Ci a ion: Ch omjako a, F. P oduc ion
Planning P ocess Based on he Wo k
Psychology o a Collabo a i e
Wo kplace wi h Humans and Robo s.
Machines 2023,11, 160.
h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/machines11020160
Academic Edi o s: Raul
D.S.G. Campilho and F ancisco J.
G. Sil a
Recei ed: 10 Decembe 2022
Re ised: 17 Janua y 2023
Accep ed: 18 Janua y 2023
Published: 23 Janua y 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho .
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
machines
A icle
P oduc ion Planning P ocess Based on he Wo k Psychology
o a Collabo a i e Wo kplace wi h Humans and Robo s
Felici a Ch omjako a
Depa men o Indus ial Enginee ing and In o ma ion Sys ems, Facul y o Managemen and Economics,
Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, Mos ní5139, 76001 Zlín, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
This s udy ocuses on disce ning how economics, as i pe ains o wo k psychology, is
len a new pe spec i e by he compa ibili y o humans and obo s coope a ing in he manu ac u ing
sec o . The s abili y o p oduc ion plans, lexibili y o he o ganiza ions, and he managemen o
p oduc ion cons i u e he basis o such analysis. In his con ex , ini ial indings e ealed ha s eady
pe o mance by an indi idual was signi ican ly in luenced by a p oduc ion plan, while he cycle and
lead imes in place undamen ally a ec ed he beha iou o employees. Obse a ions we e made
o e i e yea s o 200 wo ke s a 100 manu ac u e s. Times gi en o e o ope a ions and cycles, and
h oughpu , we e p ima ily de ined by he echnical cycle o he obo . The seconda y elemen o
p oduc ion planning was he employee, whose ope a o cycle ime was in o med by ha o he obo .
The au ho s se ou o deduce which key ac o s al e ed he wo k psychology in si u in manu ac u ing
en i onmen s whe e collabo a ion occu ed be ween humans and obo s. P e equisi es o op imal
psychological condi ions we e iden i ied ( he coope a ing human, p oduc ion planne , collabo a i e
wo kplace, s anda dized du a ions o comple e asks, dis ance be ween he wo ke and obo , and
da a analy ics o p oduc ion low). Ensu ing ci cums ances a e op imal in e ms o wo k psychology
is essen ial o aising p oduc i i y and employee pe o mance. Resul s showed ha he ope a o
was di ec ly dependen on he obo in ela ion o mu ual, con inuous p oduc ion low. A model
o p oduc ion plan s abili y was de ised, in o med by he dependence o speci ic pa ame e s o
he planning model. Resea ch was conduc ed on he eliance o selec ed pa ame e s, leading o
es ablishmen o p e equisi es o an op imal wo k psychology se ing in en e p ises wi h such a
collabo a i e s uc u e.
Keywo ds: Indus y 4.0; human–cobo in e ac ion; job; psychology; p ocess
1. In oduc ion
Fundamen al o he ma e is ensu ing he psychological balance o a pe son in his kind
o collabo a i e wo kplace. P oduc ion planne s make a se ies o ade-o s in schedules
e e y day in he pu sui o maximum p oduc ion capaci y. A obo in ended o such an
en i onmen mus be highly e icien in ega ds o p oduc i i y wi h minimal isk o ailu e.
In his con ex , de e mining an op imal p oduc ion schedule equi es aking he physical and
psychological capabili ies o he wo ke collabo a ing wi h he obo in o conside a ion.
A key p e equisi e o op imal manu ac u ing pe o mance is ha ing a s able p oduc ion
p ocess, in eg a ed wi h Ope a o 4.0. Ope a o 4.0 is a sma and skilled ope a o who
pe o ms no only ‘coope a i e wo k’ wi h obo s, bu also ‘wo k aided’ by machines as
and i needed, using human cybe physical sys ems, ad anced human–machine in e ac ion
echnologies, and adap i e au oma ion owa ds ‘human-au oma ion symbiosis wo k sys ems’.
Wi hin he se ing o a human and a obo being di ec ly pa o he collabo a i e wo kplace,
a pa adigm shi occu s in how such a collabo a i e en i onmen is se up. A adi ional
app oach unc ions in line wi h he de i ed a angemen o machine and human ope a ions,
while a digi ally con olled sys em is scheduled acco ding o he cycle ime o he obo and
he managed echnology. Howe e , in elligen p oduc ion demands a signi ican al e a ion
Machines 2023,11, 160. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/machines11020160 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/machines
Machines 2023,11, 160 2 o 14
be made in e ms o he psychology o he wo ke , since human–human and obo –human
ela ionships change when a obo possesses an equal collegial posi ion as a wo ke .
Tho ald e al. [
1
] iden i y a ‘collabo a i e ope a o ’ as a human coope a ing wi h
collabo a i e obo s (cobo s). This coope a ion is based on coexis ence in a sha ed physical
space be ween wo agen s: human and cobo . The Cogni i e Ope a o 4.0 ep esen s
knowledge and cogni i e in e ac ions in which i exchanges p ocess in o ma ion wi h he
help o echnologies o symbio ically pe o m a ask. I is an impo an pa o p ocess
managemen by collabo a i e wo kplace he ela ionship be ween wo kload and wo ke s’
si ua ion awa eness [
2
]. A kin [
3
] de ines si ua ion awa eness as he abili y o sma
agen s (bo h humans and a i icial) o unde s and wha is happening in he su ounding
en i onmen . Based on he Endsley de ini ion [
4
], he human-decision-making p ocess
depends on comp ehension o a human meaning and he p ojec ion o hei s a us in he
nea u u e. Ou esea ch, conduc ed in 100 manu ac u ing companies, con i med ha as
long as a pe son has expe ience in a gi en wo kplace, i is impo an o ans o m his in o
he ope a ional s anda ds o he wo kplace, and, a he same ime, sha e his expe ience
in he eam o colleagues (cobo is he colleague, obo p ocess, and ope a ion s anda d
imp o emen ). This signi ican ly helps educe s ess be o e and du ing he implemen a ion
o collabo a i e coope a ion. We called his momen ‘p edic i e esponse abili y’ and he
co e con en will be analysed in he upcoming mon hs.
The p ocess o p oduc ion planning and scheduling equi es lexibili y om a human
pe spec i e, in addi ion o which adhe ing o a plan mus cons i u e a p io i y and he gene al
app oach emain lexible [
5
]. When p oduc ion lows smoo hly and in acco dance wi h he
plan, he psychological bu den on he employee is no mal. This balance is upse by any
ou ages ha a ec a wo k shi . A se ious issue a ises i a obo has o wai o he inpu o
ou pu o a human, heigh ening he psychological demands placed on he la e . A numbe
o sys em-o ien ed connec ions pe ain o maximal coope a ion be ween a human and cobo
(a “collabo a i e obo ”) wi hin a collabo a i e wo k en i onmen [
6
], as cu en ly being
in es iga ed by mo e han 100 SMEs (in he au omo i e sec o ); u he desc ip ion o he
ma e is gi en in his pape .
P oduc ion planning and scheduling based on digi ally con olled p ocesses ha e
a ec ed he psychology o human labou . P ocedu es go e ned elec onically a e man-
aged by so wa e (“SW”, by a “digi al manage ”, as de ined la e ); hence, people eac
exclusi ely o he p omp s p o ided by he con olling SW. Indus ial en e p ises ha e
been endea ou ing o ind a sui able me hod o combining such echnology wi h lean
p oduc ion ac i i ies, and he in oduc ion o Indus y 4.0 has inno a ed manu ac u -
ing p ocesses and he use o equipmen [
7
]. In ac , sma echnologies ha e b ough
abou imp o emen in p oduc ion- ela ed pe o mance by a o ding eal- ime assessmen
o i [
8
]. The basis o elec onic managemen o planning and scheduling in manu ac u ing
is knowledge o in e ela ionships be ween he pa ame e s o p ocedu es. Each ac i i y
has i s own speci ic a iable and in e al ange, and i is impo an o collec da a on
ongoing ope a ions, wi h subsequen analysis e ealing he dependencies o such a iables
in p ocesses. Pe o mance in his con ex di ec ly depends on he po en ial o achie e
ull capaci y by he human, obo , and gi en echnology. Assessing he e ec i eness o a
pe son is now possible in eal ime, as is he e alua ion o ha o he obo and, maybe,
he ad anced p oduc ion echnology in place. Though i has been obse ed ha a obo
pe o ms wo k consis en ly a a planned a e, pe o mance in his ega d by an employee
will occasionally diminish o a ious easons. The equi emen o p o ide com o able
condi ions o hem is c ucial in ela ion o he aspec o wo k psychology, since wo ke s
equen ly expe ience s ess and us a ion s emming om hei pe o mance o asks.
F om his poin o iew, i is necessa y o concen a e on planned and online da a ga he ed
om he wo kplace, wi h analysis making i possible o p edic how he wo ke shall
beha e as pe he manu ac u ing schedule. S a is ical analysis o p oduc ion p ocesses
shows ha he abili y o manage da a om sma p ocesses pe mi s ans o ma ion o hem
in o di ec i es o co ec managemen o employees.
Machines 2023,11, 160 3 o 14
A wo kplace wi h collabo a i e p oduc ion is ypically one whe e wo ke s a e o ced
o concen a e g ea ly in coope a ion wi h obo s. P ac ical expe ience and knowledge
o a ious ope a ional si ua ions ha ake place ou inely a e c i ical, because employees
unde ake du ies which hey ac i ely con ol and conduc epea edly. In con as , he obo
is subo dina e o he lead ime designa ed o i wi h p ecisely se cycle du a ions. The
psychological di icul y o human– obo coope a ion could e en ually esul in us a ion
amongs wo ke s; o example, in he e en o an in olun a y delay in en e ing a p oduc ion-
ela ed eques , o should he obo be ahead and ecei e wo k la e, leading o i ou pacing
he I/O o i s human co-wo ke [
9
]. Dis up ions in p oduc ion low on he pa o he
wo ke migh also occu . A way o a oiding issues like hese would be o schedule de ined
down imes in he ac i i y o wo ke s, hen adap he cycle ime o he obo acco dingly.
2. Theo e ical Re iew
Recen ly, he e has been an inc eased in e es in conduc ing esea ch on wo k psy-
chology. Fac o s, such as equen u no e o s a , ins abili y in wo k posi ions, a ise
in he coe icien o absen eeism, and an inc ease in occupa ional diseases, a e behind he
end. One ool ha acili a es da a analysis o coope a ion in a collabo a i e human– obo
en i onmen is dubbed “p ocess mapping”, which in ol es ob aining con inuous in o -
ma ion on a gumen s a ec ing he psychological well-being o wo ke s a a p oduc ion
acili y [
10
]. In es iga ion has ocused on de ining he pe o mance o s a , i.e., pa ame e s
o quan i ying and quali ying human pe o mance, hough wo k psychology was consid-
e ed by he gi en au ho as la gely igno ed [
11
]; esul s he ein showed ha e icien wo k
sys ems di ec ly co ela ed wi h he psychological s a e o s a . A e in [
12
] s a ed ha a
psychologically posi i e manu ac u ing en i onmen di ec ly in luenced he pe o mance
o employees. The li e a u e also epo s ha o ganiza ion o wo k p ac ices h ough
a ge ed psychological measu es a ec s such pe o mance, while Amo [
13
] w o e ha he
la e could be managed by applying wo k psychology as a basic mechanism. Elsewhe e,
p ope o ien a ion o wo k psychology b ough abou bene i s in psychological capi al and
job pe o mance, wi h an associa ed educ ion in epo s o bu nou [14].
The cu en ecession, economic luc ua ions and ci cums ances ela ing o he COVID-
19 pandemic ha e highligh ed how impo an i is o conside he psychological aspec s o
collabo a i e wo k, a cons i uen pa o he apidly g owing end o Indus y 4.0 [
15
]. Two
key concep s exis in psychology, hose o he “digi al wo ke ”, and he “digi ally con olled
wo ke ” (he eina e e e ed o as “DW” and “DCW”, espec i ely). A digi al wo ke is
a so wa e-con olled obo o machine di ec ed in i s ope a ions by elemen s o a i icial
in elligence, whe eas a digi ally con olled wo ke is a pe son who does asks s ic ly in
acco dance wi h p omp s gi en by so wa e. Such an employee in an en i onmen o
collabo a i e p oduc ion becomes bo h an ini ia o o e hics and wo k s anda ds, and a use
o hem [
16
]. The digi iza ion o wo k b ings people and echnology e e close , enabling
s a o implemen ela ed ope a ions and oice hei opinions in he en e p ise. Mo eo e ,
i acili a es he managemen and con ol o du ies pe o med emo ely (e.g., a home), and
aids employees in pu sui o hei jobs and esponsibili ies. In essence, he DW ac s as he
p ima y suppo mechanism o he DCW. This ad ancemen has encou aged in es iga ion
o psychology o wo k wi h espec o imp o ing manu ac u ing p ocesses and inno a ing
associa ed echnologies [17]. A s able p ocess me hodology is equi ed o enable his, and
he a io o he DW o DCW de e mines he ounda ion upon which he consequen wo k
psychology is based. An analysis o 100 indus ial companies in he au omo i e sec o
e ealed ha he mo e he DW p e ails o e he DCW, he g ea e he amoun o a en ion
ha has o be paid o he manual labou o s a and o ganiza ion o hei du ies; hus,
conside a ion is necessa y as o how compa ible he compe ence o a pe son (know-how
and skills) ela ing o digi al echnologies is wi h he gi en p oduc ion p ocess [18].
The analysis and moni o ing o humans in eg a ed in o collabo a i e wo kshop op-
e a ions b ough in o ma ion abou he changes in wo ke s ha occu in a egula wo k
shi in a collabo a i e wo kplace (human– obo combina ion). Be o e he de ini ion o
Machines 2023,11, 160 4 o 14
he pa ame e s was in es iga ed, he analysis o he p oduc ion shi plan by 200 selec ed
ope a o s was pe o med (Figu e 1).
Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 15
u ing p ocesses and inno a ing associa ed echnologies [17]. A s able p ocess me hodol-
ogy is equi ed o enable his, and he a io o he DW o DCW de e mines he ounda ion
upon which he consequen wo k psychology is based. An analysis o 100 indus ial com-
panies in he au omo i e sec o e ealed ha he mo e he DW p e ails o e he DCW,
he g ea e he amoun o a en ion ha has o be paid o he manual labou o s a and
o ganiza ion o hei du ies; hus, conside a ion is necessa y as o how compa ible he
compe ence o a pe son (know-how and skills) ela ing o digi al echnologies is wi h he
gi en p oduc ion p ocess [18].
The analysis and moni o ing o humans in eg a ed in o collabo a i e wo kshop op-
e a ions b ough in o ma ion abou he changes in wo ke s ha occu in a egula wo k
shi in a collabo a i e wo kplace (human– obo combina ion). Be o e he de ini ion o he
pa ame e s was in es iga ed, he analysis o he p oduc ion shi plan by 200 selec ed op-
e a o s was pe o med (Figu e 1).
Figu e 1.
Mu ual ela ionships in he collabo a i e wo kplace “human-cobo ” (sou ce: au ho ).
The pa ame e s o ‘human–cobo collabo a ion’ we e iden i ied in collabo a i e as-
sembly wo kplaces. Based on he p ocess and e gonomic analysis, he selec ed wo kplaces
we e iden i ied. The selec ion p ocess was de e mined by he equency o he ope a ion,
he empo al s abili y o he ope a ion in he gi en wo kload, and he wo kplace p ocess
quali y. Con inui y wi h he obo was also impo an . He ein, in o ma ion was gained
om conduc ing analysis and ield esea ch o people pe o ming ope a ions wi hin a col-
labo a i e en i onmen , speci ically hose on a egula shi a a wo kplace sha ed by hu-
mans and obo s. The ollowing pa ame e s we e unde s udy: The ollowing pa ame e s
we e in es iga ed he e:
• he physical load on a s a ;
• he psychological s ess o a pe son;
• he s abili y o a pe son’s wo k low;
• he o a ion o employees ac oss a ious wo kplaces;
• echnologically (digi ized) assis ed moni o ing o he pe o mance o indi iduals;
• he lexibili y o wo ke s wi h ega d o down ime in p oduc ion;
• he p opo ion o ope a ions unde aken by digi al echnologies and employees.
The ollowing p ocess-o ien ed assump ions o op imal wo k psychology by collab-
o a i e wo kplace we e iden i ied:
• lexibili y o he employee (se ings o ensu e a sui able wo kplace and p oduc ion
low in eal ime);
• p oduc i i y o he employee (con lic - ee, con inuous pe o mance o ope a ions
wi h ega d o he capaci y o he obo );
• se , s anda dized inpu s o p ocesses and manu ac u ing ope a ions o pe mi ul il-
men o du ies by he employee;
• online moni o ing o da a o aid he o ganiza ion and managemen o p oduc ion;
Figu e 1. Mu ual ela ionships in he collabo a i e wo kplace “human-cobo ” (sou ce: au ho ).
The pa ame e s o ‘human–cobo collabo a ion’ we e iden i ied in collabo a i e as-
sembly wo kplaces. Based on he p ocess and e gonomic analysis, he selec ed wo kplaces
we e iden i ied. The selec ion p ocess was de e mined by he equency o he ope a ion,
he empo al s abili y o he ope a ion in he gi en wo kload, and he wo kplace p ocess
quali y. Con inui y wi h he obo was also impo an . He ein, in o ma ion was gained
om conduc ing analysis and ield esea ch o people pe o ming ope a ions wi hin a
collabo a i e en i onmen , speci ically hose on a egula shi a a wo kplace sha ed by
humans and obo s. The ollowing pa ame e s we e unde s udy: The ollowing pa ame e s
we e in es iga ed he e:
• he physical load on a s a ;
• he psychological s ess o a pe son;
• he s abili y o a pe son’s wo k low;
• he o a ion o employees ac oss a ious wo kplaces;
• echnologically (digi ized) assis ed moni o ing o he pe o mance o indi iduals;
• he lexibili y o wo ke s wi h ega d o down ime in p oduc ion;
• he p opo ion o ope a ions unde aken by digi al echnologies and employees.
The ollowing p ocess-o ien ed assump ions o op imal wo k psychology by collabo-
a i e wo kplace we e iden i ied:
•
lexibili y o he employee (se ings o ensu e a sui able wo kplace and p oduc ion
low in eal ime);
•
p oduc i i y o he employee (con lic - ee, con inuous pe o mance o ope a ions
wi h ega d o he capaci y o he obo );
•
se , s anda dized inpu s o p ocesses and manu ac u ing ope a ions o pe mi ul il-
men o du ies by he employee;
•online moni o ing o da a o aid he o ganiza ion and managemen o p oduc ion;
•
ho izon al and e ical in eg a ion o p ocess da a, se ing IDs o coded p ocess ac ions
linked o he ins iga o o an ac ion (employee, machine, obo ,
in o ma ion, e c.).
Subsequen ly, he mu ual co ela ion o he pa ame e s ‘human–cobo collabo a ion’
and assump ions o ien ed o he collabo a i e p ocess was in es iga ed (Table 1).
Machines 2023,11, 160 5 o 14
Table 1.
Mu ual co ela ion o human–cobo collabo a ion pa ame e s and collabo a i e p ocess-
o ien ed assump ions (sou ce: own esea ch).
P ocess O ien ed Assump ions o Wo k Psychology
Human–Cobo Collabo a ion Pa ame e s Man
Flexibili y
Man P o-
duc i i y
S able
S anda d-
isa ion
Online
Da a
Moni o -
ing
P ocess
Da a
In eg a ion
physical load on a pe son a wo k 27 M
12 W 120 M
12 W 56 M
9 W 137 M
63 W 7 M
12 W
psychological s ess o a pe son 97 M
43 W 121 M
56 W 95 M
8 W 127 M
45 W 78 M
53 W
he s abili y o a pe son’s wo k low 132 M
63 W 137 M
64 W
137 M
63 W 127 M
61 W 112 M
63 W
wo ke o a ion ac oss mul iple wo kplaces 109 M
57 W 127 M
48 W 37 M
24 W 137 M
62 W
127 M
54 W
digi ally se moni o ing o a pe son’s wo k
pe o mance 126 M
58 W 137 M
660 W
45 M
27 W 135 M
58 W 111 M
52 W
wo ke lexibili y due o p oduc ion p ocess
down ime 137 M
58 W
110 M
57 W 127 M
56 W 135 M
57 W
97 M
46 W
sha e o digi al and human-d i en
p oduc ion ac i i ies 116 M
35 W 87 M
54 W 12 M
16 W 35 M
23 W 7 M
13 W
Resea ch was conduc ed on a sample o 200 ope a o s. O hese, 137 we e men (M)
and 63 women (W). Each ope a o was moni o ed 30 imes o objec i ely assess he s a ic
o dynamic load du ing he job execu ion. Each ow con ains he esul ing alue o he
numbe o ope a o s who had a psychological/s ess p oblem du ing dynamic changes
ha we e ela ed o andom si ua ions a he gi en wo kplace and a he gi en momen o
he ope a ion.
O e all, he employees o manu ac u ing companies became expe s a new p oduc-
ion echnologies and gained expe ience om digi ally con olled p oduc ion. Should
echnical con lic s a ise, hey ha e he op ion o discuss and esol e he si ua ion wi h a
colleague o a digi al manage . Nume ous companies a e aining employees o adop a
sui able digi al and echnological pe spec i e.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods—Resea ch Limi a ions
Based on he s abili y model o he wo k shi schedule, iden i ica ion was made as
o p e equisi es o wo k psychology and s anda dized de ini ions o ope a ions a he
collabo a i e wo kplace we e de e mined.
Wi h a digi ized p ocess a i s co e, he concep desc ibed he ein encompasses he
aspec s o he employee, obo , and digi al echnology; he low o da a is con olled by a SW
algo i hm. Key suppo a iables pe ain o he ex en o digi al li e acy on he pa o he
employee and obo , al hough hey ob iously di e widely in ac ual con en and p ocedu e,
and in ela ion o applicable wo k psychology. Cobo s a e designed o be mo e akin o
co-wo ke s han me e ools, and luen in e ac ion be ween ope a o s and hei obo ic
coun e pa s is c i ical o he “ ask and high pe o mance” o he o me [
19
]. Impo an
ace s include echnological ac o s (e.g., occupa ional sa e y), app op ia e con igu a ion o
he cobo , employee-cen ed ma e s (e.g., ea o edundancy), and gaining an app op ia e
le el o us wi h he obo [
20
]. In he con ex o wo k psychology, he link be ween
e iciency and employee sa is ac ion is c ucial, since i ep esen s a unc ion o how much
con ol he wo ke has o e hei ole in he human–cobo manu ac u ing eam [21].
Based on ules o p oduc ion planning and scheduling, he ollowing pilla s o a
collabo a i e en i onmen we e iden i ied:
•
human–cobo coope a ion is di ec ly dependen on he e being su icien s anda dized
p ocesses in place;
•
a p oduc ion planne is able o iden i y key pa ame e s o e hical human–cobo
coope a ion;
•
a s anda dized wo kplace ensu es op imal e hical condi ions o achie e he desi ed
le el o pe o mance om a human–cobo wo k o ce;

Machines 2023,11, 160 6 o 14
•
compliance assessmen s adhe e o he same egula ions o humans and cobo s, wi h
espec o he du ies conduc ed;
•
wo kplace p ocesses and en i onmen s anda ds a e go e ned by p inciples o elimi-
na ing was e and bene i ing om e icacy on he pa o he obo (minimiza ion o
e-was e);
•
all c ucial esponsibili ies o he employee and compe ences o he cobo a e iden i ied
and applied as a basis o s anda diza ion.
The au ho conduc ed in e iews wi h p oduc ion manage s a selec ed indus ial
en e p ises, he p ima y opic being wo k psychology in collabo a i e wo kplaces. The
ollowing pa ame e s we e speci ied in he p oduc ion ope a o ’s esea ch: he ope a o
con ols he communica ion op ions wi h he obo , he obo gi es eedback o he human
abou he pe o mance a he wo kplace, and he human–cobo con lic esolu ion p ocess
is s anda dized. As a pa o empi ical esea ch, we ocused on in-dep h in e iews wi h
assembly ope a o s. Each ope a o had a leas one yea o job expe ience in he gi en
collabo a i e wo kplace. The age s uc u e o he ope a o s was be ween 35 and 52 yea s
old. Empi ical esea ch was conduc ed du ing 2021–2022. To e alua e he esul s, we used
quali a i e esea ch, whe e we iden i ied and in es iga ed he e ec s on wo k psychology
a he ope a o ’s wo kplace. Subsequen ly, we de ined signi ican pa ame e s o he
human–cobo collabo a i e wo kplace h ough a compa a i e analysis om 2 ope a o s,
a minimum, by wo kplace (shi change iew on p oblem). Analysis e ealed ha up
o 86% o he espec i e employees we e a ec ed by psychological s ess s emming om
he p oduc ion p ocess; a c ucial inding in he opinion o he au ho s (Table 2). The
obo , ac ing as a colleague in he collabo a i e p ocess, has he capaci y o ecognize
when an issue a ises ha impac s he psychological s a e o he wo ke du ing human–
cobo coope a ion, and espond o i acco dingly. The e iciency wi h which his kind o
ela ionship unc ions is elian on he men al well-being o he human and hei deg ee
o us in coope a i e endea ou s wi h he obo . These wo aspec s we e seen o be
decisi e in he esea ch conduc ed a indus ial companies. Manu ac u ing p oduc i i y
and e gonomics issues b ough ex ensi e oppo uni ies o cobo sa e y, wo kplace design,
and ask scheduling [22].
Table 2. Analysis o he human–cobo collabo a i e wo kplace (sou ce: own esea ch).
Human–Cobo Wo kplace Analysis: Fac o s A ec ing Wo k Psychology Rela ing o Planning and Scheduling P ac ices
Fac o o Wo k
Psychology
Aspec o
Human–cobo
Coope a ion
(Sha e in %
Labou
Unde aken by
Human and
Robo o a
Planned Task)
Numbe o
Collabo a i e
Wo kspaces
Moni o ed a
200 Selec ed
SMEs
S abili y o he
P oduc ion Plan
in Collabo a i e
wo k (% o
Mu ual, Planned
Tasks
Conduc ed)
Numbe o
Psychological
Con lic s Tha
A ose
be ween he
Human and
Robo
Accep able
Lead Time o
Collabo a i e
Wo kplace (%
o Plan
Comple ed
du ing Ac ual
Lead Time)
Job de ini ion
70/30 134 80 (1–3) (90–95)
40/60 27 60 (6–8) (80–85)
30/70 18 70 (2–3) (90–95)
20/80 17 70 (3–5) (80–85)
10/90 4 90 (2–6) (90–95)
P oduc ion inpu s
(a ailabili y)
90/10 176 90 (8–10) (80–85)
80/20 23 75 (7–12) (85–90)
75/25 1 80 (0–1) (80–85)
Con inuous p oduc ion
low be o e and a e
collabo a i e
endea ou s
80/20 147 80 (5–7) (80–85)
85/15 34 85 (4–6) (90–95)
90/10 17 85 (2–3) (80–85)
95/5 2 90 (0–1) (90–95)
Technological suppo
p o ided by s a
YES 170 95 (2–8) (85–90)
NO 27 80 (15–20) (75–80)
PARTIALL 3 85 (14–17) (80–85)
Commen : To al moni o ed, 200 SMEs—collabo a i e wo kplace; o his, 130 SMEs—s anda dised ules by hyb id
wo kplaces (balanced coope a ion human-cobo ); 180 SMEs—s anda dised human pe o mance in a lexible
p oduc ion ime; 114 SMEs—p oduc ion planning and scheduling o digi ised p ocesses in coope a ion wi h
humans, and acco ding o he e lec ion on he e hical ules based on ac ual shop loo condi ions.
Machines 2023,11, 160 7 o 14
Desc ip i e s a is ics we e gene a ed o de e mine co ela ions be ween he gi en
ac o s o wo k psychology. Analysis o he da a showed ha he p ima y issue a ec ing
p oduc ion planning and scheduling in a collabo a i e en i onmen was he a ailabili y
(i.e., eadiness) o he wo kplace o pe o m asks. When such ci cums ances a e a ou able,
a posi i e physiological s a e (sa is ac ion) p e ails amongs s a . The lead ime o he
employee is dependen on he equency o con inuous p oduc ion low, which co esponds
wi h pe o mance pe shi (in ela ion o lead ime).
The analysis o he collabo a i e en i onmen was conduc ed o e i y he scien i ic
hypo heses below:
Hypo hesis 1 (H1).
The psychological well-being o a pe son di ec ly ela es o a de ined wo k ask.
Hypo hesis 2 (H2).
The p oduc ion plan and associa ed schedule a e condi ioned by a ailabili y a
he collabo a i e wo kplace (in he con ex o achie ing he desi ed le el o pe o mance).
Hypo hesis 3 (H3).
The ime aken o eac o an issue a a collabo a i e wo kplace is a con olled
p ocess.
The ollowing indings we e a i ed a om in es iga ion o he 200 indus ial en e p ises:
H1: 183 SMEs (“yes”), 10 SMEs (“no”), and 7 SMEs (“pa ially”—con lic s a ose h ough
changes in p oduc ion p io i y).
H2: 165 SMEs (“yes”), 29 SMEs (“no”), and 6 SMEs (“pa ially”—con lic s a ose om
p oduc ion s anda ds).
H3: 120 SMEs (“yes”), 22 SMEs (“no”), and 58 SMEs (“pa ially”—con lic s a ose based on
he echnologically ela ed cause o una ailabili y a he collabo a i e wo kplace.
The obo pe o ms and unde akes asks acco ding o p ecisely de ined ins uc ions. I
can con inue in i s du ies wi h adhe ence o he gi en p oduc ion schedule, and has exac ly
de e mined unc ionali y o jobs, in addi ion o which i is able o ope a e in lexible modes
o eac o changes in a angemen s. The employee ep esen s he immedia e co-wo ke
o he obo . Un o eseen ci cums ances may in oke s ess in he wo ke h ough ha ing
o adap o al e a ion in p oduc ion low; hence, possessing a s a e men al eadiness is
c ucial in a collabo a i e en i onmen . Since he concen a ion o he wo ke is a ec ed by
he ac o o a ailabili y (in connec ion wi h asks), a en ion should be paid o how such
asks a e p io i ized. The associa ed lea ning cu e plays an impo an ole, oo, especially
ega ding he applica ion o skill se s o he wo ke o he pe o mance o ope a ions.
4. Resul s
Resea ch was conduc ed in coho comp ising 100 indus ial companies and
200 ope a o s. O hese, 130 we e men (65%) and 70 women (35%). Almos 85% o he
ope a o s had a g adua ed om seconda y school, while 15% possessed a uni e si y quali ica-
ion. The collabo a i e obo s we e p ima ily p oduc s by KUKA, FANUC, and ABB.
The co ela ion o human–cobo collabo a ion pa ame e s and collabo a i e p ocess o i-
en ed assump ions (Table 1) showed ha he key ac o s o wo k psychology a e connec ed
wi h he s abili y o a pe son’s wo k low/man p oduc i i y, wo ke o a ion ac oss mul iple
wo kplaces/online da a moni o ing, digi ally se moni o ing o a pe son’s wo k pe o -
mance/man p oduc i i y, wo ke lexibili y due o p oduc ion p ocess down ime/man
lexibili y, and wo ke lexibili y due o p oduc ion p ocess down ime/online da a moni-
o ing. A c i ical pa ame e o wo k psychology is he s abili y o he wo k p ocess, which
is why he esea ch o collabo a i e wo kplaces was i s ocused on he s abili y o he
p oduc ion shi plan (Figu e 1). Simila a gumen s a e p esen ed in a ious esea ch
pape s, such as [
23
], luen in e ac ion be ween he ope a o s and hei obo ic coun e pa s;
by [
24
], ” esiliency” and “ lexibili y” capabili ies o humans; o by [
25
], sha ed wo kspace
o human and obo s. Flexibili y, cogni i e skills, and dynamic hinking by humans a e
mos impo an pa ame e s o e ec i e wo k psychology by collabo a i e wo kplaces.
Machines 2023,11, 160 8 o 14
The main objec i e o esea ch was o ob ain da a on wo k psychology in a collabo a-
i e en i onmen , wi h in es iga ion o s a employed in such a acili y in ela ion o he
ollowing pa ame e s (Figu e 1):
1. Amoun o p oduc ion o de s o he human–cobo collabo a o s pe shi (POAhc).
2. Ope a ion lead ime pe shi (OLTs).
3. Cycle ime o he human (CTman).
4. Human-o igina ed b eakdowns (BDman).
5. Reac ion ime o he human–cobo a angemen (RThc).
6. S abili y o he plan o modi ying p oduc ion (Ssp).
7. O e all a ailabili y (capaci y) o p ocess p oduc ion asks (OAC).
The s uc u e o he p oposed indica o s co esponds o he p oduc ion planning
indica o s. Wo kload e iciency is based p ima ily on a s able p oduc ion plan and a
echnologically accep able wo k schedule. The objec i e o he empi ical esea ch was
o de e mine he s abili y o he wo k p ocess in he collabo a i e wo kplace. These
pa ame e s we e chosen as hey a e a cons i uen pa o planning and scheduling. F om
a human poin o iew, a echnological accep able wo k schedule dic a es he s abili y
o a p oduc ion plan, and such a schedule is a p econdi ion o ealizing op imal wo k
psychology in a collabo a i e en i onmen . A o al o 20 epea ed obse a ions we e made
o each employee, he p io i y being o disce n pa ame e s c ucial o hei coope a ion
wi h he obo s, since da a analy ics e ealed ha he la e did no de ia e om he gi en
schedule wi hin he pe iod o a mon h. Only wo companies expe ienced a iance in
pe o mance by he obo h ough unexpec ed down ime, i.e., 3% o hei planned lead
ime (Table 3). On he con a y, he humans showed se e al de ia ions om he planned
p oduc ion ime. The e o e, we in es iga e de ia ions in wo k pe o mance by humans,
which a e ela ed o wo k psychology.
Table 3.
P oduc ion low analysis in a collabo a i e wo kplace: sample analysis and calcula ion o
basic a iables (selec ion) (sou ce: au ho ).
Amoun o
P oduc ion
O de s Ful illed
Collabo a i ely
pe Shi
Lead Time o
Ope a ions pe Shi
Cycle
Time-Human
Human-
O igina ed
B eakdowns
Reac ion
Times
O e all
A ailabili y
o
Realiza ion
o P oduc ion
Tasks
S abili y
o Shi
Plans
POAhc [min] OLTs[min] CTma [min] BDman [min] RThc
[min] OAC [min] Ssp
420 420 12 21 3 1.00
OAC = OLTs−CTma −BDhum −RThc 384 0.91
410 420 9 10 6 0.98
OAC = OLTs−CTma −BDhum −RThc 395 0.96
400 420 4 12 2 0.95
OAC = OLTs−CTma −BDhum −RThc 402 1.01
420 420 3 5 5 1.00
OAC = OLTs−CTma −BDhum −RThc 407 0.97
395 420 7 9 6 0.94
OAC = OLTs−CTma −BDhum −RThc 1.01
The se ing o olume o p oduc ion c ucially a ec s wo k psychology, as a p e eq-
uisi e o his o be op imal is wo kplace s abili y om he pe spec i e o s a ; a e all,
hey ha e all he inpu s necessa y o con inuous pe o mance du ing a shi . I was seen
ha wo k psychology bene i ed om g ea e s abili y (consis ency) in pe o mance as pe
wo k low, and a highe le el o quali y in his espec was obse ed. Table 1illus a es
how such s abili y in a collabo a i e en i onmen was dependen on eac ions gi en o
ins ances o down ime.
POAhc = 420 min OAC 384 min Ssp = 0.91
POAhc = 410 min OAC 395 min Ssp = 0.96
POAhc = 400 min OAC 402 min Ssp = 1.01
POAhc = 420 min OAC 407 min Ssp = 0.97
POAhc = 395 min OAC 398 min Ssp = 1.01
Machines 2023,11, 160 9 o 14
Subsequen a en ion was paid o in e als o pe mi ed limi s o he pa ame e
S
sp
o s abili y. Da a on 200 collabo a i e employees e ealed a dependence in he connec-
ion be ween p oduc i i y (OAC) and a ailable pe o mance (S
sp
). The causes o ins ances
o down ime we e also analysed, highligh ing a co ela ion be ween he human and obo
as pe he imes equi ed o ul il asks. The ins an a mu ual ask commences is key,
and wo k psychology in luences ma e s a his poin wi hin a sequence o collabo a i e,
connec ed s ages ( ime o ini ia ing a ask + ime aken o do a ask + ime o inalizing a
ask). I is impo an o a pe son in such a collabo a i e eam o be si ua ed in on o he
obo o pe o m du ies behind i wi hin a clea ly de ined ime ame.
The collabo a i e obo has he abili y o spo when a p oblem will occu , and send a
p e-emp i e signal o he ope a o , ollowed by a ecommenda ion on ec i ying i , he eby
lending psychological suppo o he pe son. Wo k psychology is a ec ed by a ious
si ua ions in ol ing he ope a o :
-
s a may in ui i ely eac and decide o ackle an issue wi h ega d o hei physical
and psychological sa e y, po en ially con lic ing wi h p ocess managemen ;
-
he ope a o ollows ecommenda ions gi en by he obo , diminishing hei emo ional
s a e, and inc easing he chance o e o s being made in decision-making and du ies;
-
he employee chooses o sol e a ma e in hei way, based on pe sonal expe ience,
a he han aking he ad ice o he cobo , and he human could eel a sense o
accomplishmen o disappoin men in subsequen pe o mance.
In addi ion o planning and scheduling, achie ing a s a e o wo k psychology is
elian on solid p epa a ion o all a ibu es in ol ed in manage ial p ocesses (Figu e 2).
Impo an elemen s ela ing o p oduc ion low ha a ec he psychological well-being
o s a include he ypes o componen s inco po a ed in p oduc s, assembly ole ances,
and ime cons ain s o ese ing machine y, and p epa a o y o inal ope a ions. These
undamen ally impac he p oduc i i y o s a and place emphasis on pe o mance. In he
con ex o an assembly line, o example, he employee is expec ed o unc ion wi h a high
deg ee o lexibili y, p io i izing i o e he aspec o ime.
Machines 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 15
- he ope a o ollows ecommenda ions gi en by he obo , diminishing hei emo-
ional s a e, and inc easing he chance o e o s being made in decision-making and
du ies;
- he employee chooses o sol e a ma e in hei way, based on pe sonal expe ience,
a he han aking he ad ice o he cobo , and he human could eel a sense o ac-
complishmen o disappoin men in subsequen pe o mance.
In addi ion o planning and scheduling, achie ing a s a e o wo k psychology is eli-
an on solid p epa a ion o all a ibu es in ol ed in manage ial p ocesses (Figu e 2). Im-
po an elemen s ela ing o p oduc ion low ha a ec he psychological well-being o
s a include he ypes o componen s inco po a ed in p oduc s, assembly ole ances, and
ime cons ain s o ese ing machine y, and p epa a o y o inal ope a ions. These un-
damen ally impac he p oduc i i y o s a and place emphasis on pe o mance. In he
con ex o an assembly line, o example, he employee is expec ed o unc ion wi h a high
deg ee o lexibili y, p io i izing i o e he aspec o ime.
Figu e 2. Wo k psychology in he p oduc ion p ocess—basic pilla s (sou ce: au ho ).
Op imizing wo king condi ions in a collabo a i e en i onmen o employees neces-
si a es ha he la e a e sui ably quali ied o hei posi ions. S abilizing he p oduc ion
schedule du ing a shi ( o ul il quo as) a ound speci ic lead imes is cu en ly a majo
issue in he indus ial sec o . In ela ion o his, signi ican s esso s in a collabo a i e uni
comp ise he mismanagemen o ma e ial and insu iciency in he skill se s o wo ke s.
S a need o eel a sense o con idence abou conduc ing du ies and gi ing good pe o -
mance, and hei men al s a e can be impac ed in he e en an issue a ises and complica es
ma e s. Con inuous con ol p ocedu es de e mine he ele an ac ions o deal wi h inci-
den s.
The digi al li e acy ha wo ke s possess plays an impo an ole in wo k psychology.
In he gi en con ex , i ela es o he capaci y o collabo a e wi h he digi ally con olled
machine and p esupposes ce ain cogni i e skills, abili ies, and a i udes [26]. Repo s in
he li e a u e ha e highligh ed ha digi iza ion exe s a knock-on e ec on psychosocial
isk a wo k [27]. Tasks ha equi e physical o manual skills and basic cogni i e awa e-
ness shall be au oma ed i s , whe eas mo e demanding jobs necessi a e social, emo ional,
and echnological skill se s ins ead [28].
5. Discussions and Social Implica ions
Wo king in on o a obo leads o a ise in he le el o s ess expe ienced by he
human, making he si ua ion less s able and al e ing eadiness o pe o mance. In e ec ,
he pe son is psychologically d awn in o align wi h he ac ions o he obo , hence hei
immedia e su oundings a e c ucial, and i is necessa y o ensu e all inpu s a e p esen
Figu e 2. Wo k psychology in he p oduc ion p ocess—basic pilla s (sou ce: au ho ).
Op imizing wo king condi ions in a collabo a i e en i onmen o employees neces-
si a es ha he la e a e sui ably quali ied o hei posi ions. S abilizing he p oduc ion
schedule du ing a shi ( o ul il quo as) a ound speci ic lead imes is cu en ly a majo
issue in he indus ial sec o . In ela ion o his, signi ican s esso s in a collabo a i e uni
comp ise he mismanagemen o ma e ial and insu iciency in he skill se s o wo ke s. S a
need o eel a sense o con idence abou conduc ing du ies and gi ing good pe o mance,
and hei men al s a e can be impac ed in he e en an issue a ises and complica es ma e s.
Con inuous con ol p ocedu es de e mine he ele an ac ions o deal wi h inciden s.