Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s41155-022-00241-z
RESEARCH
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Open Access
Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica
Fac o s uc u e o  heSel -Regula ion
Ques ionnai e amongadul lea ne s
omPoland, Se bia, Slo akia, and heCzech
Republic
Ji ka Vaculíko á1* , Ilona Koč a o á1, Jan Kalenda1, Zuzana Neupaue 2, Ma ija C ije ić Vukče ić3 and
Anna Włoch4
Abs ac
Backg ound: One o he mos signi ican human quali ies is he abili y o de elop, implemen , and lexibly main ain
planned beha iou in o de o achie e one’s goals. Sel - egula ion has become a ela i ely well- esea ched a ea in he
ield o psychology and pedagogy. Howe e , empi ically alid and eliable ins umen is s ill missing ac oss Eu opean
con ex . The p ima y goal o his esea ch was o analyze he psychome ic p ope ies o he Czech e sion o he Sel -
Regula ion Ques ionnai e (SRQ-CZ) among adul lea ne s om Poland, Se bia, Slo akia, and he Czech Republic.
Objec i e: The aim o he p esen s udy was o examine he ac o s uc u e and psychome ic p ope ies o he
SRQ-CZ alida ed in he Czech educa ional con ex in a mul i-cul u al sample.
Me hods: A o al o 1711 adul lea ne s om Eu opean coun ies including Poland, Se bia, Slo akia, and he Czech
Republic comple ed he SRQ-CZ. The i s s ep o e iewing he alidi y o he SRQ-CZ included es ing ace alidi y.
Fu he mo e, explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA) was pe o med on hal he sample and con i ma o y ac o analysis
(CFA) on he o he hal . Measu emen in a iance was conduc ed ac oss gende , age, and coun y ollowed by he
e alua ion o he eliabili y o he inal ins umen .
Resul s: EFA showed ha a h ee- ac o s uc u e bes i he da a. The o iginally p oposed Impulse Con ol and Sel -
Di ec ion a e me ged in o one dis inc ac o , while Decision Making and Goal O ien a ion comp ise he o he wo.
Goodness-o - i s a is ics yielded om CFA showed a good i o he model, in oducing a eliable and measu emen
in a ian ins umen .
Conclusion: The p esen s udy used a di e se mul i-cul u al sample o explo e he ac o ial s uc u e and psycho-
me ic p ope ies o he SRQ-CZ. A h ee- ac o model was ob ained as he esul o he explo a o y and con i ma-
o y ac o analyses. Fu he analysis aiming a measu emen in a iance, compa ing he sample acco ding o gende ,
age, and coun y, led o sa is ac o y esul s. The only excep ion was a lack o model i in he case o Se bia. Al hough
u he psychome ic e alua ion o he SRQ-CZ is s ill needed, he p esen ed esul s cons i u e signi ican indings,
con i ming ins umen alidi y and u ili y as a measu e o gene alized sel - egula ion capaci y ac oss adul lea ne s in
Eu opean educa ional con ex .
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
1 Resea ch Cen e o FHS, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, Zlín, Czech Republic
Full lis o au ho in o ma ion is a ailable a he end o he a icle
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Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
Keywo ds: Sel - egula ion, Adul lea ne s, Explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA), Con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA),
Measu emen in a iance
Backg ound
Al hough sel - egula ion is conside ed a c ucial p econ-
di ion o any lea ning, he COVID-19 wo ld inc eased
he equi emen s on adul s’ abili y o sel -di ec and sel -
egula e lea ning. Lea ne s in bo h o mal and non o mal
educa ion mo e equen ly ha e o gain hei knowledge
and skills h ough digi al lea ning en i onmen s, whe e
hey ecei e less di ec ion and o ma i e assessmen
om eache s and educa o s (Di Pe o & Ka piński, 2021;
S anis ee e  al., 2021; Walle e  al., 2020). The e o e,
hey end o be mo e dependen on hei own abili y o
de elop, implemen , and lexibly main ain planned beha -
iou in o de o achie e one’s goals (B own e al., 1999).
Mo eo e , an unp edic able si ua ion in he labou ma -
ke , accompanied by he speed o social and echnological
changes, leads o he obsolescence o adul s’ cu en skills
and demand o new ones (ILO, 2021; OECD, 2019). Con-
sequen ly, he need o li elong lea ning and he abili y o
sel - egula e lea ning ac i i ies and ela ed beha iou has
inc eased immensely (UNESCO, 2019, 2021; WEF, 2020).
These ends a e no ypical only o he Wes e n wo ld
bu also in Eas e n Eu ope, which aces many new chal-
lenges in li elong lea ning. These include he ageing o
he popula ion, he ising numbe o mig an s ha need
o lea n a new language and job- ela ed skills, as well as
a ans o ma ion o he indus ial sec o (Kalenda e al.,
2022). Howe e , mos Eu opean coun ies lack a alid
and eliable ins umen o assessing he sel - egula ion
o adul lea ne s. Resea che s and p o essionals canno
e alua e his c ucial p econdi ion o success ul lea ning
wi hou such an ins umen . Fo his eason, he p i-
ma y pu pose o his s udy is o cul u ally adap a alid
and eliable esea ch ins umen o measu ing he sel -
egula ion o adul s in ou Eu opean coun ies: Poland,
Se bia, Slo akia, and he Czech Republic.
A numbe o heo ies explaining sel - egula ion p o-
cesses ha e been de eloped o heo e ically unde line
and empi ically cap u e sel - egula ion ac i i y ac oss all
con inen s and di e se ields o s udy (Boekae s e al.,
2005; Baumeis e & Hea he on, 2009; Senécal & Valle-
and, 1995; Veens a e al., 2010). The concep ualisa ion
o sel - egula ion has e ol ed om a igid s imulus-
esponse unde s anding o one’s capaci y o beha e inde-
penden ly bu ollowing an o iginal ex e nal command
(Diaz & F uhau , 1991) o a mo e complex concep u-
alisa ion including pe sonali y and social de e minan s
(B own e  al., 1999). In he ollowing pa ag aphs, we
b ie ly elabo a e he mos impo an ones ha a e c ucial
o he heo e ical backg ound o he selec ed esea ch
ins umen .
The i s o hese is a social cogni i e pe spec i e on
sel - egula ion (Bandu a, 1986, 1991) ha highligh s
he in e ac ion o pe sonal, beha iou al, and en i on-
men al p ocesses. In his amewo k, sel - egula ion
includes no only beha iou al skills in managing en i-
onmen al con ingencies, bu also con ains a sense o
pe sonal agency o enac hese skills in ele an con-
ex s. This iadic model assumes ha people sel - eg-
ula e hei beha iou h ough he use o hei inne
hough s, eelings, and ac ions ha a e planned, moni-
o ed, and cyclically adap ed acco ding o acqui ed
eedback conce ning he e ec i eness o s a egies in
mee ing hei easonable goals. A pe son’s pe cep ion
o sel -e icacy plays a majo ole in mo i a ing hem o
sel - egula e hei beha iou .
The second one is Ca e and Scheie ’s (1982; 1998)
cybe ne ic sel - egula ion model o beha iou as a eed-
back loop. This concep ion ocusses on a eedback cycle
ha is cha ac e ized by ou phases summa ized as
TOTE (‘Tes -Ope a e-Tes -Exi ’). In his cycle, a goal is
i s planned. Subsequen ly, a ‘Tes ’ is pe o med o iden-
i y whe he he goal has been achie ed. I no , ‘Ope a-
ions’ a e pe o med o achie e he goal. Finally, he Tes
is pe o med again. I he e a e no disc epancies be ween
cu en and desi ed s a es, he indi idual en e s he ‘Exi ’
phase. O he wise, he p ocess epea s in a loop.
Syn hesizing ideas om he p e ious wo heo e ical
s eams and elabo a ed on in Kan e (1970) h ee-phase
heo y, Mille and B own (1991) de eloped hei own
concep ion, including sel -moni o ing, sel -e alua ion,
and sel - ein o cemen and ex ended he numbe o sel -
egula ion p ocesses o se en. Based on his heo e ical
amewo k, he au ho s de eloped he 63-i em Sel -Reg-
ula ion Ques ionnai e (SRQ) o ini ially assess hese sel -
egula o y p ocesses (B own e al., 1999). In addi ion o
his esea ch ins umen , wo o he s we e de eloped in
he same di ec ion. Ca ey e al. (2004) p o ided a single-
dimension solu ion ha was adap ed in o he 31-i em
Sho Sel -Regula ion Ques ionnai e (SSRQ), while Neal
and Ca ey (2005a, b) p oposed a wo- ac o solu ion as
he measu e o someone’s capaci y o sel - egula ion.
Since he o iginal SRQ (B own e al., 1999) has been
widely used and es ed o psychome ic p ope ies in
a a ie y o li e domains, we belie e ha i is a use ul
esea ch ins umen o in es iga ing he sel - egu-
la ion abili ies o adul lea ne s. Howe e , p e ious
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Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
s udies ha e es ablished se e al ac o ial solu ions.
Ou o h ee Ame ican s udies (Bandu a e al., 2003;
B own e al., 1999; Ca ey e al., 2004; Neal and Ca ey,
2005a, b), none me CFA goodness-o - i indices o
he es ed se en- ac o model. Simila ly, in Sou h A i-
can esea ch (Po gie e & Bo ha, 2009), B own e al.
(1999) p oposed model equi ed modi ica ions in o de
o mee analysis equi emen s. As a esul , hey o -
mula ed a six- ac o solu ion wi h 24 i ems. Likewise,
Picha do e al. (2014; 2018) and Ga o a e al. (2015)
sugges ed a mo e pa simonious model wi h ou ac-
o s. In summa y, he SRQ lacks s able ac o ial s uc-
u e and su icien da a i , as p edominan ly measu ed
on s uden s’ samples.
Fo his eason, we emedy his gap wi h an empi ical
e alua ion o he SRQ’s eliabili y and cons uc alid-
i y on a cul u ally di e se sample o adul lea ne s while
ollowing applica ions and guidelines o c oss-cul u al
psychology (Be y e al., 2013; McLean, 2022). Mo e-
o e , conside ing he cul u e-sensi i e na u e o sel -
egula ion (Ja amillo e  al., 2017; LeCuye & Zhang,
2015), measu emen in a iance was conduc ed ac oss
each coun y o o igin. Fu he , new insigh s a e p e-
sen ed wi h espec o gende di e ences in sel - egu-
la ion as widely epo ed om bo h he psychological
( an Te e ing e al., 2020; Velayu ham e al., 2012) and
neu ological (Hosseini-Kamka & Mo on, 2014) pe -
spec i es. The s udy also in es iga es he inding ha
age ep esen s an impo an ac o in de e mining
indi idual di e ences in sel - egula ion (Ra aelli e al.,
2005). Mo e speci ically, we in es iga ed whe he he
SRQ’s model s uc u e o equi alency ac oss g oups
o gende , age, and coun y by a se ies o measu emen
in a iance es s.
The aim o his s udy is o desc ibe he alida ion o
he Czech e sion o he Sel -Regula ion Ques ionnai e
(SRQ-CZ; Ga o a e al., 2015) using c oss-cul u al da a
om adul lea ne s wi h simila cul u al backg ounds
in ou Eu opean coun ies: Poland, Se bia, Slo akia,
and he Czech Republic. Thus, he main objec i e is
o examine and asce ain whe he he SRQ-CZ shows
he same ep esen a ion o sel - egula ion as p e i-
ously epo ed by esea che s (Ga o a e al., 2015). On
his basis, we p esen an e alua ion o he ace alid-
i y and cons uc alidi y o he ins umen . To in es i-
ga e he ac o ial s uc u e o he ins umen , EFA and
CFA we e used, ollowed by an e alua ion o measu e-
men in a iance ac oss gende , age, and coun y and
hen an e alua ion o he eliabili y o he inal ins u-
men . The main con ibu ion o his s udy is o b oaden
ou unde s anding o sel - egula ion o beha iou
among adul lea ne s om an unde s udied Eu opean
pe spec i e.
Me hod
Pa icipan s
The esea ch sample consis ed o 1,711 adul lea ne s
om ou Eu opean coun ies: Poland (n = 276), Se bia
(n = 410), Slo akia (n = 511), and he Czech Republic
(n = 514). Da a collec ion was based on a con enien
sample o lea ne s en olled in o mal educa ion, aged
be ween 18 and 64 yea s. The ques ionnai e was admin-
is a ed by a na ional esea ch eam in he i s qua e o
2022 using an in e ne su eying echnique o by a spe-
cialized agency using he Compu e Assis ed Web In e -
iewing me hod (CAWI).
The da a collec ion and da a analysis in his s udy ha e
ollowed e hical p inciples o esea ch, espec ing he
ICC/ESOMAR In e na ional Code (ESOMAR, 2016).
The p inciple o anonymi y was applied o main ain
he anonymi y o he pa icipan s, and he esea che s
emphasized in o med consen h oughou he s udy. Pa -
icipan s we e in o med abou he aims o he esea ch
and ha he gi en in o ma ion would be ea ed con i-
den ially. Fu he mo e, g an -p ojec e iewe s e alua ed
he g an p oposals wi h espec o hei e hical implica-
ions, ensu ing he sa e y and igh s o pa icipan s.
The whole sample consis ed o 355 (20.7%) males wi h
an a e age age o 26.36 yea s (SD = 7.9) and 1356 (79.3%)
emales wi h an a e age age o 25.1 yea s (SD = 7), wi h
an o e all mean age o 25.4 yea s ( anging om 18 o 61
yea s; SD = 7.3). Da a on he highes a ained educa ional
le el showed ha he majo i y had a ained a leas h ee
yea s o highe educa ion and he e o e ea ned he Bach-
elo deg ee (i.e. In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o
Educa ion ISCED 6). De ailed demog aphic in o ma ion
abou he samples can be seen in Table1.
Measu e
The o iginal SRQ (B own e al., 1999) is a 63-i em, sel -
epo ing ins umen designed o assess he abili y
o beha iou al sel - egula ion in se en phases. These
phases e lec he abili y o indi iduals o ecei e el-
e an in o ma ion, e alua e and compa e i o no ms,
igge change, sea ch o op ions, o mula e a plan,
implemen he plan, and assess he plan’s e ec i eness.
Howe e , we decided o use he Czech e sion o he
SRQ (SRQ-CZ; Ga o a e al., 2015), based on cul u al
app op ia eness o he a ge popula ion o Eu opean
lea ne s. Fac o analysis o he SRQ-CZ discon i med
he o iginal se en-phase heo y and ins ead yielded
a model wi h ou ac o s: Impulse Con ol (8 i ems),
Goal O ien a ion (5 i ems), Sel -Di ec ion (7 i ems),
and Decision Making (7 i ems). In his s udy, he Czech
e sion o SRQ included 27 i ems wi h esponse op ions
on i e-poin Like scale anging om “s ongly disa-
g ee” o “s ongly ag ee” along equal in e als.
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Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
Pa icipan s o his s udy we e in o med ha he e
a e no igh o w ong answe s and hey should espond
o he i ems quickly wi hou hinking oo long. The
esul s a e calcula ed as he a i hme ic mean o exp ess
he o al aw sco e and he sco es o indi idual dimen-
sions. Despi e he ac ha he ool has al eady been
alida ed, we decided o i s apply explo a o y and
only hen con i ma o y ac o analysis. The eason o
his p ocedu e is ha he ool exis s in se e al pe mu-
a ions wi h di e en numbe s o ac o s and i ems, so
i s cu en o m is no in e na ionally s able.
Fou necessa y s eps we e in ol ed in he ins u-
men ’s p epa a ion (AERA e al., 1999; Hamble on e al.,
2005; ITC, 2017). Fi s , SRQ-CZ i ems we e ansla ed
by skilled ansla o s o p oduce he language modi i-
ca ions o he ins umen o Polish, Se bian, and Slo-
ak. Be o e he ansla ion o he ins umen , an online
semina was o ganised, whe ein he esea ch pa ne s
discussed and ag eed on he basic s anda ds o he
ansla ion p ocess. Second, backwa d and o wa d
ansla ions we e applied o p oduce he p ima y lan-
guage modi ica ions. These modi ica ions we e analysed
by expe ienced esea che s o he cong uence o i ems
wi h cul u al adi ions and c i ically assessed wi hin
he na ional esea ch eam. Las ly, each language e -
sion was ield es ed on a sample o he a ge popula-
ion o judge he ace alidi y. While esea che s had a
deep unde s anding o he backg ound o he ins u-
men , a ge pa icipan s p o ided aluable insigh s ha
o he wise migh be missed. Focus was placed on he
con en and logical cohesion o he ins umen . De ailed
o e iew o he i ems is p esen ed in Addi ional ile1.
P ocedu e andda a analyses
All analy ical p ocedu es we e applied, along wi h judg-
men c i e ia which ook in o accoun he heo e i-
cal amewo k as well as he p ac ical use ulness o he
ins umen . Indi idual s eps assessing ace and con-
s uc alidi y we e e alua ed simul aneously based on
s a is ical as well as judgmen al c i e ia ocused on indi-
idual i ems and ac o s as well as he ques ionnai e as
a whole. In his con ex , we empi ically e i ied whe he
he SRQ-CZ had an iden ical s uc u e, as indica ed
by p e ious esea ch (Ga o a e al., 2015), o whe he
ano he ac o ial solu ion can be iden i ied, as sugges ed
by p edominan ly non-Eu opean s udies (B own e  al.,
1999; Ca ey e al., 2004; Neal and Ca ey, 2005a, b; Po gi-
e e & Bo ha, 2009). Fu he mo e, we e alua ed measu e-
men in a iance acco ding o gende , age, and coun y,
any o which may play he ole o a seconda y ac o
in luencing sel - egula ion capaci y.
Fi s , he inspec ion o he means, s anda d de ia ions,
skewness, and ku osis o each i em was accomplished
h ough i em analysis. The ac o s uc u e o he SRQ-
CZ was u he c oss- alida ed (James e al., 2013) using
a sample andomly di ided in o wo sepa a e g oups.
Based on he hypo hesized consis ency o he co e-
la ed ac o s, EFA using P incipal Componen Analysis
was applied o he i em co ela ion ma ix. Following
he ecommenda ions o Tabachninick and Fidell (2014),
oblique p omax o a ion was applied as a sui able com-
p omise (Russell, 2002).
To e ain sa is ac o y a iables, he .40–.30–.20 ule
was adop ed (Howa d, 2016). In addi ion o conside a-
ion o he in e p e able ac o s uc u e, we inspec ed
Ca ell’s sc ee plo (Ca ell, 1966) and pe o med pa -
allel analysis (Ho n, 1965), as well as Wayne Velice ’s
minimum a e age pa ial (MAP) analysis (Velice ,
1976). To e alua e he in e nal consis ency o he ull
and subscale sco es ob ained om he EFA, C onbach’s
α, McDonald’s ω, and Gu mann’s λ6 we e compa ed
wi h subscales expec ed o be eliable i he in e nal
eliabili y coe icien is a leas ≥ .70 (DeVellis, 2016;
Gid on, 2013), while also aking in o accoun he num-
be o scale i ems. Pea son co ela ion wi h Bon e oni
co ec ion was used o con ol o mul iple es ing. To
in e p e he sizes o co ela ion coe icien s, we use
e ec -size labels acco ding o Cohen’s (1988, p. 79–81)
Table 1 Demog aphic de ails o he samples
Va iables Poland
(n = 276) Se bia
(n = 410) Slo akia
(n = 511) Czech Republic
(n = 514) To al
(n =1711)
n (%)
Gende Male 23 (8.3) 105 (25.6) 98 (19.2) 129 (25.1) 355 (20.7)
Female 253 (91.7) 305 (74.4) 413 (80.8) 385 (74.9) 1356 (79.3)
Age 18–20 yea s 94 (34.1) 65 (15.9) 177 (34.6) 48 (9.3) 384 (22.4)
21+ yea s 182 (65.9) 345 (84.1) 334 (65.4) 466 (90.7) 1327 (77.6)
Educa ion ISCED 3-5 123 (44.6) 152 (37.1) 0.0 (0.0) 204 (39.7) 479 (28.0)
ISCED 6 87 (31.5) 134 (32.7) 350 (68.5) 236 (45.9) 807 (47.2)
ISCED 7 62 (22.5) 95 (23.2) 120 (23.5) 73 (14.2) 350 (20.5)
ISCED 8 4 (1.4) 29 (7.1) 41 (8) 1 (.20) 75 (4.4)
Page 5 o 11
Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
con en ions o = .10 (small); = .30 (medium); and
= .50 (la ge) co ela ion.
Second, a se ies o CFAs o he ac o s uc u e o he
SRQ-CZ ob ained in he p e ious s age was pe o med
on he o he hal o he sample. The inal model was
also e i ied on sepa a e samples di ided by he gende ,
age, and coun y. Thi d, a se ies o measu emen in a i-
ance es s using mul iple g oup CFA we e ca ied ou o
de e mine whe he he model s uc u e was equi alen
ac oss g oups o gende , age, and coun y. Con igu al,
me ic, and scala le els o in a iance we e e alua ed.
Based on he common ecommenda ions o in es iga e
he model’s goodness o i (Hoope e al., 2008), a numbe
o s a is ics we e used: compa a i e i index (CFI; Ben le ,
1990), Tucke –Lewis index (TLI; Tucke & Lewis, 1973),
and oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion (RMSEA;
S eige , 1990). In addi ion, we epo ed he Chi-Squa e
(x2) s a is ic, deg ees o eedom, and i s p alue.
The desc ip i e i em analysis, EFA, and he awpa .
sps and map.sps sc ip s (O´Conno , 2000; Velice , 1976)
we e unde aken in IBM SPSS 27.0. IBM SPSS AMOS
27.0 was used o pe o m CFA and MI. We also used
JASP 0.16.2.0 o calcula e C onbach’s α, McDonald’s ω,
and Gu mann’s λ6. Only esponses wi h no missing al-
ues we e included in he analysis.
Resul s
Desc ip i e s a is ics o he SRQ-CZ can be seen in
Addi ional ile 1. The means o all 27 i ems anged
be ween 2.39 and 4.12 ou o 5, wi h a mean sco e o
3.28. The alues o he s anda d de ia ions (SD) o all
i ems anged be ween .89 o 1.28, wi h a mean o 1.08.
Values o he skewness and ku osis o all i ems did no
exceed he alue o ≥ 2 o skewness and ≥ 7 o ku -
osis (Cu an e al., 1996; T ochim & Donnelly, 2006),
sugges ing no se ious iola ion o he da a dispe sion.
In he nex s ep, he esea ch sample was andomly
di ided in o wo independen samples o he EFA and
CFA, espec i ely. The 27 i ems o sel - egula ion we e
subjec ed o EFA wi h he aim o ga he ing in o ma ion
abou he in e ela ionships among he se o a iables.
Explo ing he ac o s uc u e o  heSRQ‑CZ
The Kaise -Meye -Olkin measu e o sampling adequacy
(KMO) was .89, indica ing ha he sample was adequa e,
and Ba le ’s es o sphe ici y eached signi icance
(x2(351) = 6739.62, p < .001), suppo ing he ac o abili y
o he co ela ion ma ix.
A sc ee plo o eigen alues (no shown) was s ongly
in a ou o he h ee- ac o s uc u e. This esul was
suppo ed by he pa allel analysis, indica ing he p es-
ence o h ee componen s wi h eigen alues exceeding he
co esponding c i e ion alues o a andomly gene a ed
da a ma ix. Fu he mo e, Wayne Velice ’s o iginal MAP
es (Velice , 1976) p esen ed a h ee- ac o s uc u e.
The numbe o componen s was also h ee acco ding o
he e ised es e sion (O’Conno , 2000). Compa ing
hese indings and he heo y-based ini ia i e wi h he
da a-d i en solu ion, a h ee- ac o s uc u e o he SRQ-
CZ was selec ed.
A o al o 22 i ems we e shown o emain by he esul s o
EFA, om which h ee scales we e c ea ed, accoun ing o
app oxima ely 41% o he a iance, wi h eigen alues o 6.63,
2.88, and 1.56 espec i ely. The mean o he inal i ems on a
spli sample used o EFA (n = 855) anged be ween 2.42
and 4.05 (SD = .90 o 1.30). The i em ha bes explained
he a iance measu ed in he pa icipan ’s sel - egula ion
was GO19 (I ha e ules ha I s ick by no ma e wha ), om
he hi d ac o . On he o he hand, i em GO10 (I can s ick
o a plan ha ’s wo king well) om he same ac o had he
lowes ac o loading, communali ies, and a lowe a e age
co ela ion han he es o he i ems. Based on he heo-
e ical amewo k o SRQ, i em GO10 well ep esen ed he
meaning o he ac o . Mo eo e , we es ed a model wi h-
ou his i em; howe e , i did no each be e i . The e o e,
we decided o e ain he i em wi hin he ac o and suppo
mul iple- ac o indica o s (a leas ou o six pe ac o ),
pe o ming analysis wi h la gely de e mined ac o s (Fab i-
ga e al., 1999). The ac o loadings o each i em as well as
eliabili y a e p esen ed in Table2.
The i s subscale, i led Sel -Con ol, consis ed o ele en
i ems assessing in e nal sel -con ol skills, including i ems
ini ially alling unde he ac o s Impulse Con ol (7 i ems,
e.g. I ha e ouble ollowing h ough wi h hings once I’ e
made up my mind o do some hing) and Sel -Di ec ion (4
i ems, e.g. I don’ no ice he e ec s o my ac ions un il i ’s
oo la e). The second subscale ep esen ed a ac o meas-
u ing pe sonal Decision Making (7 i ems, e.g. I’m good a
inding di e en ways o ge wha I wan ). The hi d sub-
scale comp ised ou goal o ien a ion- ela ed i ems (e.g. I
ha e ules ha I s ick by no ma e wha ).
The h ee subscales showed a medium co ela ion
wi h each o he , eaching expec ed di ec ions. The co -
ela ions o he h ee subscales wi h he o e all cons uc
anged om medium o la ge, which sugges s he possi-
bili y o connec ing all he subscales in o one o e all con-
s uc , as well as suppo ing a h ee- ac o s uc u e (see
Addi ional ile2). A his poin , we decided o u he
e alua e he connec ion o subscales in o h ee ac o s.
E alua ing he ac o s uc u e o  heSRQ‑CZ
In o de o e alua e he da a-d i en ounda ion o he
SRQ-CZ, we e i ied he cons uc alidi y o indi id-
ual ac o s as well as hei connec ion wi h he de aul

Page 6 o 11
Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
model (see Addi ional ile 3) on he o he andomly
di ided sample (n = 856). The esul s o he CFA model
i a e displayed in Table3.
As can be seen in Table3, all es ed independen ac o s
ul illed he s a is ical as well as he judgmen c i e ia o
he ool cons uc ion. This means ha he ac o s wo k
independen ly well and can be applied sepa a ely. Mo eo-
e , he connec ion o he ac o s unde he umb ella o
one de aul model also p o ed o be unc ional: x2(206) =
665.179, CFI = .920, TLI = .911, RMSEA = .051.
Measu emen in a iance o  heSRQ‑CZ ac ossgende , age,
andcoun y
Acco ding o Cheung and Rens old’s (2002) ecommen-
da ion o he di e ences among he alues o ΔCFI (wi h
alues lowe han .01 conside ed a sign o in a iance),
he ac o means o males and emales can be compa ed
up o he scala le el. Simila ly, he di e ence be ween
he age g oups is measu emen in a ian up o he sca-
la le el. Ne e heless, based on he esul s shown in
Table4, he ins umen does no seem o be in a ian
ac oss coun ies.
We addi ionally checked he CFA goodness-o - i s a-
is ics o he de aul model independen ly ac oss coun-
y samples (see Addi ional ile 4). All he coun ies
eached accep able pa ame e s excep Se bia, o which
he indices (CFI = .871, TLI = .856) emained below
he ecommended alue o .90 (Ben le , 1990). Fo his
eason, we u he compa ed measu emen in a iance
ac oss coun ies wi hou he sample om Se bia (see
Table 2 Pa e n ma ix o he SRQ-CZ (n = 855)
No e: The ex ac ion me hod was p incipal componen analysis; he o a ion me hod was p omax wi h Kaise No maliza ion. Fac o loadings in bold ep esen
i ems’ loadings on o hei p ima y ac o . F1–3 = ac o , h2 = communali ies, α-i = C onbach’s α i he i em is dele ed. SC Sel -Con ol, DM Decision Making, GO Goal
O ien a ion
I em desc ip ion F1 F2 F3 h2α-i
IC7: I ha e ouble ollowing h ough wi h hings once I’ e made up my mind o do some hing. .790 −.036 .067 .611 .831
IC3: I ge easily dis ac ed om my plans. .708 .244 −.139 .497 .841
IC9: I can come up wi h lo s o ways o change, bu i ’s ha d o me o decide which one o use. .698 .159 −.017 .440 .842
IC27: I gi e up quickly. .685 −.121 .046 .517 .838
SD4: I don’ no ice he e ec s o my ac ions un il i ’s oo la e. .658 .002 −.047 .456 .841
IC8: I don’ seem o lea n om my mis akes. .634 −.022 −.010 .417 .844
IC6: When i comes o deciding abou a change, I eel o e whelmed by he choices. .610 −.003 .110 .338 .848
SD5: I ’s ha d o me o see any hing help ul abou changing my ways. .603 −.078 .115 .359 .847
SD15: I ha e a ha d ime se ing goals o mysel . .588 −.101 −.051 .427 .844
SD2: I ha e ouble making up my mind abou hings. .571 .147 .015 .284 .854
IC21: O en I don’ no ice wha I’m doing un il someone calls i o my a en ion. .571 .070 .058 .286 .838
DM23: I’m good a inding di e en ways o ge wha I wan . .017 .742 −.088 .490 .706
DM14: As soon as I see a p oblem o challenge, I s a looking o possible solu ions. −.138 .684 −.049 .521 .704
DM20: I can usually ind se e al di e en possibili ies when I wan o change. .007 .669 .004 .447 .712
DM18: The e is usually mo e han one way o accomplish some hing. .096 .650 .017 .396 .724
DM16: When I’m ying o change some hing, I pay a lo o a en ion o how I’m doing. .193 .649 −.041 .353 .737
DM17: As soon as I see hings a en’ going igh I wan o do some hing abou i . −.147 .583 .038 .448 .716
DM22: Usually I see he need o change be o e o he s do. .188 .489 .036 .221 .759
GO19: I ha e ules ha I s ick by no ma e wha . .080 −.148 .903 .680 .631
GO13: I am se in my ways. .048 −.033 .841 .658 .612
GO12: I ha e pe sonal s anda ds, and y o li e up o hem. .085 .092 .756 .599 .652
GO10: I can s ick o a plan ha ’s wo king well. −.186 .109 .390 .303 .782
Fac o label SC DM GO Toge he
No. o i ems 11 7 4 22
M2.70 3.60 3.72 3.34
SD .78 .63 .77 .73
Explained a iance in % 24.56 10.68 5.76 41
McDonald’s ω.858 .858 .758 .436
C onbach’s α.856 .856 .737 .676
Gu mann’s λ6 .853 .853 .696 .758
Page 7 o 11
Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
Addi ional ile5). The de aul model was in a ian up o
he con igu al model, which ep esen s he es ing o he
ac o s uc u e. In a ian ac o loadings (me ic model)
and he in e cep s cons ained o be equal (scala model)
showed poo i .
Reliabili y o  heSRQ‑CZ
In addi ion o he p esen ed esul s o cons uc alidi y,
he eliabili y coe icien s we e calcula ed. Besides C on-
bach’s α eliabili y coe icien , which while commonly
used is no longe su icien ly wa an ed as a sole index
o eliabili y (Agbo, 2010), McDonald’s ω and Gu mann’s
λ6 we e calcula ed. As can be seen in Addi ional ile6,
he h ee ac o s o he de aul model a e expec ed o be
eliable in all moni o ed g oups. In o he wo ds, all indi-
ces showed good eliabili y (≥ .70) o he h ee ac o s
ac oss samples wi h he excep ion o he in e nal con-
sis ency o he Goal O ien a ion ac o (λ6 = .663) in he
case o Se bia sample. Wi h ega d o Se bia, howe e ,
his ac o did each sa is ac o y esul s in he case o
C onbach’s α = .705, and McDonald’s ω = .722.
Discussion
The main objec i e o he p esen s udy was o desc ibe
he cons uc alidi y o he Czech e sion o he Sel -
Regula ion Ques ionnai e (SRQ-CZ), aimed a measu -
ing he sel - egula ion o beha iou in ou phases. Based
on indings om he sample o adul lea ne s in Poland,
Se bia, Slo akia, and he Czech Republic, his s udy ep-
esen s a unique c oss-cul u al app oach in unde s and-
ing he pe sonal abili y o ac acco ding o an in e nal
plan o achie e pe sonal goals, wi hou ex e nal suppo
o ewa d.
In line wi h p e ious esea ch (Ga o a e al., 2015), we
p o ide empi ical suppo o he exis ence o Impulse
Con ol and Sel -Di ec ion wi hin he Sel -Con ol ac-
o , and Decision Making and Goal O ien a ion wi hin
sepa a e ac o s, e alua ed on a cul u ally di e se sample.
The signi icance o his esea ch is he inding ha he
ins umen holds he same cons uc s o beha iou sel -
egula ion as epo ed in he pionee ing wo k o Ga o a
e al. (2015). The only excep ion is he model’s modi ica-
ion in he case o i em pu i ica ion ( om 22 o 27 i ems)
and ac o educ ion ( om h ee o ou ac o s). On his
basis, Impulse Con ol and Sel -Di ec ion, measu ing
he inhibi ion o emo i e esponse endencies, c ea ed
one common ac o called Sel -Con ol. I ems included
in his sha ed ac o we e simila in he na u e o hei
meanings, as well as in hei e e sed pola i y, which
could signi ican ly in luence esponden s’ pa e n o
esponses. When compa ing his ac o o he emaining
cons uc s (Decision Making and Goal O ien a ion), ac-
o sco es need o be e-coded o epo on he nega i e
unc ion o sel - egula ion.
O e all, we ha e ound ha he inal model o he
ins umen is obus in i s applica ion as a whole, as well
Table 3 CFA goodness-o - i s a is ics o he indi idual ac o s and de aul model (n = 856)
No e: Sel -Con ol includes he Impulse Con ol and Sel -Di ec ion i ems. No = numbe o i ems; p < .001
Model No x2d CFI TLI RMSEA
F1 (Sel -Con ol) 11 140.035 44 .967 .959 .050
F2 (Decision Making) 7 44.512 14 .977 .965 .050
F3 (Goal O ien a ion) 4 9.294 2 .992 .975 .065
De aul model 22 665.179 206 .920 .911 .051
Table 4 Measu emen in a iance o he de aul model o p ede ined g oups (n = 856)
No e: p < .001
G ouping a iable Le el o in a iance x2d CFI ΔCFI TLI RMSEA
Gende Con igu al 900.514 412 .916 .905 .053
Me ic 916.414 431 .916 0 .910 .051
Scala 961.789 450 .912 -.004 .909 .052
Age Con igu al 899.548 412 .916 .906 .053
Me ic 920.445 431 .916 0 .909 .052
Scala 938.434 450 .916 0 .913 .050
Coun y Con igu al 1560.571 824 .881 .867 .065
Me ic 1681.58 881 .871 -.01 .865 .065
Scala 2215.514 938 .794 -.077 .797 .080
Page 8 o 11
Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
as in he sepa a e usage o all indi idual ac o s. Ano he
impo an inding o ou s udy is he sui abili y o he
ins umen o he speci ic g oups o esponden s di ided
by gende and age. In p ac ise, i suppo s he s a is i-
cal ele ance o mean compa ison o sel - egula ion o
beha iou be ween males and emales and g oups di ided
by age.
The ob ained model was u he es ed o measu e-
men in a iance acco ding o coun y o o igin. In he
case o Se bia, he esul s showed ha he inal model o
he ins umen migh be weak. Sc eening he da a, dis i-
bu ional p ope ies and demog aphic in o ma ion abou
he Se bian sample did no a y om he speci ied pop-
ula ion o in e es , i.e. did no a y om o he na ional
samples used in his s udy. Thus he ques ion emains as
o how speci ic he Se bian pe cep ion o sel - egula ed
beha iou is as compa ed o o he Cen al and Eas e n
Eu opean coun ies, as well as how Se bian pe cep ions
o sel - egula ion di e om ha o he neighbou ing
coun ies o Poland, Slo akia, and he Czech Republic, all
o which a e simila cul u ally and demog aphically. Due
o his disc epancy, applica ion o he ins umen wi h-
ou u he in es iga ion would be inapp op ia e a his
s age o he esea ch. We also es ed measu emen in a i-
ance on he es o he coun ies in he analysis (wi hou
Se bia), showing ha he same s uc u e o he model
holds o all g oups (in a ian on he con igu al le el).
Fu he modi ica ions o he model would be needed o
inc ease he in e na ional compa abili y o he ins u-
men . Howe e , i should be no ed ha he ins umen
was e alua ed as in e nally consis en ac oss all he c e-
a ed samples, including he accep able alues (C onbach’s
α and McDonald’s ω) o Se bia
Picha do-Ma ínez e  al. (2014) epo ed he imple-
men a ion o a esea ch s a egy simila o his s udy. In
hei s udy, 63 i ems om he SRQ we e adminis a ed
o a sample o 834 s uden s andomly di ided in o wo
se s o explo a o y and con i ma o y samples. The esul s
show e idence o he alidi y and in e nal consis ency o
he Sho Sel -Regula ion Ques ionnai e (SSRQ) in he
Spanish con ex , sugges ing a ou - ac o model wi h 17
i ems. Likewise, da a om 845 Spanish ea ly and middle
adolescen s showed goodness o i wi h he ou - ac o
model and he same numbe o i ems (Picha do e al.,
2018). Howe e , he socio-demog aphic and cul u al
di e si y o he sample s ill needs esea ch.
The p esen s udy has s eng hs, as well as some limi a-
ions, which should be add essed in u u e esea ch. The
ela i ely la ge sample size made i possible o andomly
di ide he da a in hal so ha bo h EFA and CFA could
be unde aken. The ac ha he sample consis ed o ou
na ional samples may be seen bo h as a s eng h and as
a weakness. Due o he low esponse a e mos likely
jus i ied by he onse o COVID-19 pandemic, i was no
possible o conduc ep esen a i e quo a samples. The e-
o e, he p esen ed esul s should no be assumed o be
gene alizable o he a ge popula ion. On he o he hand,
his s udy ep esen s one o he ew a emp s o esea ch
sel - egula ion om an in e na ional poin o iew and
mee he ecommenda ions o sample size when con-
duc ing CFA. I should be no ed ha ou sample as a
whole ep esen s a highly educa ed popula ion, based on
hei highe - han-a e age le el o comple ed educa ion.
Mo e han 70% o he pa icipan s epo ed ha ing a
leas 3 yea s o uni e si y educa ion (up o ISCED 6) and
a e now con inuing o pa icipa e a a highe le el.
This s udy included cul u al and linguis ic di e si y ha
poses signi ican challenges o he p ocess o s anda di-
za ion o measu es (Hamble on & Zenisky, 2011; Si eci,
2011). Taking measu emen equi alence ac oss cul-
u es and languages in o ull accoun , he biases o esul
in e p e a ion we e ca e ully e alua ed using guidelines
o adap ing educa ional and psychological measu es
(Hamble on e al., 2005; ITC, 2017). Ano he ques ion
is ela ed o he gene al cha ac e o he SRQ. I cap u es
gene ic a he han speci ic asks. We belie e, howe e ,
ha while illing in he ques ionnai e, esponden s always
ela e hei answe s o a speci ic ac ion in a li e si ua-
ion. Fo example, he esul s o a esponden who illed
in he ques ionnai e ela ed o sel - egula ion in spo s
may yield a di e en pic u e o sel - egula ion han ha
o a esponden who ela ed hei sel - egula ion o s udy
ac i i ies. This ques ions he cons uc alidi y o he
ques ionnai e.
As o u u e esea ch, a ch onology o he sel - eg-
ula ed beha iou , deli e ed om he se en-phase sel -
egula ion heo y (Mille & B own, 1991), indica ing
whe he a pe son sys ema ically p oceeds one s ep a a
ime and whe he hey use all ac i i ies in each phase, can
be an icipa ed in a ollow-up in es iga ion. Based on he
p esen ed esul s, he SRQ-CZ can be u he modi ied,
ex ended, o used o supplemen da a om o he su eys
ac oss di e se na ional o in e na ional samples. Mo eo-
e , i can be adminis a ed by adul lea ning esea ch-
e s, manage s, lec u e s, employe s, consul an s, o o he
p o essionals in o mal educa ional se ings o adul
lea ne s in Eu opean and non-Eu opean cul u es (Aub ey
e al., 1994; Ca ey e al., 2004; Neal and Ca ey, 2005a, b).
Conclusions
The p esen s udy used a di e se mul icul u al sample o
explo e he ac o ial s uc u e o he SRQ o iginally de el-
oped by B own e  al. (1999). This ins umen assesses
indi iduals’ abili y o sel - egula ion in se en phases.
Despi e p e ious wo k on he ins umen ’s alida ion in
Page 9 o 11
Vaculíko áe al. Psicologia: Re lexão e C í ica (2022) 35:40
he Czech con ex , we we e unable o ind a good model i
o a p e iously alida ed ou - ac o model (Ga o a e al.,
2015) using a mul iple-me hods design. The same ac o s
appea ed in ou da a bu me ged in o a h ee- ac o solu-
ion, wi h Impulse Con ol and Sel -Di ec ion in a sepa a e
ac o called Sel -Con ol, and Decision Making and Goal
O ien a ion as he o he wo. Since p e ious s udies ha e
also ailed o each conclusi e esul s on he op imal ac-
o s uc u e o he SRQ, u he esea ch is needed in
o de o disen angle he possible e ec s o gende , age, and
na ionali y on sel - egula ion o beha iou . Un il his e i-
dence exis s, i would be wise o conduc ac o analysis in
o de o explo e and e alua e whe he he o al sco e, and
a h ee- ac o s uc u e, is applicable o hei samples.
Abb e ia ions
CFA: Con i ma o y ac o analysis; CFI: Compa a i e i index; d : Deg ee o
eedom; DM: Decision Making; EFA: Explo a o y ac o analysis; GO: Goal
O ien a ion; h2: Communali ies; ISCED: In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o
Educa ion; KMO: Kaise -Meye -Olkin measu e; M: Mean; MAP: Minimum a e -
age pa ial analysis; RMSEA: Roo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion; SC: Sel -
Con ol; SD: S anda d de ia ion; SRQ: Sel -Regula ion Ques ionnai e; SRQ-CZ:
Czech Sel -Regula ion Ques ionnai e; TLI: Tucke –Lewis index; x2: Chi-squa e;
α-i: C onbach’s α i he i em is dele ed.
Supplemen a y In o ma ion
The online e sion con ains supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi.
o g/ 10. 1186/ s41155- 022- 00241-z.
Addi ional ile1. O e iew o he SRQ-CZ i ems including desc ip i e
s a is ics (n = 1,711).
Addi ional ile2. Co ela ion be ween SRQ-CZ subscales and he ull
scale (n = 855).
Addi ional ile3. E alua ed ac o s uc u es o a co ela ed h ee- ac o
model (n = 856).
Addi ional ile4. CFA goodness-o - i s a is ics o he de aul model
ac oss coun ies.
Addi ional ile5. Measu emen in a iance o he de aul model o
coun y.
Addi ional ile6. Reliabili y o he de aul model ac oss samples.
Acknowledgemen s
No applicable.
Au ho s’ con ibu ions
JV con ibu ed in he e iew esea ch, da a analysis, and inal w i ing. IK
con ibu ed in he da a analysis. JK con ibu ed in he concep ion and design
o he wo k. ZN con ibu ed in he da a collec ion. MCV con ibu ed in he
da a collec ion. AW con ibu ed in he da a collec ion. All au ho s ead and
app o ed he inal manusc ip .
Funding
This a icle was esea ched and w i en wi h he kind inancial suppo o he
DANUBE p ojec : De elopmen o new and agogical diagnos ic app oaches
and in e en ions o he adul docili y phenomenon. P ojec numbe :
2020-1-SK01-KA204-078313.
A ailabili y o da a and ma e ials
The da ase s used and analysed du ing he cu en s udy a e a ailable om
he co esponding au ho on easonable eques .
Decla a ions
E hics app o al and consen o pa icipa e
Da a collec ion and da a analysis ollow e hical p inciples o esea ch, espec ing he
ICC/ESOMAR In e na ional Code (ESOMAR, 2016). The p inciple o anonymi y keeps
pa icipan s anonymous and he esea che s emphasized olun a y pa icipa ion
and in o med consen h oughou he s udy. Pa icipan s we e in o med abou he
aims o he esea ch and ha he gi en in o ma ion would be ea ed con iden ially.
Fu he mo e, g an -p ojec e iewe s e alua ed he g an p oposals wi h espec o
hei e hical implica ions and assu ed he sa e y and igh s o pa icipan s.
Consen o publica ion
Au ho s decla e ha hey ha e consen o publish p esen ed pape . Au ho s
ha e pe mission om he o iginal au ho s o he SRQ-CZ o use and adap
hei wo k in his esea ch.
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e ha he esea ch was conduc ed in he absence o any
comme cial o inancial ela ionships ha could be cons ued as a po en ial
con lic o in e es .
The au ho s decla e no ac ual o po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h espec o
he esea ch, au ho ship, o publica ion o his a icle.
Au ho de ails
1 Resea ch Cen e o FHS, Tomas Ba a Uni e si y in Zlín, Zlín, Czech Republic.
2 Ma ej Bel Uni e si y, Facul y o Educa ion, Banská Bys ica, Slo akia. 3 Uni e -
si y o No i Sad, Facul y o Educa ion, Sombo , Se bia. 4 Pedagogical Uni e si y
o C acow, C acow, Poland.
Recei ed: 17 Sep embe 2022 Accep ed: 5 Decembe 2022
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