Vol.:(0123456789)
Spo Sciences o Heal h
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s11332-025-01393-y
RESEARCH
E ec s o analogy andexplici ins uc ional s a egies ona ec i e
esponses du ingli ing asks amongno ice exe cise s
AngelCa ne o‑Diaz1,2· Ja ie Pecci1· Ad ianaKapláno á3
Recei ed: 18 Augus 2024 / Accep ed: 25 Ma ch 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac
The ins uc ion gi en be o e a li ing ask could modula e he a ec i e esponses o he pa icipan s in a aining p og am.
This s udy aimed o analyze he e ec s o wo ypes o ins uc ion—analogy and explici —on he a ec i e esponses o no ice
exe cise s du ing li ing asks. Twen y-one subjec s pa icipa ed in he p esen s udy. A c osso e design was employed, in
which all pa icipan s expe ienced bo h ins uc ional condi ions in a andomized wi hin-subjec s app oach. Ins uc ion was
p o ided be o e pe o ming each li ing ask. On day 1, amilia iza ion was done abou ques ionnai es and asks. On days
2 and 3, pa icipan s pe o med he li ing asks unde hei assigned ins uc ional condi ion, wi h coun e balanced o de .
A ec i e esponses such as p e e ences, sel -e icacy, and eeling scale we e assessed a e he li ing ask. Pa icipan s
equally p e e ed analogy and explici ins uc ion. None heless, in hose pa icipan s who p e e ed analogy ins uc ion,
he o ce applied was educed. Sel -e icacy imp o ed wi h bo h ins uc ions (p < 0.001), while he eeling scale showed no
signi ican e ec s (p = 0.157). In conclusion, bo h ins uc ions enhanced sel -e icacy, bu only analogy ins uc ion educed
o ce p oduc ion. P o iding ins uc ion du ing exe cise enhances he o e all expe ience, pa icula ly o no ice pa icipan s,
by o e ing guidance and inc easing con idence.
Keywo ds Sel -e icacy· Feeling scale· Explici lea ning· Analogy· Coaching· Feedback
In oduc ion
The inc easing p e alence o seden a y beha io in
he con empo a y popula ion has p oposed subs an ial
challenges in public heal h. Skele al muscles ac as a key
endoc ine o gan [1], and he lack o i s s imula ion h ough
igo ous ac i i ies no only dep i es hem o bene icial
adap a ions bu is also linked o aging and poo heal h [2].
This con ex is pa icula ly ele an oday due o he g owing
incidence o men al heal h diso de s such as anxie y and
dep ession [3]. The connec ion be ween exe cise and o e all
heal h, especially men al heal h, goes beyond unc ional
adap a ions due o i s capaci y o modula e emo ions and
a ec i e esponses du ing p ac ice [4].
F om a decision-making pe spec i e, a oiding exe cise
may seem a ional due o he immedia e cos s in ime,
ene gy, and e o [5]. Howe e , nega i e a ec i e esponses
du ing exe cise, such as a igue and discom o [6], can
u he discou age pa icipa ion, despi e long- e m bene i s
[7]. This ension be ween sho - e m e o and long- e m
gains di ec ly impac s exe cise adhe ence (Fig.1).
Al hough exe cise induces sho - e m mood
imp o emen s (e.g., endo phin elease) [8], meaning ul
physiological changes, such as a loss and muscle gain, ake
weeks o de elop. Unde s anding hese challenges is key
o designing in e en ions ha enhance posi i e a ec i e
esponses and long- e m adhe ence. Se e al e o s ha e
been made o ind he op imal in ensi y o gene a ing
posi i e a ec i e esponses [9, 10], al hough a speci ic
pe cen age o in ensi y has no ye been de e mined [11].
Besides, i has been s udied how o o e come he main
ba ie o lack o ime, bu no esul s ha e been ound ha
shed ligh on he bes way o imp o e [12]. Some s udies
ha e a emp ed o ela e exe cise in ensi y o a ec i e
* Ad iana Kapláno á
ad iana.kaplano[email p o ec ed]
1 Depa men o Physical Educa ion andSpo , Uni e si y
o Se ille, Se ille, Spain
2 Uni e sidad Pablo de Ola ide, Se ille, Spain
3 Depa men o Spo Science inEducology andHumani ies,
Facul y o Physical Educa ion andSpo s, Comenius
Uni e si y inB a isla a, B a isla a, Slo akia
Spo Sciences o Heal h
esponses such as enjoymen p e e ences (PRF), sel -
e icacy (SE), eeling scale (FS), o au onomy [4, 13]. I is
well known ha posi i e eelings du ing aining p omo e
imp o emen s in con lic esolu ion du ing lea ning [4].
Howe e , o he a iables in exe cise p og ams can modula e
a ec i e esponses and adhe ence, such as he ype o
ins uc ion (augmen ed eedback) o sel -con olled p ac ice.
Some s udies ha e analyzed he in luence o a en ional
ocus de i ed om ins uc ion, bu hese in e en ions ha e
ocused on he dicho omy be ween ask-associa ed ocus
o dissocia ed ocus, o e looking he in luence o di e en
associa ed ins uc ions [14].
I seems ha ins uc ion ac s as augmen ed eedback [15]
acili a ing pe o mance knowledge h ough en i onmen al
in o ma ion [16] and p o iding g ea e bene i s in lea ning
and au onomy [13]. Howe e , en i onmen -o ien ed
ins uc ion, adi ionally known as an ex e nal ocus, is no
use ul in all asks due o mo emen speed [17] o lack o
in o ma ion in he en i onmen [18], such as li ing a load
om he g ound. In ha case, ou b ain gene a es, e en when
a ending o an ins uc ion ocused on he en i onmen ,
p ocessing as i i we e a ending o an ins uc ion ocused
on mo emen con ol, which esul s in lowe lea ning a es
[19, 20]. In hese cases, analogy ins uc ion (ANA) is an
al e na i e, when ins uc ion en i onmen -cen e ed is no
possible o assis he ask.
ANA acili a es mo emen execu ion by p omo ing
implici lea ning, educing conscious con ol, and
p e en ing dis up ions in mo o luency [21]. P e ious
s udies ha e shown ha ANA enhances mo o pe o mance
in dynamic asks by dec easing cogni i e load and
p omo ing au oma ici y [22], as well as in e e yday
si ua ions o p omo e lea ning in na u al con ex s [23].
Con e sely, explici lea ning (EXP) equi es he pa icipan
o consciously a end o mo emen execu ion, which
can imp o e p ecision bu may lead o highe cogni i e
demands and pe o mance b eakdown unde p essu e
[24, 25]. Mo eo e , he e is a body o e idence indica ing
mo o pe o mance de e io a ion when a en ion is
ocused on mo emen con ol a he han i s e ec on he
en i onmen , especially in some sec o s o he popula ion
[26]. These dis inc ions highligh he need o ailo
ins uc ional s a egies based on he lea ne ’s skill le el
and ask complexi y, ensu ing op imal mo o lea ning and
pe o mance. In addi ion, no ins uc ing a pe son can lead
o bad habi s ela ed o a en ion and subop imal esponses
due o sel -ins uc ion [27]. Despi e his, some people seem
o p e e his ype o a en ion (i.e., ocused on mo emen
con ol) [28]. In o he con ex s such as pain pedagogy,
he li e a u e is s able in s a ing ha pa icipan s should
be educa ed and ecei e sho lec u es on key concep s
ela ed o physiology o cogni i e aspec s [29]. This ac
can be aken in o accoun o educa e exe cise pa icipan s
on he impo ance o ollowing he ins uc ions gi en by
he p o essional, o no le ing hei hough s d i du ing
he asks [30]. None heless, i hey a e expe s in a skill,
he occupa ion o wo king memo y is so low ha he
pe o mance is no nega i ely a ec ed. On he o he hand,
in no ices wi h ewe esou ces a ailable [31] a ending o
an ins uc ion ocused on mo emen con ol o allowing he
pe son o sel -gene a e such ins uc ions may nega i ely
a ec pe o mance as well as a ec i e esponses because
no ice exe cise s ha e no inc eased in o ma ion (augmen ed
eedback) o know ha he exe cise is sa e and well
pe o med [32]. The e o e, encou aging p ac ice wi h be e
a ec i e esponses educes he ea o no being in con ol
o he ask and dec eases he amoun o e o , esul ing in
a be e pe o mance on he ask [33, 34]. In addi ion, he
Fig. 1 The diag am depic s he p ocess o no ins uc ing op imally. Failu e o p o ide augmen ed eedback p o okes nega i e esponses and
allows hedonis ic decision-making o modula e exe cise adhe ence
Spo Sciences o Heal h
p ac ice i sel educes he men al e o de i ed om i ,
since i acili a es he au oma ic con ol o he subco ical
pa hways [35]. This means ha i he pe son can exe cise
egula ly, i p omo es au onomy and adhe ence. The
concep ual pa hway model is delinea ed in Fig.2.
In insic mo i a ion eme ges as he c ucial ac o o
a posi i e expe ience o aining, in luencing bo h acu e
a ec i e esponses and long- e m pa icipa ion [16, 34].
Enhancing in insic mo i a ion in ol es no only add essing
he una ac i eness o exe cise in he sho e m bu also
p omo ing posi i e a ec i e esponses du ing he aining
session, he eby acili a ing long- e m au onomy and
compe ence [36]. Ou hypo hesis suppo s he idea ha
ins uc ion and/o eedback ac as key modula o s o exe cise
esponses. Ins uc ions ha acili a e an op imal ela ionship
be ween he o ganism and he ask a e hose ha appea o
be mos encou aging o au onomy and sel - eedback. To he
bes o ou knowledge, no p e ious s udies ha e s udied he
e ec o di e en ypes o ins uc ion (i.e., explici o he
con ol o he mo emen and based on analogy lea ning)
on acu e a ec i e esponses. The e o e, his s udy aimed
o analyze he in luence o di e en ypes o ins uc ion on
measu ed a ec i e esponses, in he hope o modula ing
exe cise beha io and imp o ing adhe ence o physical
ac i i y.
Ma e ials andme hods
Design
This is a andomized blinded clinical ial. This wo k
ecei ed e hical app o al acco ding o he Pablo Ola ide
Uni e si y e hics commi ee (code: 23/6-8) and egis e ed
in clinical ials ANZCTR (code: 386738).
Pa icipan s
16 males (age = 21.94 ± 3.21) and 5 emales (age = 22.15
± 1.36) we e included o his s udy. All pa icipan s we e
que ied ega ding hei in ol emen in o mal physical
exe cise o i ness aining. This inqui y aimed o mi iga e
po en ial complica ions a ising om pa icipan s de ia ing
om expe imen al ins uc ions due o he applica ion
o p e iously acqui ed s a egies du ing li ing asks
[37]. The e o e, he popula ion unde conside a ion is
cha ac e ized as no ice, since i has no ecei ed o mal
ins uc ion in physical exe cise o condi ioning p og ams.
Indi iduals who sel - epo ed such a s a us we e excluded
om he s udy. Addi ional exclusion c i e ia encompassed
a his o y o inju ies ha would make i impossible o make
submaximal e o s, as well as impai men s in es ibula ,
isual, o balance unc ions, ca dio ascula diseases,
o any neu ological diso de s [38] using a s anda dized
ques ionnai e be o e inclusion in he s udy. Pa icipan s
we e ec ui ed h ough social ne wo ks and ad e isemen s
o pa icipa ion. Those who me he equi emen s we e
andomly and blinded using a andomize so wa e (h ps://
www. andom. o g/). The equi ed sample size was p e-
de e mined using he G*Powe s a is ical p og am ( e sion
3.1.9.4; Dusseldo , Ge many) wi h he ollowing a iables:
ANOVA epea ed measu es (wi hin ac o s) based on α =
0.05, powe (1 − β) = 0.95, and e ec size o = 0.24. Ou
powe analyses e ealed a equi ed sample size o n = 20.
Be o e commencing hei pa icipa ion in he s udy, all
pa icipan s comple ed he Physical Ac i i y Readiness
Ques ionnai e (PAR-Q), o assess hei eligibili y. In
Fig. 2 P ocess esul ing om p ope ins uc ion. The diag am depic s he p ocess o ins uc ing op imally. P o iding augmen ed eedback
p omo es posi i es esponses and no allows hedonis ic decision-making o modula e exe cise adhe ence
Spo Sciences o Heal h
addi ion, pa icipan s p o ided in o med consen . The
p ocess o pa icipan s was epo ed ollowing he
Consolida ed S anda ds o Repo ing T ials (CONSORT)
guidelines [39] displaying hose 20 pa icipan s comple ed
all assessmen s. Only one pa icipan le he in e en ion
due o pe sonal complica ions o a end he e alua ion
sessions (Fig.3).
P ocedu es
Be o e he s a o he in e en ion, pa icipan s we e
ecommended no o pe o m high-in ensi y ac i i ies
48h be o e he e alua ion sessions. On day 1, he
amilia iza ion day, an h opome ic da a including heigh
and weigh we e measu ed using a mechanical elescopic
measu ing od (SECA® model 206, Hambu g, Ge many)
and a myoelec ical impedance analysis moni o (Tani a®
MC980MA PLUS model, A ling on Heigh s, Illinois).
This session aimed o amilia ize pa icipan s wi h
measu ing ins umen s such as he a ing o pe cei ed
exe ion (RPE), PRF, FS, SE, decla a i e knowledge (DK),
and dynamic and isome ic asks. Pa icipan s ecei ed
coaching on a wa m-up p o ocol in ol ing mobili y
exe cises, hip hinge and good mo ning exe cises, h ee
dynamic li s, and h ee isome ic pulls a 5/10, 7/10,
and 9/10 o maximum RPE. Rega ding ins uc ions
[40], pa icipan s we e in o med ha hey would ecei e
ins uc ion, and hei goal was o u ilize only his
in o ma ion du ing asks [41]. Subsequen ly, pa icipan s
pe o med h ee dynamic 25kg load li s (i.e., deadli )
and h ee 3-s isome ic pulls in he bo om posi ion [42].
Be o e each isome ic pull, pa icipan s we e eminded
o he condi ion ins uc ion, as in high-in ensi y asks,
he abili y o change in en ion is educed [43]. The es
ime be ween asks was 5min. On day 2, pa icipan s we e
di ided in o wo g oups, who engaged in li ing asks
unde wo di e en expe imen al condi ions: baseline o
con ol (CNT), and one expe imen al condi ion (ANA o
EXP). The con ol condi ion was execu ed a he beginning
o he in e en ion in all ins ances. Always a e making
a condi ion ask, he pa icipan was asked abou DK. The
o he wo ypes o ins uc ions we e coun e balanced a
leas 2days apa ac oss all pa icipan s o con ol o
possible o de e ec s. Pa icipan s we e eminded o he
Fig. 3 CONSORT low diag am ou lining he en ollmen , alloca ion,
and analysis o pa icipan s in he s udy. The diag am illus a es
he numbe o pa icipan s assessed o eligibili y, hose excluded,
andomized in o he in e en ion and con ol g oups, as well as he
ollow-up and analysis ou comes o each g oup
Spo Sciences o Heal h
ins uc ion a he beginning o he dynamic ask and be o e
he isome ic pull. On day 3, he same p ocedu e was
ollowed coun e balancing he expe imen al condi ions
be ween he g oups, wi h pa icipan s pe o ming
dynamic and s a ic asks unde he ins uc ion no used
on day 2. The same a iables we e measu ed. A e
comple ing he ask unde all ins uc ions, pa icipan s
illed ou ques ionnai es ela ed o ins uc ion PRF, SE o
ollowing ins uc ions, and he FS ega ding he di icul y
o emembe ing ins uc ions.
Expe imen al condi ions
Each pa icipan had o do dynamic and isome ic li s
unde 3 expe imen al condi ions as p e iously s a ed.
In CNT, assis an s jus encou age saying “T y o s and
up” and no di ec ing a en ion anywhe e, a oiding
cha ac e is ics o ANA o EXP lea ning. Expe imen al
condi ions (ANA and EXP) we e c ea ed o y o
eo ganize mo o con ol, imp o ing he % o muscula
ac i i y and o ce p oduc ion o lowe limbs, which be e
assis han back o uppe body muscle o unc ional
ac i i ies enhancing e gonomic, pe cei ed e o o
pain [44]. Back inju ies a e a common sou ce o long-
e m disabili y in wo king a eas, and many issues occu
usually du ing li ing asks [45]. EXP was used o ins uc
pa icipan s o di ec hei a en ion o p oducing o ce
wi h hei lowe limb muscles. ANA was used o pu he
i s pa icipan in an “expe imen al condi ion” whe e ha e
o y o s and up agains an in incible load on hei back
in a smi h machine. A e ha , pa icipan s we e ins uc ed
o “ y o make he same ha in condi ion be o e”. This
expe imen al condi ion was c ea ed because ANA needs
some cha ac e is ics o be ca ied ou p ope ly: i s ,
pa icipan s need o be amilia ized wi h he ask [46].
Second, despi e e bal ANA being e y common in he
scien i ic li e a u e, i is be e pe o med h ough eal
expe ience. The main eason is ha in his mo emen
(i.e., deadli ) i is no so easy o apply an ins uc ion
ha di ec s pa icipan a en ion o hei en i onmen ,
allowing he pa icipan o adop an ex e nal ocus (EF) o
a en ion, which appea s o be he op imal way o ins uc
[26] (Fig.4).
All ins uc ions exp essly p oposed by he a endees a e
p esen ed in Table1.
P e e ences (PRF)
The measu emen o PRF was ca ied ou ollowing he
p o ocol p oposed by Wul [47]. PRF was eco ded asking
he pa icipan s o p e e ed ins uc ion. The e o e, when
a pa icipan inishes he se o expe imen al condi ions, i
is asked abou wha kind o condi ion is he bes in his/he
opinion.
Feeling scale (FS)
The eeling scale (FS) is a widely alida ed measu e o
a ec i e alence, o iginally de eloped by Ha dy and Rejeski
[48] and commonly used o assess pleasu e o displeasu e in
esponse o a speci ic ask [49]. In his s udy, FS was used
o moni o pa icipan s’ a ec i e esponses o pe o ming a
ask ollowing a speci ic ins uc ion. Pa icipan s a ed hei
eelings on an 11-poin Like scale, anging om + 5 ( e y
good) o − 5 ( e y bad), wi h 0 ep esen ing a neu al s a e.
In addi ion, i s alidi y in Spanish-speaking popula ions has
been con i med [50].
Sel ‑e icacy (SE)
SE was assessed using a ques ionnai e adap ed and alida ed
o Spanish-speaking popula ions [51], based on Bandu a’s
sel -e icacy ques ionnai e, a well-es ablished ool o
e alua ing an indi idual’s con idence in success ully
pe o ming a ask [33]. In his s udy, SE was measu ed o
Fig. 4 Familia iza ion ask using analogy-based ins uc ion
Spo Sciences o Heal h
assess pa icipan s’ con idence in pe o ming he exe cise
co ec ly unde each ype o ins uc ion and i s po en ial
impac on au onomy in u u e asks. Pa icipan s a ed hei
con idence on a scale om 0% (no con iden a all) o 100%.
Decla a i e knowledge (DK)
The measu emen o DK was ca ied ou ollowing he
p o ocol c ea ed by an Abswoude [52]. When he ask was
inished, hey we e asked wha hey we e hinking abou
du ing he up ising. To educe di e ences caused by he
numbe o ules, he numbe o ules was minimized du ing
EXP [53, 54].
S a is ical analyses anddependen a iables
The da a a e shown as mean ± he s anda d de ia ion
(SD). The s udy u ilized a 2 (analogy and explici ) × 1
wi hin-subjec s design o e alua e ou comes such as o ce
p oduc ion adjus ed o body weigh , eeling scale o sel -
e icacy. Clus e s we e c ea ed acco ding o he p e e ence o
he subjec (i.e., analogy, explici o con ol ins uc ion) and
he p e e ence o he subjec s was epo ed as a pe cen age
o he o al. Ini ially, he Shapi o–Wilk es was employed
o check he no mal dis ibu ion o he con inuous a iables.
Following his, a compa ison o he di e ences ac oss he
con ol, ANA, and EXP condi ions in each clus e was
conduc ed using a 3-le el (con ol, ANA, and EXP) epea ed
measu es ANOVA. I a signi ican in e ac ion was de ec ed,
di e ences be ween each pai o condi ions (con ol s ANA,
ANA s EXP, and con ol s EXP) we e assessed using
he Tukey pos -hoc es . The e a-pa ial squa e (η2p) alue
was de e mined o quan i y he e ec size. A signi icance
h eshold was se a an alpha le el o 0.05. All s a is ical
analyses we e pe o med using he Jamo i so wa e (The
Jamo i p ojec , e sion 2.3.18).
Resul s
Ins uc ion p e e ences
Among he included pa icipan s (n = 20), 10 (50%) subjec s
p e e ed ANA ins uc ion, while 10 (50%) subjec s
p e e ed EXP ins uc ion. None heless, none (0%) subjec s
p e e ed he con ol condi ion.
Fo ce p oduc ion inp e e ence clus e s
The e ec s o ins uc ion on o ce p oduc ion based on he
p e e ence (ANOVA epea ed measu es) a e p esen ed in
Table1. Mauchly’s es indica ed ha he assump ion o
sphe ici y was no iola ed o hose subjec s who p e e ed
ANA (χ2(d ) = 0.564, p = 0.101). Howe e , Mauchly’s es
indica ed ha he assump ion o sphe ici y was iola ed
(χ2(d ) = 0.272, p = 0.005) o hose subjec s p e e ing
EXP. The e o e, G eenhouse–Geisse co ec ion was applied
(ε = 0.579) o his ou come and clus e .
Feeling scale
The e ec s o ins uc ion on eeling scale a e p esen ed in
Table2. Mauchly’s es indica ed ha he assump ion o
sphe ici y was no iola ed o his ou come (χ2(d ) = 0.857,
p = 0.250).
Sel ‑e icacy
The e ec s o ins uc ion on sel -e icacy a e p esen ed in
Table3. Mauchly’s es indica ed ha he assump ion o
sphe ici y was no iola ed o hose subjec s who p e e ed
ANA (χ2(d ) = 0.564, p = 0.101). Mauchly’s es indica ed
Table 1 Analogy, explici and
con ol ins uc ion p o ocols Explici Analogy Con ol
“A oid using you a m o pull”
“Use he s eng h o you legs”
Simula e he ask be o e li ing “A emp o ise up”
Table 2 E ec o ins uc ion in he di e en analyzed clus e s
ANA analogy, EXP explici
Compa ison p alue η2pSigni ican
di e ences
Ins uc ion e ec (ANOVA) p = 0.157 0.093 No
Tukey’s pos -hoc es s p > 0.05 No
Table 3 E ec s o ins uc ion on sel -e icacy
ANA analogy, EXP explici
Compa ison p alue η2pSigni ican
di e ences
E ec o ins uc ion on
sel -e icacy
p < 0.001 0.329 Yes
ANA s EXP p = 0.927 No
ANA s Con ol p = 0.002 Yes
EXP s Con ol p = 0.013 Yes
Spo Sciences o Heal h
ha he assump ion o sphe ici y was no iola ed o hose
subjec s who p e e ed ANA (χ2(d ) = 0.756, p = 0.081).
Discussion
The main inding o his s udy was ha bo h analogy (ANA)
and explici (EXP) ins uc ion p omo ed be e a ec i e
esponses compa ed o he con ol condi ion (CNT) du ing
li ing asks. Howe e , no signi ican di e ences we e
obse ed be ween ANA and EXP, sugges ing ha bo h
s a egies simila ly modula e a ec i e esponses in no ice
exe cise s.
The absence o signi ican di e ences be ween ANA and
EXP aligns wi h p e ious esea ch on mo o lea ning. While
explici ins uc ion p o ides de ailed mo emen cues ha
can enhance pe o mance, i also inc eases cogni i e load,
pa icula ly in no ices [55]. Con e sely, analogy ins uc ion
acili a es implici lea ning by educing a en ional demands
and p omo ing au oma ici y [56]. Howe e , in ela i ely
simple asks o when ins uc ional complexi y is minimized
ho ough educing numbe o ules, bo h s a egies may
yield compa able a ec i e and mo o ou comes [57]. This
may explain he simila esponses obse ed in ou s udy.
No signi ican di e ences we e ound be ween EXP and
ANA, wi h bo h ins uc ional s a egies being p e e ed o e
he CNT g oup. This inding aligns wi h p e ious esea ch,
which p esen s a con o e sy ega ding a en ional ocus
p e e ences. While some s udies sugges ha indi iduals
end o a o ins uc ions ela ed o in e nal ocus, o he s
p o ide e idence suppo ing a p e e ence o ex e nal
ocus s a egies [28, 47]. A possible explana ion o he
g ea e p e e ence o ANA and EXP o e CNT is ha
no ice exe cise s ypically seek high le els o decla a i e
knowledge (DK) o eel con iden ha hey a e pe o ming
he ask co ec ly [58].
Simila ly, a sub-analysis o o ce p oduc ion based on
ins uc ional p e e ences showed no signi ican a ia ions
be ween hese condi ions. Howe e , he con ol condi ion
(CNT) esul ed in highe o ce le els.
This could be explained by he ac ha , when pa icipan s
sel - egula e hei mo emen wi hou ex e nal guidance, hey
ely on p e-exis ing mo emen pa e ns ha may maximize
o ce ou pu bu no necessa ily op imize mo emen
e iciency [59].
Fo he eeling scale (FS), no signi ican di e ences
we e obse ed be ween condi ions, indica ing ha no ice
exe cise s did no pe cei e one ype o ins uc ion as mo e
bene icial in e ms o a ec i e esponses. This is consis en
wi h p io esea ch sugges ing ha indi iduals p ocess
in o ma ion di e en ly and may no ha e a uni e sal
p e e ence o ins uc ional s yle. This is consis en wi h he
indings discussed in he sec ion on p e e ences.
Sel -e icacy (SE) was he a iable ha showed he mos
signi ican di e ences among condi ions, wi h ANA leading
o he highes SE sco es, ollowed by EXP, bo h o which
we e supe io o CNT. This inding highligh s he impac
o ins uc ional s a egies on pe cei ed compe ence and
psychological esponses du ing exe cise.
Highe le els o sel -e icacy ha e been associa ed wi h
inc eased au onomy [60] and be e a ec i e esponses, as
indi iduals who eel mo e con iden in hei abili ies end o
expe ience less anxie y o unce ain y abou ask execu ion
[61]. Con e sely, when indi iduals doub whe he hey a e
pe o ming a ask co ec ly, cogni i e p ocesses may be
nega i ely a ec ed, leading o ad e se emo ional esponses
such as ea [62]. In addi ion, a lack o au onomy in ask
execu ion has been iden i ied as one o he main ba ie s o
exe cise adhe ence [63, 64].
In e es ingly, despi e he CNT condi ion esul ing
in he highes o ce p oduc ion le els, i also yielded he
lowes SE sco es. This sugges s ha while sel - egula ed
mo emen s a egies may acili a e o ce ou pu , he absence
o s uc u ed ins uc ion may lead o educed con idence in
ask execu ion. Gi en ha mo i a ion and adhe ence a e
s ongly in luenced by pe cei ed compe ence, s uc u ed
ins uc ion appea s essen ial o long- e m engagemen ,
pa icula ly in no ice o special popula ions. In hese cases,
achie ing posi i e a ec i e esponses should ake p io i y
o e me ely inc easing o ce p oduc ion. Acco ding o
sel -de e mina ion heo y, au onomy plays a cen al ole in
modula ing mo i a ion, which is one o he key pilla s o
adhe ence [16].
The signi ican di e ence in sel -e icacy be ween
ANA and EXP aligns wi h p io esea ch on ins uc ional
s a egies and pe cei ed compe ence. Explici ins uc ion,
by p o iding de ailed mo emen cues, may enhance he
pe cep ion o con ol and educe unce ain y. In con as ,
analogy ins uc ion os e s a mo e in ui i e lea ning p ocess,
po en ially in luencing sel -e icacy in a dis inc manne .
These indings unde sco e he impo ance o ailo ing
ins uc ional s a egies o op imize bo h mo o pe o mance
and psychological engagemen , pa icula ly in no ice
exe cise s.
One o he main p oblems in his ield o s udy is ha
p o essionals a ely educa e people on he impo ance o
ollowing ins uc ion since hey only pay li le a en ion o
he ele ance o ins uc ions. The e o e, he ad an ages and
consequences o one ype o ins uc ion o e ano he should
also be explained, as well as p o iding alue in ollowing
ins uc ion so ha he sel - alk gene a ed by he pe son is
o ien ed in he co ec way [15]. I is common ha in he
absence o ins uc ion, people end o epea mo emen s
wi hou any in en ions. In addi ion, sel - alk gene a ed by
he pe son when no ins uc ed, nega i ely a ec s aining
esul s [20]. P e ious esea ch quali a i ely s udied di e en
Spo Sciences o Heal h
aspec s o sel - alk, ema king ha 95% o he pa icipan s
use i du ing exe cise and ha in a signi ican numbe , his
sel - alk is ocused on “con olling he co ec echnique”
o he exe cise [25]. In his line, sel - alk can gene a e
egula ion p ocesses, hough s, and a ec i e esponses [65].
The e o e, hanks o inc eased eedback p oduced due o
ins uc ions be o e li ing, we can modi y a en ion and no
all in o sel - alk and i s consequences [66].
This s udy is he i s , o ou knowledge, o highligh
he impo ance o a ending o he a ec i e esponses
p omo ed by he ins uc ion gi en by p o essionals exe cise
ins uc ion o du ing e gonomics wo kshops ela ed o
occupa ional pos u al hygiene. He e, he need o e hink
exe cise p og amming is called o . Al hough i is known
ha he elemen s ha cause physical exe cise adap a ions
a e aining a iables, i is necessa y o pay a en ion o he
ype o ins uc ion, as well as he impo ance o ollowing
i by he pa icipan o an exe cise p og am o modula e he
adap a ions and he possibili y o p omo ing adhe ence o
exe cise.
A p ac ical applica ion de i ed om his s udy is he
need o educa e he no ice on he impo ance o a ending
exclusi ely o wha he p o essional guides in he i s s eps
o his/he aining, allowing o he ypes o ins uc ion wi h
he p og ess o his de elopmen , hanks o he au oma ic
p ocessing lea ned. In his way, he pa icipan will a end o
he ele an aspec s ha p omo e hei au onomy, disca ding
in o ma ion ha is no e y ele an o ha is de imen al o
lea ning o ask pe o mance a he momen when hey a e
mo e dependen . In his way, by p omo ing hese posi i e
a ec i e esponses, i is mo e likely ha in daily decision-
making, he pa icipan will no succumb o hedonism and
will endu e hei pa icipa ion in he long e m. Fu u e
s udies should assess o he po en ial in e es ing a iables
such as hose ela ed o elec oencephalog aphy, which
would allow us o ely on objec i e es s o con as he
hypo heses gi en by scien i ic e idence and o see he eal
physiological changes in he ce eb al co ex.
Conclusion
Ins uc ion needs o be p o ided as i p omo es sel -e icacy
in pa icipan s who a e no ices in a aining p og am.
This s udy demons a ed ha ANA ins uc ion as well as
EXP ins uc ion p omo ed posi i e a ec i e esponses
o e no ins uc ion along wi h he a iables o e o
dosage. In addi ion, his s udy showed ha pa icipan s
p e e ed ins uc ion o e no gi ing i be o e a li ing ask.
None heless, coaches should be awa e o a possible loss
o o ce p oduc ion in he ask, especially i he subjec
p e e ed implici (e.g., analogy) lea ning s a egies.
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains
supplemen a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/
s11332- 025- 01393-y.
Acknowledgemen s The au ho s exp ess hei g a i ude o all he
pa icipan s who gene ously con ibu ed hei ime o comple e his
s udy. This s udy was inished du ing he esidency pe iod in B a isla a
(Slo akia) o A.C.D. The e o e, he au ho s hanks o Facul y
o Physical Educa ion and Spo in COMENIUS UNIVERSITY
BRATISLAVA o a o ing he esea ch esidency o A.C.D. in
Comenius Uni e si y B a isla a.
Au ho con ibu ions Ángel Ca ne o-Díaz: concep ualiza ion;
da a cu a ion; o mal analysis; in es iga ion; me hodology; p ojec
adminis a ion; so wa e; supe ision; isualiza ion; oles/w i ing—
o iginal d a ; and w i ing— e iew and edi ing. Ja ie Pecci: da a
cu a ion; o mal analysis; me hodology; so wa e; isualiza ion; oles/
w i ing—o iginal d a ; and w i ing— e iew and edi ing. Ad iana
Kapláno á: isualiza ion, concep ualiza ion; oles/w i ing—o iginal
d a ; and w i ing— e iew and edi ing.
Funding Open access unding p o ided by The Minis y o Educa ion,
Science, Resea ch and Spo o he Slo ak Republic in coope a ion
wi h Cen e o Scien i ic and Technical In o ma ion o he Slo ak
Republic. Funding was p o ided by VEGA (G an numbe : 1/0786/21).
Da a a ailabili y No da ase s we e gene a ed o analyzed du ing he
cu en s udy.
Decla a ions
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in e es s.
E hical app o al This wo k ecei ed e hical app o al acco ding o
he Pablo Ola ide Uni e si y e hics commi ee (code: 23/6-8) and
egis e ed in clinical ials ANZCTR (code: 386738).
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conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion o Helsinki. All he
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