Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion
www.uco.es/ucop ess/ojs/index.php/psye
Key wo d s Ab s Ac
PA l A b As c lA e e s u m e n
Callous-unemo ional o emo ional insensi i i y is an indi idual ai cha ac e ized by a lack o guil and emo se,
absence o empa hy, and lack o conce n o he eelings o o he s, among o he cha ac e is ics. Published wo ks
ha e shown ha he child and adolescen popula ion p esen s di icul ies in emo ional ecogni ion, al hough no all
wo ks conclude whe he his di icul y is gene alized o all emo ions o is es ic ed o speci ic emo ions. The use
o me hodologies such as eye- acking in hese s udies is helping o ad ance his line o esea ch, allowing us o
de e mine which a en ional p ocesses a e in ol ed in hese di icul ies and in which speci ic emo ions hey occu .
Howe e , his line o esea ch is incipien , so he objec i e o his sys ema ic e iew has been o analyze and o ganize
he exis ing in o ma ion on he di icul ies in emo ional ecogni ion p esen ed by child en and adolescen s wi h high
le els o callous-unemo ional in he published a icles on his opic ha use eye- acking. Following he PRISMA
Decla a ion, ou da abases we e e iewed (P oQues , ERIC, Scopus, and Web o Science), ob aining 140 esul s,
o which only 15 we e included and analyzed. The analysis ob ained as a esul a con i ma ion and cha ac e iza ion
o his de ici , inding di icul ies in he ecogni ion o nega i e emo ions, undamen ally hose o ea , ange , and
sadness, wi h a high pe cen age o s udies poin ing ou on he basis o his he di icul ies o a en ional ocus ound
in hese emo ions, al hough he exis ence o o he p ocesses ha could explain hese di icul ies was no ule ou .
Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion (2025) 17(1), 71-80
Emo ional ecogni ion in child en and adolescen s wi h callous-
unemo ional ai : A sys ema ic e iew o eye- acking s udies
Ma ía Isabel Mo eno-Albala & Vi ginia Sánchez-Jiménez*
Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se illa (Spain)
* Co esponding au ho : Vi ginia Sánchez-Jiménez. Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de la Educación, Uni e sidad de Se illa. C/ Camilo José Cela s/n.
41018, Se illa, Spain. [email p o ec ed]
Ci e his a icle as: Mo eno-Albala , M. I., & Sánchez-Jiménez, V. (2025). Emo ional ecogni ion in child en and adolescen s wi h callous-unemo ional ai : A sys ema ic e iew
o eye- acking s udies. Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion, 17(1), 71-80. h ps://doi.o g/10.21071/psye. 17i1.17246
Recei ed: 15 July 2024. Fi s e iew: 30 Oc obe 2024. Accep ed: 25 Decembe 2024.
Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion is published unde C ea i e Commons License (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).
ISSN 1989-709X | © 2025. Psy, Soc & Educ.
Emo ions
A en ional p ocesses
Psychopa hic ai s
Childhood
Adolescence
El callo emocional o insensibilidad emocional es un asgo indi idual ca ac e izado po al a de culpabilidad
y emo dimien o, ausencia de empa ía y al a de p eocupación po los sen imien os de los demás, en e o as
ca ac e ís icas. La in es igación ha demos ado que la población in an il y adolescen e p esen a di icul ades en
el econocimien o emocional, si bien no odos los abajos concluyen si es a di icul ad es gene alizada a odas las
emociones o se es inge a emociones especí icas. El uso de me odologías como el seguimien o ocula es á ayudando
a a anza en es a línea de in es igación, pe mi iendo de e mina qué p ocesos a encionales es án implicados en es as
di icul ades y en qué emociones conc e as se p esen an. Sin emba go, es a línea de in es igación es incipien e, po lo
que el obje i o de es a e isión sis emá ica ha sido analiza y o ganiza la in o mación exis en e sob e las di icul ades
en econocimien o emocional que p esen an los niños, niñas y adolescen es con al os ni eles de callo emocional en
los a ículos publicados sob e es a emá ica que emplean el seguimien o ocula . Siguiendo la Decla ación PRISMA, se
e isa on cua o bases de da os (P oQues , ERIC, Scopus y Web o Science), ob eniendo 140 esul ados, de los cuales
solo 15 ue on incluidos y analizados. El análisis ob u o como esul ado una con i mación y ca ac e ización de es e
dé ici , encon ando di icul ades pa a econoce emociones nega i as, undamen almen e las de miedo, i a y is eza,
con un al o po cen aje de es udios señalando en la base de es o las di icul ades de ocalización a encional encon adas
en es as emociones, aunque sin desca a la exis encia o os p ocesos que pod ían explica es as di icul ades.
Emociones
P ocesos a encionales
Rasgos psicopá icos
In ancia
Adolescencia
El econocimien o emocional en niños, niñas y adolescen es con callo
emocional: una e isión sis emá ica de es udios de seguimien o ocula
Mo eno-Albala & Sánchez-Jiménez Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion
72
Callous-unemo ional ai (CU), also known as emo ional
insensi i i y, is an indi idual ai cha ac e ized by a lack o
guil and emo se, absence o empa hy and supe icial exp es-
sion o emo ions, lack o conce n abou o he people’s eel-
ings o pe sonal pe o mance, and insensi i e use o o he
people (F ick e al., 2003; F ick, 2009). Acco ding o au ho s
such as De la Peña Ol e a (2022) and Sica e al. (2019), hese
cha ac e is ics a e equi alen o he speci ie s o limi ed
p osocial emo ions (LPE), as is desc ibed in he Diagnos ic
and S a is ical Manual o Men al Diso de s (DSM5) o he
Ame ican Psychia ic Associa ion (2014), wi hin Dis up i e,
Impulse-Con ol, and Conduc Diso de s.
Due o hese cha ac e is ics, CU is associa ed wi h emo-
ional and beha io al di icul ies (Ciucci e al., 2014). In
school-age child en, i has been ela ed o di e en nega i e
esul s, such as high le els o dis up i e beha io in he class-
oom, b eaching o ules, in e pe sonal con lic s wi h adul s
(De Ridde e al., 2016), bad ela ionships wi h pee s, which
may esul in iolence and bullying (Ciucci e al., 2014), wo se
lea ning, and low sociomo al de elopmen . This in luences
academic pe o mance, due o low in insic mo i a ion and
low commi men o schoolwo k, which do no depend on in el-
lec ual quo ien .
The p e alence a es o his ai a y as a unc ion o he
s udied popula ion, anging be ween 2-7% in communi y sam-
ples and up o 50% in clinical samples. Fo ins ance, he p e -
alence o CU in clinical samples wi h conduc diso de (CD)
a ies be ween 10% and 32% (Kahn e al., 2012), whe eas i
anges be ween 36% and 51% in clinical samples wi h au ism
spec um diso de (ASD) (Ca e Leno e al., 2015). This high
como bidi y poses a challenge o he scien i ic communi y, as
i is di icul o de e mine he speci ic cha ac e is ics o he
ai o he como bid diso de . Rega ding i s e iology, Bloni-
gen e al. (2005) and Fon aine e al. (2010) epo ed ha he
de elopmen o high le els o CU was in luenced by gene ic
ac o s, wi h 68% o explained a iance in he analyzed pop-
ula ion (La sson e al., 2008). O he s udies ha e poin ed ou
he con ibu ion o en i onmen al ac o s (Kahn e al., 2013),
such as he absence o wa m h in he pa en ing p ac ices and
se e e punishmen , as ele an de elopmen al an eceden s o
his ai . The e o e, he s udy o how educa ional p ac ices
in he amily con ex in luence emo ion ecogni ion and he
subsequen de elopmen o CU is p o iding esul s ha may
be e y ele an o he in e en ion wi h hese child en and
hei amilies. Some s udies ha e ound ha he lack o ma e -
nal wa m h, he low ma e nal sensi i i y (Bed o d e al., 2015;
Bed o d e al., 2017), and he low posi i e ega d owa ds he
in an (W igh e al., 2018) a e ac o s ha con ibu e o he
de elopmen o CU.
Di e en s udies (Blai e al., 2014; Dawel e al., 2012) con-
clude ha people wi h high le els o CU p esen a de icien
de elopmen o empa hy, which is mani es ed as he impai -
men o he ecogni ion o acial emo ions, which is an essen-
ial componen o social in e ac ion (Díaz Vázquez, 2022).
Al hough hese di icul ies in emo ion ecogni ion a e inhe -
en o his ai , he e is no consensus in he scien i ic commu-
ni y in ela ion o he causes o hese di icul ies and, conse-
quen ly, wi h ega d o whe he hese di icul ies a e es ic ed
o speci ic emo ions o whe he i is a gene alized de ici . The
dis ess-speci ic hypo hesis (Blai , 1995) indica es ha hese
di icul ies a e limi ed o he p ocessing o nega i e emo ions
o dis ess and su e ing, which would explain why he inhibi-
o y mechanisms a e no ac i a ed in he ace o o he people’s
dis ess, esul ing in indi e ence and insensi i i y owa ds
o he s. The a en ion- o-eyes hypo hesis (Dadds e al., 2006)
sugges s ha he cause o he de ici would be a mal unc ion-
ing o he a en ional mechanisms unde lying emo ion ecog-
ni ion, which would esul in a lack o a en ion o he eye
a ea and, consequen ly, a poo gene alized ecogni ion o all
emo ions. Las ly, he enhanced-selec i e-a en ion hypo he-
sis (Newman, 1998) poin s o g ea e capaci ies o selec i e
a en ion in his popula ion, which would lead o ocusing he
a en ion on hose s imuli ha a e in e es ing o he pe son,
dis ega ding s imuli ha a e conside ed i ele an . Acco d-
ing o he au ho s, his g ea e capaci y o ocus he a en ion
would no be es ic ed o social o physical s imuli, bu o el-
e an s imuli ha a e cohe en wi h he objec i es and desi es
o hese people. The e o e, i he objec i e o a child is o g ab
a oy ha is being used by a pee , he/she would ocus his/he
a en ion on his s imulus, se ing aside o he ele an signs,
such as he emo ions o annoyance o pain o he pee who
ini ially had he oy.
The inco po a ion o eye- acking o esea ch on emo ion
ecogni ion in child en and adolescen s wi h CU is p o iding
aluable esul s, as i allows speci ically e alua ing he a en-
ion hey pay o emo ional s imuli, pa icula ly o he eye a ea
(Billeci e al., 2019; Ca e Leno e al., 2023; Cen i an i e al.,
2021; Dawel e al., 2012; Deme iou & Fan i, 2022). Howe e ,
no all s udies a e d awing he same conclusions. Fo example,
Dawel e al. (2015) acked he eye mo emen s o adolescen s
wi h CU in he ace o emo ion ecogni ion asks, in which he
objec i es and in e es s o he pa icipan s we e manipula ed.
The esul s indica ed ha he de ici s in emo ion ecogni ion
we e no limi ed o speci ic emo ions, bu o hose si ua ions
in which emo ion ecogni ion compe ed wi h he in e es s and
objec i es o he pa icipan s, which is in line wi h he hypo h-
esis o imp o ed selec i e a en ion. On hei pa , Billeci e al.
(2019) ound ha de ici s in he emo ional ecogni ion o chil-
d en wi h CU we e only es ic ed o sadness, he eby associ-
a ing i wi h poo e a en ion o he eye a ea.
The p esen s udy
The aim o his e iew was o ad ance in his line o
esea ch, ga he ing and analyzing he e idence ha has been
published o da e abou he speci ic di icul ies in acial emo-
ion ecogni ion (FER) in child en and adolescen s wi h CU
in s udies ha used eye- acking. Speci ically, he ollowing
esea ch ques ions we e o mula ed: Which speci ic emo ions
pose a g ea e di icul y o s uden s wi h CU aged 5-18 yea s?
Which p ocesses a e associa ed wi h hese di icul ies in emo-
ion ecogni ion?
Mo eno-Albala & Sánchez-Jiménez Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion
73
The esul s p o ide eliable and upda ed in o ma ion o
esea che s and p o essionals who wo k wi h hese s uden s,
allowing hem o adjus hei in e en ions o he needs o his
popula ion.
Me hod
A sys ema ic e iew was ca ied ou , ollowing he
PRISMA 2020 s a emen (Page e al., 2021).
Sea ch s a egy
Fo his sys ema ic e iew, he UNESCO Thesau us and
MeSH Te ms we e used o de ine he keywo ds. Once he key-
wo ds we e es ablished, hey we e combined using Boolean
ope a o s and unca ion, ob aining he ollowing sea ch
exp ession in all ields: (“callous-unemo ional” OR “callous
unemo ional”) AND (“child*” OR “adolesc*”) AND (“emo-
ion ecogni ion” OR “emo ional impai men ”) AND (“eye-
ack*”). This exp ession was used in ou da abases: P o-
Ques , ERIC, Scopus and Web o Science.
Selec ion c i e ia and p ocedu e
Fo he selec ion o a icles and publica ions o in e es , he
ollowing inclusion c i e ia we e applied: 1) publica ions w i -
en in English o Spanish, 2) empi ical s udies published in
scien i ic jou nals, 3) s udies wi h popula ions aged 5-18 yea s
wi h high CU, 4) s udies whose main opic was CU and he ec-
ogni ion o in e pe sonal acial emo ions, and 5) s udies ha
used he eye- acking me hodology.
Flowcha and a icle selec ion
The a icle selec ion began wi h an ini ial unning o he
sea ch exp ession, which p oduced a o al o 140 a icles. Using
a e e ence manage (EndNo e), he duplica es we e disca ded
(n = 29), ob aining a o al o 111 publica ions. A i s sc een-
Figu e 1
Flowcha o he a icle sea ch and selec ion; adap ed om Page e al. (2021)
Mo eno-Albala & Sánchez-Jiménez Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion
74
ing was conduc ed by eading he i le, abs ac and keywo ds
o hese a icles, excluding 94 a icles based on he es ablished
inclusion c i e ia. The emaining 17 a icles we e analyzed in a
second sc eening by ull- ex eading, ob aining a inal sample
o 15 a icles (Figu e 1).
Resul s
All 15 a icles included in he cu en wo k a e quan i a i e
s udies conduc ed in Eu ope, wi h a p edominance o B i ish
s udies (47%) (see Appendix A o a desc ip ion o he s udies).
In o al, he pa icipan s o hese s udies we e 1,701 child en
and adolescen s aged 5-18 yea s, wi h wo s udies ex ending
he pa icipan age o 19 yea s (Bou s a al., 2018; Menks a
al., 2021). Wi h ega d o gende , 67% o he a icles included
a mixed popula ion, whe eas he es o he s udies (33%) used
male popula ions.
The pa icipan s we e om clinical samples in 73.33% o he
s udies, 26.67% o whom p esen ed ASD, 60% had CD, 33.33%
p esen ed a en ion de ici and hype ac i i y diso de (ADHD),
and 33.33% had opposi ional de ian diso de (ODD). The es
o he s udies used communi y samples o e alua e he p es-
ence o ai s compa ible wi h ASD (6.67%), an isocial beha io
(6.67%), anxie y and beha io al p oblems (6.67%), o absence
o associa ed symp oms (6.67%).
A o al o 86.67% o he s udies used accessibili y sampling
me hods, and wo s udies (13.33%) indica ed he andomiza-
ion o he sample, al hough only o accessing he compa ison
g oup. In his ega d, 40% o he s udies used con ol g oups
wi h ypical de elopmen , wi h hese g oups being de ined
based on he absence o diso de s o clinical ai s, whe eas
53.33% o he s udies g ouped he pa icipan s acco ding o he
le els o CU o associa ed symp oms. Only one s udy did no
use a compa ison g oup (Ha mann & Schwenck, 2020).
The s udies we e quasi-expe imen al and used acial s im-
uli o analyze emo ion ecogni ion. Only wo a icles (13.33%)
we e longi udinal s udies, whe eas he es o he a icles we e
c oss-sec ional s udies. In 73.33% o he s udies, s a ic s im-
uli we e employed o p esen emo ions, which we e shown as
images o people, d awings, and ca oons. Rega ding he es
o he s udies, 6.67% p esen ed dynamic s imuli h ough people
who we e ei he physically p esen o in ideos, whe eas he
emaining 26.67% combined bo h ypes o s imuli.
A o al o se en emo ional exp essions we e s udied
h oughou he 15 s udies included in his e iew: 1) happiness
(analyzed in 86.7% o he s udies), neu ali y (80%), su p ise
(6.67%), sadness (86.7%), ea (93.3%), age o ange –acco d-
ing o he e minology used by he au ho s– (93.3%), disgus
(26.67%), and pain (6.67%). Thus, he mos s udied emo ions
we e ange and ea , ollowed by sadness and happiness. No
s udies we e ound o del e in o mo al emo ions such as guil ,
shame, o p ide.
The s udies e alua ed accu acy in emo ion ecogni ion
(93.3% o he a icles), unde s anding i as he p ecision in he
iden i ica ion o he p esen ed emo ions. Mo eo e , all s ud-
ies eco ded he mean du a ion o ixa ions o he eye a ea as
a measu e o a en ional ocus on a eas ha a e ele an o
emo ion ecogni ion. The ime o i s ixa ion on he eye a ea
(unde s ood as an indi ec measu e o a en ional ocus), also
known as eac ion ime, was explo ed in 53.3% o he s udies.
O he s udies also eco ded he numbe o ixa ions (33.3%) as
a measu e o o al ime dedica ed o looking a he emo ional
s imulus.
In all he s udies ha used compa ison g oups, he esul s
ob ained bo h in he accu acy and in he a en ional p ocesses
o he g oups wi h high CU we e compa ed wi h hose ob ained
in he g oups wi h no ma i e de elopmen o in he g oups wi h
low CU le els.
Fo he accu acy in emo ion ecogni ion, he emo ions in
which he popula ion wi h high CU p esen ed he g ea es di i-
cul ies we e ea (78.6% o he a icles in which i was s udied)
and ange (64.3%), wi h espec o he compa ison g oups. The
di icul ies in ecognizing happiness, sadness, and disgus we e
somewha less conclusi e, as hey we e ound in app oxima ely
50% o he s udies, despi e he ac ha happiness and sadness
a e wo o he mos widely analyzed emo ions. Speci ically,
and ega ding happiness, se en s udies epo ed wo se ecog-
ni ion, wi h h ee o hese s udies showing a sho e du a ion o
gazing in he eye a ea (Ca e Leno e al., 2021; Deme iou &
Fan i, 2022; Ky anides e al., 2020) and wo s udies associa ing
i wi h a longe eac ion ime (Le an ini e al., 2022; 2023). I
is necessa y o poin ou he emo ions o su p ise (Ma in-Key
e al., 2018) and pain (Ky anides e al., 2020), which we e only
analyzed in one s udy, al hough di icul ies we e ound in he
emo ion ecogni ion o he pa icipan s wi h high CU le el wi h
espec o he con ol g oup and he g oup wi h low CU le el.
The du a ion o ixa ions o he eye a ea was explo ed,
undamen ally, in ea and ange (100% o he s udies), and in
happiness, sadness, and neu ali y (86.7%). This du a ion was
signi ican ly sho e in he pa icipan s wi h CU han in hose
o he compa ison g oup in o e 50% o he s udies o ea
and sadness, and a ound 40% o ange . The analysis o his
indica o in he es o he emo ions (pain, disgus , o su p ise)
was poo ly s udied, inding di icul ies o pain (one s udy) and
disgus ( wo ou o ou s udies). Fo he ime o i s ixa ion
(a en ional ocusing), he esul s we e simila o he o al du a-
ion o ixa ions o he eye a ea. Las ly, he emo ion in which he
pa icipan s showed he smalles numbe o ixa ions was sad-
ness (40% o he s udies in which i was analyzed) wi h espec
o he compa ison g oup.
As a summa y, he analyzed esul s a e p esen ed in Table 1.
In ela ion o he mode a ing ole o he cha ac e is ics o
he isual s imuli, he esul s abou he cha ac e s’ aces (age,
gende , e hnici y, o he physical appea ances, e c.) did no p o-
ide signi ican da a. G ea e accu acy was ound in he ecog-
ni ion o hose s imuli in which he emo ion was p esen ed mo e
in ensely (Ai d ie e al., 2018; Ma in-Key e al., 2018). In his
line, Bed o d e al. (2021) epo ed ha , in dynamic exp essions
o sadness, emo ion ecogni ion imp o ed when he s imulus
was shown acing he pa icipan , wi h he gazing di ec ion.
O e all, he popula ion wi h high CU le els showed lowe
accu acy in emo ion ecogni ion, mainly in one o mo e neg-
Mo eno-Albala & Sánchez-Jiménez Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion
75
a i e emo ions, in 80% o he analyzed popula ions (Ai d ie e
al., 2018; Bed o d e al., 2021; Billeci e al., 2019; Bou s e al.,
2018; Ca e Leno e al., 2023; Cen i an i e al., 2021; Dadds e
al., 2008; Deme iou & Fan i, 2022; Ha mann & Schwenck,
Table 1
Emo ions and indica o s o emo ion ecogni ion analyzed in he included s udies
(Ai d ie e al., 2018)
(Bed o d e al., 2021)
(Billeci e al., 2019)
(Bou s a al., 2018)
(Ca e leno e al., 2021)
(Ca e leno e al., 2023)
(Cen i an i e al., 2021)
(Dadds e al., 2008)
(Deme iou & Fan i, 2022)
(Ha mann & schwenck, 2020)
(Ky anides e al., 2020)
(Le an ini e al., 2022)
(Le an ini e al., 2023)
(Ma in-key e al., 2018)
(Menks e al., 2021)
% S udies
% di icul ies ound
Happiness
A ~ - ~ ~ ~ - - ~ - - - - ~ 86.7 53.9
DF - ~ ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~ 86.7 30.8
TF - ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ 53.3 37.5
NF ~ ~ ~ ~ 26.7 0
Sadness
A ~ ~ - ~ ~ - ~ - - - - - ~ 86.7 53.9
DF -~-~~- ~-~---~ 86.7 53.9
TF ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ 53.3 25
NF - ~ ~ ~ - 33.3 40
Fea
A-~~-~--------- 93.3 78.6
DF ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - - ~ - 100 53.3
TF - ~ ~ - - - - ~ 53.3 62.5
NF ~ ~ ~ ~ - 33.3 20
Ange
A - - ~ ~ ~ - - ~ - - - - - ~ 93.3 64.3
DF -~~~~-~~-~--~~-100 40
TF - ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ 53.3 37.5
NF ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 33.3 0
Disgus
A ~ ~ - - 26.67 50
DF ~ ~ - - 26.67 50
TF ~ ~ - - 20 66.7
NF ~ ~ - 20 33.3
Su p ise
A 0 0
DF 0 0
TF -6.67 100
NF 0 0
Pain
A - 6.67 100
DF -6.67 100
TF 0 0
NF 0 0
Neu al
A - ~ ~ - ~ - ~ - - - - ~ 80 58.3
DF -~~~~ ~~- -~~~~86.7 23.1
TF - ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ 53.3 37.5
NF ~ ~ ~ - 26.7 25
No e. - : Di icul ies wi h espec o he pee s; ~ : No associa ion. A: Accu acy in emo ion ecogni ion; DF: Du a ion o ixa ions o he eye a ea; TF:
Time o i s ixa ion on he eye a ea ( eac ion ime); NF: Numbe o ixa ions.
Mo eno-Albala & Sánchez-Jiménez Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion
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2020; Ky anides e al., 2020; Le an ini e al., 2022; Le an ini
e al., 2023). This de ici was ela ed o high CU le el when
he gaze was no ixed on he eye a ea. Thus, in 37.68% o he
cases in which bo h indica o s we e s udied, he accu acy in
emo ion ecogni ion was lowe when he du a ion o he ixa-
ions on he eye a ea was sho e han ha o he popula ion wi h
ypical de elopmen . This associa ion was mo e ele an when
he s imuli we e s a ic, whe eas when hese we e p esen ed in a
dynamic manne , he pe o mance o he pa icipan s imp o ed
signi ican ly (Bed o d e al., 2021; Ma in-Key e al., 2018).
The e ec s o gende and age ha e been analyzed in some
o he s udies, wi h 53.33% o he s udies using popula ions o
he same educa ional s age (p ima y o seconda y educa ion),
al hough no signi ican di e ences we e ound in he esul s
when age was adjus ed as a co a iable (Ai d ie e al., 2018;
Ca e Leno e al., 2021; 2023; Cen i an i e al., 2021; Dadds
e al., 2008; Deme iou & Fan i, 2022; Ha mann & Schwenck,
2020). The emaining 46.67% did include popula ions o di e -
en s ages, simila ly inding no di e ences when he e ec o
age was adjus ed as a co a iable. Compa isons by age g oups
we e no analyzed.
Fo gende , he s udies wi h c oss-gende samples did no
epo g ea e di icul ies as a unc ion o gende (e. g., Deme-
iou & Fan i, 2022; Menks e al., 2021). Only wo s udies (Ha -
mann & Schwenck, 2020; Ma in-Key e al., 2018) s a ed ha
gi ls showed highe le els o isual p e e ence han boys, ha
is, hey showed be e eye-p e e ence le els han boys.
Discussion
Resea ch is cu en ly inc easing in he ield o emo ion ec-
ogni ion in child en and adolescen s wi h psychopa hic ai s.
Eye- acking echniques a e gene a ing new ad ances on his
opic. Howe e , ew s udies use hese echnologies; hey a e
ocused solely on popula ions wi h high CU le els, and CU is
usually e alua ed along wi h o he como bid diso de s. Wi h he
aim o uni ying he in o ma ion abou his opic, his sys ema ic
e iew analyzed he di icul ies in he ecogni ion o p ima y
emo ions in child en and adolescen s wi h CU in s udies ha
used eye- acking.
Rega ding emo ion ecogni ion, he esul s o his e iew
indica e ha child en and adolescen s wi h CU ha e di icul-
ies in ecognizing nega i e emo ions, especially hose o ea ,
ange , and sadness. The analysis o posi i e emo ions was less
equen , wi h happiness being he mos s udied emo ion (86.6%
o he s udies), whe e he esul s showed ha hese child en
p esen di icul ies in o e 50% o he s udies. These wo ks
used clinical samples (e. g., Ca e Leno e al., 2023; Le an-
ini e al., 2023) and communi y samples (Deme iou & Fan i,
2022; Ky anides, e al., 2020) o di e en ages, hus i canno be
concluded whe he he p esence o como bidi y o he di e en
age o he sample may be mode a ing he esul s. The e o e, he
esul s o his s udy do no p o ide accu a e conclusions ega d-
ing happiness emo ion ecogni ion.
The use o eye- acking allowed ex ac ing esul s abou he
du a ion o ixa ions, which is a ele an indica o o a en ional
ocus. In a leas hal o he s udies, high CU was associa ed
wi h lowe ixa ion on he eye a ea compa ed o o he a eas,
such as he mou h, and wi h espec o compa ison g oups. This
endency was no associa ed wi h speci ic emo ions. Acco d-
ing o Blai e al. (2001), he di icul y in ocusing he a en ion
on he impo an elemen s would hinde emo ion ecogni ion
and i could esul in he inac i a ion o inhibi o y mechanisms
such as ha o agg essi e beha io . This could lead o g ea e
iolence p oblems, and e en o an isocial and psychopa hic dis-
o de s (Hal y & Cape os, 2023). A his poin , i is ele an o
highligh he need o del ing in o he s udy o pain, gi en i s
salience in explaining he beha io o hese child en and adoles-
cen s acco ding o he dis ess-speci ic hypo hesis. The s udy o
Ky anides e al. (2020) ound a clea di icul y in he accu acy
o ecogni ion and in he du a ion o gaze ixa ion on he eye
a ea in his emo ion, which, acco ding o Wol and Cen i an i
(2014), could be due o a con usion wi h displeasu e. Tha is,
young people wi h high CU le els would pe cei e ha hei
pee s a e ejec ing hem when hey ac ually eel pain, which
could explain hei agg essi e o e en bullying beha io .
In gene al, he analyzed s udies indica e ha he di icul-
ies o a en ional ocus lie in he abo emen ioned p oblems,
al hough nei he in all s udies no in all he analyzed emo ions,
hus u he esea ch is equi ed o p o ide mo e solid e i-
dence on he implica ion o his p ocess in emo ion ecogni-
ion. The e o e, and al hough no conclusi ely, hese esul s a e
a he in line wi h he dis ess hypo hesis (Blai , 1995), which
sugges s ha g ea e di icul ies would be in nega i e emo ions.
In his sense, u he esea ch on pain would allow ad ancing
in his in e p e a i e model. Likewise, i is wo h poin ing ou
he absence o s udies ha analyzed he ecogni ion o mo al
emo ions, such as guil o shame, gi en hei in luence on he
egula ion o adjus men and social beha io (Sánchez-Jiménez
e al., 2012), hus u u e s udies could ad ance in his esea ch
line.
Limi a ions, new esea ch lines and p ac ical implica ions
The esul s o his wo k open new esea ch and in e en ion
lines abou hese di icul ies. Thus, some s udies iden i ied ha
dynamic s imuli a e easie o pa icipan s, which indica es ha
hese child en and adolescen s equi e mo e con ex ual keys o
iden i y emo ions in o he s (Bed o d e al., 2021; Ca e Leno
e al., 2023). On he o he hand, o he s udies ha e shown ha
longe ime spen looking in he eye and he use o explici
ins uc ion ha edi ec s he gaze o he pa icipan s o he eye
a ea signi ican ly imp o e he accu acy o emo ion ecogni ion
in s a ic s imuli (Cen i an i e al., 2021). Fu u e s udies could
es he e icacy o hese in e en ions.
Ne e heless, his s udy p esen s impo an limi a ions
ha mus be aken in o accoun when gene alizing he esul s
ega ding he e ec o CU on he di icul ies o emo ion ec-
ogni ion. On he one hand, he e ec s o gende and age we e
no sys ema ically analyzed in any o he s udies included in
his e iew. As was p e iously men ioned, no all s udies had
an age in e al ha allowed o he analysis o de elopmen al
Mo eno-Albala & Sánchez-Jiménez Psychology, Socie y & Educa ion
77
di e ences in he pa icipan s wi h CU (Bed o d e al., 2021;
Billeci e al., 2019; Bou s e al., 2018; Ky anides e al., 2020;
Le an ini e al., 2022; Le an ini e al., 2023; Ma in-Key e al.,
2018; Menks e al., 2021). In o he s udies, he e ec o age was
adjus ed as a co a iable, wi hou p o iding conclusi e esul s in
his sense (Ai d ie e al., 2018; Ca e Leno e al., 2021; Dem-
e iou & Fan i, 2022; Ha mann & Schwenck, 2020), hus i is
no possible o d aw accu a e conclusions. Ano he limi a ion is
ela ed o he di e si y o he popula ions used by he included
s udies, which hinde s he compa abili y o he esul s. Some
s udies used communi y samples, whe eas o he s employed
clinical samples, such as pa icipan s wi h ASD (Bou s a al.,
2018; Ca e Leno e al., 2021; Ca e Leno e al., 2023; Cen i-
an i e al., 2021), ADHD (Ai d ie e al., 2018; Cen i an i e al.,
2021; Le an ini e al., 2022; Le an ini e al., 2023; Menks a al.,
2021), o CD (Ai d ie e al., 2018; Billeci e al., 2019; Bou s a
al., 2018; Cen i an i e al., 2021; Ha mann & Schwenck, 2020;
Le an ini e al., 2022; Le an ini e al., 2023; Ma in-Key e
al., 2018; Menks a al., 2021). This di e si y in he pa icipan s
aises he ques ion o whe he he di icul ies ound a e due o
he p esence o he ai , he como bid diso de , o bo h. This
esea ch ques ion has no been es ed in all s udies, hus i is di -
icul o d aw a conclusion in his ega d. Fo ins ance, Billeci
e al. (2019) epo ed ha high CU le els we e di ec ly associ-
a ed wi h he di icul ies in ecognizing sadness, e en adjus ing
o he p esence o ex e nalizing p oblems and he p esence o
absence o CD diagnosis. On he con a y, Bou s e al. (2018)
could no es ablish ha high CU le els alone explain he di -
icul ies in ecognizing ea and neu al acial exp essions. A
simila conclusion was d awn by Ha mann and Schwenck
(2020), who ound ha he in e ac ion be ween high CU le els
and g ea ex e nalizing p oblems explained he e o s in ecog-
nizing ange , whe eas high CU le els and low le els o ex e -
nalizing p oblems explained a slowe p ocessing o emo ional
in o ma ion, which was associa ed wi h lowe a en ion o he
eye a ea. As is poin ed ou by hese and o he au ho s, i may
be necessa y o explo e he o e lapping o ai s in o de o ind
he explana ion o he di icul ies ha hese child en and ado-
lescen s p esen in emo ion ecogni ion, a he han sepa a ely
conside ing he cha ac e iza ion o he di e en diso de s.
Fu he mo e, al hough hese s udies pose a ele an con-
ibu ion o explaining he a en ional mechanisms unde lying
he di icul ies in he emo ion ecogni ion o hese child en and
adolescen s, mos o hese wo ks a e c oss-sec ional s udies and
do no p o ide in o ma ion abou he an eceden s ha explain
hei de elopmen and e olu ion. In his espec , he analysis o
he in luence o amily in e ac ion pa e ns as de elopmen al
an eceden s o he ea ly onse o hese a ypical elemen s could
help o iden i y and p e en u u e beha io al p oblems du -
ing de elopmen . Fo example, Bed o d e al. (2017) ollowed
he pa e ns o gaze in he mo he -child in e ac ion, ma e nal
sensi i i y, emo ion ecogni ion, and CU le els in he child en
h oughou se en yea s. The esul s showed ha he gaze pa -
e ns in he mo he -child in e ac ion a six mon hs p edic ed
he p esence o CU a se en yea s when he le els o ma e nal
sensi i i y we e low. These esul s sugges he need o inco po-
a e o he a iables, speci ically hose ela ed o he quali y o
amily dynamics, in o de o unde s and he con ex in which
CU is de eloped, gi en i s ele ance o he in e en ion wi h
his popula ion.
Au ho con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion: M.I.M.A., V.S.
Fo mal analysis: M.I.M.A.
Me hodology: M.I.M.A., V.S.
Supe ision: V.S.
W i ing – O iginal D a : M.I.M.A.
W i ing – Re iew & Edi ing: M.I.M.A., V.S.
Funding
This s udy has been de eloped hanks o he g an
PID2020-115729RB-I00 unded by Spanish MICIU/
AEI/10.13039/501100011033.
Decla a ion o in e es s
The au ho s decla e ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
Da a sha ing no applicable o his a icle as no da ase s
we e gene a ed o analysed du ing he cu en s udy.
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