diss., idUS, Depsi o de In es igacin de la Uni e sidad de Se illa (handle/11441/39112),
2015). h ps://idus.us.es/handle/11441/39112
11 This a icle does no ocus pa icula ly on he a is ic coun e cul u e, no on he SoHo phe-
nomenon, howe e , hey ac i ely con ibu ed o ha expansion o access o he ci y and o
he c i ique o i s u ban logic. This is p ecisely documen ed in “The Sha e Use o he Ci yscape.
The ex ao dina y case o SoHo,” Re is a Telón de Fondo, no. 24 (2016): 227-255. Facul ad
de Filoso ía y Le as (UBA) A gen ina. Monag aphic o he Resea ch P ojec o he Na ional
Plan o I+D, Minis e io de Economía y Compe i i idad, “Las p c icas escénicas como o ma
social del conocimien o: Una e isin c í ica de la idea de pa icipacin en el con ex o de las
democ acias” (HAR 2014-57383). Di ec o : sca Co nago (CSIC).
12 See Be na do Secchi, “Le condizioni sono cambia e,” Casabella 48 (Janua y 1984): 8-13, and
Ignasi de Sol-Mo ales, “Te ain Vague,” in Anyplace, ed. Cyn hia C. Da idson (Camb idge:
MIT P ess, annually compiled by Anyone Co po a ion, 1995). F om he public semina held by
Any magazine a he Canadian Cen e o A chi ec u e, Mon eal, Quebec, Canada in June 1994,
whe e Ignasi de Sol-Mo ales ook pa in he hi d panel: The Cha ge o A chi ec u e in he
A s, oge he wi h Johanne Lamou eux, Douglas Coope , Mel in Cha ney, and Seok Chul Kim.
13 In 1936, a g oup o Ame ican pho og aphe s, including Walke E ans and Do o hea Lange,
we e commissioned by he Rese lemen Adminis a ion o documen he u al landscape
a ec ed by he G ea Dep ession and he de elopmen o he ini ia i es held by such p og ams.
The wo k o his g oup was he i s o icial a is ic commission ela ing o declining human en i-
onmen s. Hal Fos e e al., A Since 1900: Mode nism, An imode nism, Pos mode nism
(London: Thames & Hudson, 2005), 300.
14 Re e enced in Lance Jay B own, ed., Edi o s’ P e ace o G an Recogni ion P og am. The
Na ional Endowmen o he A s (New Yo k: The Coope Union o he Ad ancemen o
Science and A , 1980), 8.
15 Ch onology based on Paul Goldbe ge , “Do is Chanin F eedman, 53, Dies; Cul u al Leade
Headed A Fund,” The New Yo k Times, No embe 27, 1981, h p://www.ny imes.
com/1981/11/27/obi ua ies/do is-chanin- eedman-53-dies-cul u al-leade -headed-a -
und.h ml, accessed July 21, 2012.
16 Nancy Rosen, “Public A : Ci y Amblings,” in Ten Yea s o Public A 1972-1982 (New Yo k,
Philadelphia: Public A Fund, Falcon P ess, 1982), 14-15.
17 Goldbe ge , “Do is Chanin F eedman.”
18 I ing Sandle , un i led (New Yo k Ci y: Public A Fund, 1966). Public A Fund A chi e.
19 Sandle , un i led,1.
20 Doyle Dane Be nbach, S ee A /N.Y. A Pho o Essay (New Yo k: Depa men o Cul u al A -
ai s, 1968).
21 Do is C. F eedman, in oduc ion o Neighbo hood S ee Fes i als. New Yo k Ci y (New
Yo k: New Yo k Ci y Pa ks, Rec ea ion and Cul u al A ai s Adminis a ion’s Depa men o Cul-
u al A ai s, 1969), 1.
22 Do is C. F eedman and Kyle Mo is (wi h he pa icipa ion o Joan K. Da idson), Ci y Walls
a New Kind o Public A (New Yo k Ci y: unpublished), 2. Public A Fund A chi e. Tania is
he a is ic name o Ta iana Lewin, as membe o Ci y Walls, oge he wi h a is s Jason C um,
Nassos Daphnis, Allan D’A cangelo and Robe Wiegand.
23 F eedman and Mo is, Ci y Walls, 3.
24 Da idson, Ci y Walls, 5.
25 Julie H. Reiss, F om Ma gin o Cen e . The spaces o Ins alla ion A (New Yo k: MIT P ess,
2001), 85.
26 Da idson, Ci y Walls, 6.
27 Ke in Lynch, Echa a Pe de . Un análisis del de e io o (Ba celona: Gus a o Gili, 2005), 104.
Fi s ed. Was ing Away. An Explo a ion o Was e: Wha i is, How I Happens, Why We
Fea I , How o Do i Well (San F ancisco: Sie a Club Books, 1990).
28 G ego y F. Gilma in, “Landma k Law,” in Shaping he Ci y. New Yo k and he Municipal A
Socie y, Sec ion 18 (New Yo k: Cla kson Po e , 1995).
29 See “Unique His o y, The Only Residen ial Towe s Eas o he FDR,” Wa e side Plaza, accessed
June 2, 2015, h p://www.wa e sideplaza.com/abou /?p= iewPage.jsp&id=101&did=108.
30 Osca Newman, De ensible Space. C ime p e en ion h ough u ban design (New Yo k:
Macmillan, 1972). See also S e n, Mellins and Fisman’s “Dea h by De elopmen ,” in New Yo k
1960 (New Yo k: The Monacelli P ess, 1997), 88. The book con ains a s udy on c ime in New
Yo k, e ealing ha all high dense cons uc ions had highe c ime a es han low dwellings
whe e esiden s el g ea e con ol o e hei su oundings.
31 Nicholas F eu e al., “Changes in li ing condi ions, The Impac o New Yo k Ci y’s 1975 Fiscal
C isis on he Tube culosis, HIV, and Homicide Syndemic,” Ame ican Jou nal o Public Heal h
96, no. 3 (Ma ch 2006): 424-434, h p://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go /pmc/a icles/PMC1470515/.
32 Ronald M. Pe acca, J ., “Louis Ne elson Plaza (A Pa k in Lowe Manha an),” (New Yo k Ci y:
unpublished ex by he chai man o Legion Memo ial Squa e Inc.). Public A Fund A chi e.
33 “Louise Ne elson Plaza,” E e y hing Happening in Lowe Manha an, accessed Oc obe 20,
2012, h p://www.down ownny.com/louisene elson.
34 Ca ol S e ens, “4 G aphic Design Fi ms, 3 Founda ions, 2 T anspo a ion Au ho i ies and A
Co po a e Bene ac o ,” P in magazine (New Yo k: P in , Janua y/Feb ua y 1977), 47.
i s b oad and inno a i e in e p e a ion o his
concep . Indeed, om he e alua ion o he p oj-
ec s, i can be concluded ha hese o ganiza ions
con ibu ed o a c ea i e ci y making: eshaping he
collec i e space o he ci y, aiding i s social eac i a-
ion and, in some ins ances, i s physical enewal.
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35 Hila y Ballon, The G ea es G id: The Mas e Plan o Manha an, 1811-2011 (New Yo k:
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36 Louis Chapin, Pla o ms o Design (New Yo k: A s and Business Council, Public A s Council
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37 F om Chapin, Pla o ms o Design, 10-11, and miscellaneous documen a ion (New Yo k
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38 F eedman, Ci y Walls, 6.
39 “Abou Pe cen o A ,” New Yo k Ci y Pe cen o A , accessed June 12, 2018, h p://www1.nyc.
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41 See Ma jaz U sic, “‘Ci y as a wo k o a ’ – In luence o public a in he ci y,” Thea e i , accessed
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