Academic Edi o : Ja osla Poko ný
Recei ed: 16 Decembe 2024
Re ised: 27 Janua y 2025
Accep ed: 28 Janua y 2025
Published: 4 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Ma ínez In an e, M.Á.;
Na a e e Rubia, B.; Vilches A enas,
L.F. Sul a e-Resis an Clinke Base
Cemen wi h New Seconda y Main
Cons i uen s: A Technical, Economic,
and En i onmen al Analysis. Buildings
2025,15, 479. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/buildings15030479
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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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A icle
Sul a e-Resis an Clinke Base Cemen wi h New Seconda y
Main Cons i uen s: A Technical, Economic, and
En i onmen al Analysis
Miguel Ángel Ma ínez In an e 1,*, Beni o Na a e e Rubia 2,* and Luis F ancisco Vilches A enas 2
1School o Indus ial Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Valladolid, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
2Depa men o Chemical and En i onmen al Enginee ing, Technical School o Enginee ing,
Uni e si y o Se ille, 41012 Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (M.Á.M.I.); [email p o ec ed] (B.N.R.)
Abs ac : The Spanish cemen sec o mus adap i s p oduc ion model o a g een economy
model. This s udy ocuses on he use o new seconda y main cons i uen s (SMCs) sui able
o a cemen plan ha specializes in sul a e- esis an (SR) cemen p oduc ion, de ining a
amewo k o echnical condi ions o hei usage and hei economic and en i onmen al
easibili y. Low-calcium-ca bona e-con en albe o, s eel slags, and i on silica e we e he
es ed SMCs; howe e , hey a e no cu en ly pe mi ed in cemen manu ac u e. CEM
I 42.5 R-SR 3 ( ype I-SR) was mixed wi h 5%, 20%, and 30% o hese new SMCs. XRF,
XRD, leaching and o he chemical es s, se ing, and ha dening es s we e pe o med wi h
no signi ican issues. Albe o is he bes op ion, on he whole, because o he ollowing
cha ac e is ics: a ailabili y, >100 M ; p oximi y, 3 km; and accep able comp essi e s eng h
le el. Howe e , black slag cemen wi h 30% SMC a e 28 days shows he bes pe o mance,
wi h a comp essi e s eng h o 41.3 MPa compa ed o 35.3 MPa o albe o cemen and
56.5 MPa o he ype I-SR e e ence. Albe o and s eel slag a 30% con en a e he bes
op ion acco ding o he cos sa ings o 32% (
−
31.5 EUR/ and
−
31.6 EUR/ , espec i ely)
compa ed o he ype I-SR e e ence. Rega ding he ca bon oo p in , albe o and s eel slag
a 30% con en ha e he leas impac , showing a 31% educ ion (
−
254.8 kg CO
2
/ and
−
255.2 kg CO
2
/ , espec i ely) compa ed o he ype I-SR e e ence. The s udied SMCs
mee he analy ical condi ions and—wi h he co esponding egula o y changes—o e
po en ial cos sa ings o SR cemen p oduc ion, exhibi ing a compe i i e ad an age.
Keywo ds: sus ainable cemen s; SR clinke ; albe o; i on silica e; whi e slag; black slag;
economic iabili y; ca bon oo p in
1. In oduc ion
The in eg a ed cemen p oduc ion p ocess is highly demanding in e ms o elec ical
and he mal ene gy and equi es subs an ial mine al esou ces. Signi ican amoun s o CO
2
a e emi ed du ing p oduc ion due o he una oidable deca bona ion o aw ma e ials and
he combus ion needed o clinke calcina ion [1].
The Eu opean Union (EU) is a global leade in he igh agains clima e change,
imposing speci ic equi emen s on indus ial p oduc ion models, including he cemen
indus y. The Eu opean legisla i e amewo k is s a egically o ien ed owa ds he ci cula
economy, ene gy e iciency [2], and he educ ion in emissions, including CO2[3–5].
The su i al o he Eu opean, and speci ically he Spanish, cemen sec o hinges
on ansi ioning om a linea p oduc ion model o a mo e e icien , socially esponsible,
Buildings 2025,15, 479 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/buildings15030479
Buildings 2025,15, 479 2 o 26
and en i onmen ally sus ainable model. This new model mus also p io i ize economic
sus ainabili y o p e en he indus y om eloca ing o coun ies wi h less s ingen
en i onmen al egula ions, which would no add ess he unde lying p oblems.
To achie e clima e neu ali y objec i es by 2050, he Spanish cemen sec o has es-
ablished a oadmap wi h speci ic policies aligned wi h he Eu opean G een Deal and he
2030 Agenda.
I is based on ci cula i y and he li e cycle o p oduc s, aiming o posi ion he
cemen indus y as a d i e o change owa ds a mo e sus ainable way o building [6].
Ca bon emissions om clinke can be educed h ough he use o deca bonized
aw ma e ials, biomass uels, he inco po a ion o eco- uels such as g een hyd ogen, and
elec i ica ion in he p oduc ion p ocess, as well as he implemen a ion o echnologies o
s o e, cap u e, and u ilize he emi ed ca bon.
This s udy ocuses on minimizing he ca bon oo p in o he p oduced cemen s by
educing hei clinke con en and op imizing he p oduc ion p ocess.
Rega ding p oduc inno a ion, he cemen sec o , alongside inc easing he use o
pe mi ed pozzolanic ma e ials such as calcina ed clays and hyd aulic ma e ials such as
g anula ed blas u nace slag (g anula ed slag), is mainly de eloping new clinke s and
al e na i e SMCs o cemen manu ac u ing, such as by-p oduc s and indus ial was es.
The e a e di e en inno a i e ends o manu ac u ing mo e en i onmen ally iendly
cemen s. Beli e cemen s ha e been ex ensi ely s udied and o e signi ican en i onmen al
and ene gy ad an ages [
7
]; howe e , hey also p esen de iciencies in e ms o eac i i y.
Geopolyme s and he alkaline ac i a ion o aluminosilica es show g ea s eng h and
chemical a ack de elopmen a ea ly ages, bu ha e wo kabili y issues [
8
]. The e a e
also en i onmen al conce ns abou he signi ican CO
2
emissions o he alkaline solu ion
p oduc ion p ocess [
9
], as well as he o mula ion o cemen s inco po a ing new SMCs ha
a e cu en ly no allowed, and new concen a ions o cu en ly allowed SMCs.
Rega ding his las end, se e al esea ch p ojec s ha e been ca ied ou on
was e ma e ials wi h a ema kable pozzolanic pe o mance, such as ecycled ac i a ed
me akaolin [
10
,
11
], o ganic ma e ials such as suga cane bagasse and he mally ac i a ed
ice husks [
12
], ce amic was e [
13
], clay was e [
14
], olcanic la a [
15
], cons uc ion and
demoli ion was e [
16
], he mally ac i a ed coal mining was e [
17
], and biomass bo om
ash [18].
The Eu opean and Spanish egula ions ega ding he hyd aulic conglome a e p omo e
he use o SMCs in cemen s [
19
–
22
], bu a e cau ious due o he pe o mance epe cussions,
mainly on du abili y, ha he new cemen s may ha e.
This s udy add esses new ypes o cemen based on he use o SMCs ha a e no
cu en ly pe mi ed by he EU egula ions, aking a sul a e- esis an (SR) clinke base
cemen as a e e ence.
The SR clinke base cemen is om a cemen plan wi h 100% sul a e- esis an clinke
p oduc ion because o he e y low Al
2
O
3
con en in he main aw ma e ials. Due o he
low icalcium alumina e (C
3
A) con en (<3%), i is mo e di icul o p oduce cemen s wi h
a high con en o SMCs a he same le el o icalcium silica e (C
3
S) because hey esul
in a lowe s eng h a ea ly ages. This could be a compe i i e disad an age compa ed
wi h a highe C
3
A clinke base cemen , depending on he cemen applica ions. I is e en
mo e challenging o ind new SMCs ha a e a ailable in su icien quan i y and p oximi y
o he cemen plan o allow o a educ ion in he clinke con en o he cemen wi hou
comp omising i s p ope ies. The e o e, he choice o new SMCs has o do wi h he
p omo ion o he p inciple o he ci cula economy, was e usage, o elemen s wi h a lowe
ca bon oo p in o imp o e he compe i i eness o cemen plan s in Eu ope.
The expe imen al wo k ocuses on using a ype I cemen , CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3 ( ype
I-SR), as a e e ence. This cemen is g ound a he labo a o y le el wi h SMCs in di e en
Buildings 2025,15, 479 3 o 26
p opo ions, 5%, 20%, and 30%, o o mula e a cemen sui able o mos common appli-
ca ions, om s uc u al pu poses o mo a . The esul s o he es plan will es ablish a
co ela ion o e alua e he possibili y, wi h he co esponding egula o y changes, o using
hese new SMCs o he manu ac u e o ype II/A (5% and 20% SMC mix u es) and ype
II/B (30% SMC mix u es) cemen s. Rega ding comp essi e s eng h pe o mance, i would
be possible o p oduce ype 42.5 R wi h 5% SMC mix u es, ype 42.5 N wi h 20% SMC
mix u es, and ype 32.5 R wi h 30% SMC mix u es.
Rega ding he SMCs, h ee ma e ials we e chosen which a e pe mi ed acco ding
o he EU s anda ds [
23
]—limes one, blas u nace s eel-g anula ed slag, and siliceous
ly ash—and ou ma e ials whose usage is no cu en ly pe mi ed as SMCs in cemen :
low-calcium-ca bona e-con en albe o [
24
], i on silica e, whi e elec ic s eel u nace slag,
and black elec ic s eel u nace slag. All o hese al e na i e ma e ials a e a ailable a he
cemen plan .
Once all he SMCs had been cha ac e ized, physical and chemical es s we e ca ied ou
o e i y he beha io o he cemen s manu ac u ed wi h he al e na i e SMCs compa ed
wi h cemen s p oduced wi h he pe mi ed ones. S eng h, soundness, leaching, and
g anulome y a e some o he a iables ha should be conside ed be o e making a p oposal
o he use o hese new ma e ials.
This s udy e alua es he pe o mance o cemen s manu ac u ed wi h SR clinke and
non- egula ed SMCs compa ed o adi ional ones. I p esen s a ange o op ions, en-
abling he adap a ion o cemen s manu ac u ed wi h SR clinke in an economically and
en i onmen ally op imal way, pa icula ly om a ca bon oo p in pe spec i e.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
Limes one (Cemen os Po land Valde i as, S.A., Gilena, Se ille, Spain), g anu-
la ed slag (A celo Mi al, S.A., Gijón, As u ias, Spain), and siliceous ly ash (Repsol,
S.A., Espiel, Co doba, Spain), which a e pe mi ed cemen componen s acco ding o
UNE-EN 197-1:2011 [23],
ha e been s udied. In he same way, ou non-pe mi ed ce-
men SMCs ha e also been examined: low-calcium-ca bona e albe o (Cemen os Po land
Valde i as, S.A., Alcalá de Guadaí a, Se ille, Spain), i on silica e (A lan ic Coppe , S.A.,
Huel a, Spain), whi e elec ic u nace slag, and black elec ic u nace slag (Side ú gica
Se illana, S.A., Alcalá de Guadaí a, Se ille, Spain).
2.1. Ma e ials
2.1.1. SR Clinke : P ima y Cemen Componen
The manu ac u e o SR cemen is egula ed by Eu opean egula ions h ough he
UNE-EN 197-1:2011 s anda d, wi h cemen s subjec o CE ma king. Addi ionally, in
Spanish e i o ies only, Royal Dec ee 1313/1988 [
25
] app o es he manu ac u e o o he
sul a e- esis an cemen s and cemen s esis an o ma ine en i onmen s acco ding o UNE
80303-1:2017 [
26
] and UNE 80303-2:2017 [
27
]. In all hese cases, excep ype III cemen
p oduc ion acco ding o UNE-EN 197-1, clinke wi h a es ic ed C
3
A con en is used. In
he Spanish egula ions, Royal Dec ee 256/2016 [
28
] (an ins uc ion o he ecep ion o
cemen s) and Royal Dec ee 470/2021 [
29
] (a s uc u al code) es ablish he gene al echnical
p esc ip ions ha cemen s mus sa is y, along wi h egula ions o hei ecep ion on si e
and condi ions o hei use in s uc u al applica ions.
The p ope ies o SR clinke ha e been widely s udied. I has been shown o inc ease
he du abili y o manu ac u ed conc e es and mo a s due o i s esis ance o a ack by
sul a es and seawa e compounds [
30
]. On he o he hand, i s lowe eac i i y due o he
lowe C
3
A con en s. o dina y Po land cemen clinke means ha cemen s manu ac u ed
wi h SR clinke ha e a lowe ini ial comp ession s eng h while con aining equal C
3
S con-
Buildings 2025,15, 479 4 o 26
en s [
31
]. Mo eo e , he lowe hea gene a ion o SR cemen du ing hyd a ion nega i ely
a ec s he se ing pe o mance in mo a pas es and conc e e cu ing in cold en i onmen s.
In Spanish in eg a ed cemen plan s, he p oduc ion o SR and MR cemen s ep esen ed
12% o he o al, 1.8 M , in 2022, o which 65% we e ype I cemen s, 7% ype II, 16% ype III,
and 12% ype IV [
32
]. By s eng h ca ego y, ypes 52.5 and 42.5 accoun ed o 95% o he SR
and MR cemen s manu ac u ed.
Fu he mo e, some cemen plan s, due o he cha ac e is ics o hei main aw ma e ials
o manu ac u e, canno compe i i ely p oduce clinke s o he han SR. The adap a ion
o comp essi e s eng h pe o mance would necessi a e inc easing he C
3
S con en o he
manu ac u ing clinke , which would hen be mo e di icul o calcine. This would inc ease
i s ca bon oo p in , independen ly o he epe cussions on he cos o aw ma e ials and
he p oduc ion pe o mance o he clinke kiln. To he au ho s’ knowledge, excluding SR
and MR cemen s, his si ua ion was ue o 4% o he cemen p oduced in Spain in 2022, o
app oxima ely 0.65 M [32].
2.1.2. Albe o
Low-calcium-ca bona e-con en albe o, unde 75%, is an SMC iden i ied wi h he
calca eni es o Los Alco es, a egion eas o Se ille, Spain. The calca eni e baseline compo-
si ion, he cemen plan con ol o e p oduc a ailabili y, he ma e ial being loca ed in a
qua y owned by he cemen p oduc ion cen e , and he p oximi y o he p oduc ion cen e
a e he main easons o conside his SMC in he s udy.
2.1.3. I on Silica e
I on silica e is a by-p oduc ob ained ia he me allu gical p ocess o coppe me al
p oduc ion. I s a ailabili y in p oximi y o he cemen plan and i s composi ion and
mine alogy a e he easons o i o be included in his s udy [
33
]. I on silica e has been
used as an SMC in he manu ac u e o cemen in Spain unde he ollowing s anda ds: UNE
80301-85 Cemen —de ini ions, classi ica ion and speci ica ions [
34
], and UNE 80302-85
Cemen —chemical speci ica ions o cemen componen s [
35
]. The e ision o s anda d
UNE 80301-96 Cemen —de ini ions, classi ica ion and speci ica ions, elimina ed he usage
o non- e ous slag in he manu ac u e o cemen s [
36
]. Conce ns we e aised abou he
sa e y o i s use due o he po en ial leaching o hea y me als o o he compounds in
applica ions in ol ing con ac wi h d inking wa e , al hough no conclusi e s udies ha e
been conduc ed on he ma e .
2.1.4. S eel Slags
Black slag and whi e slag a e was es gene a ed in he s eelmaking p ocess in elec ic
u nace s eel plan s. The easons o conside ing hese SMCs in he s udy include hei
a ailabili y ( hei p oximi y o he p oduc ion cen e ), complying wi h he p inciples
o he ci cula economy (ins ead o sending i o land ill), and a oiding he usage o
o he SMCs whose p oduc ion has a g ea e en i onmen al impac . Finally, he e a e
al eady speci ic egula ions abou cemen s made om s eel slag in o he coun ies, such as
GB/T 13590-2022 [37] Po land cemen s om s eel slag, in China.
2.2. Me hodology: SMC Tes Plan
The p ocedu e o eques ingand p epa ing SMCsamples wasas in
UNE-EN 932-1:1997 [38].
Tes s we e conduc ed o de e mine he gene al p ope ies o agg ega es. Pa 1: Sampling
me hods. The SMC es s ep esen he a e age esul s o i e analyses. The hea y me al
es s o he speci ic samples o his s udy we e ou sou ced, bu he e e ence cemen plan
al eady had se e al hea y me al epo s based on di e en samples o base cemen and
Buildings 2025,15, 479 5 o 26
SMCs. These we e used as aw meal componen s o clinke p oduc ion. The esul s om
he hea y me al s udy samples co obo a e he p e ious ones.
Table 1p esen s he speci ic es plan ca ied ou on he ma e ials used as SMCs in he
o mula ed cemen s, e lec ing he egula ions ha desc ibe he me hodology o each es
and i s jus i ica ion.
Table 1. Tes plan o he s udied SMCs, egula ions, and me hodology applicable o each es and
pe o mance jus i ica ion.
Tes Plan Regula ion/Tes Me hodology Commen s
Chemical composi ion
UNE-EN 196-2:2014 [39] Tes me hods
o cemen s. Pa 2: Chemical analysis
o cemen s.
Me hodology: X- ay
luo escence spec oscopy.
ARL 9800 XP TCA (The mo Fishe
Scien i ic Inc., Wal ham, MA, USA)
X- ay luo escence spec oscopy o
he chemical elemen s, in he o m o
oxides p esen in he samples,
explains ce ain beha io s o he
cemen s and conc e es manu ac u ed
wi h hese SMCs.
Soluble chlo ide
de e mina ion
Ion-selec i e elec ode (Me le -Toledo
In e na ional Inc., Columbus, OH, USA)
Chlo ine is impo an due o i s
capaci y o a ec me allic in e nal
componen s in conc e e s uc u es
h ough co osion phenomena.
F ee lime con en
UNE-EN 1744-1:2010+A1:2013 [
40
] Tes s
o de e mine he chemical p ope ies o
agg ega es. Pa 1: Chemical analysis.
X- ay di ac ion me hodology. CubiX3
Cemen (Mal e n Panaly ical L d.,
Wo ces e shi e, UK)
I may in luence olume s abili y
beha io s in he o mula ed cemen s
depending on he SMC composi ion.
Alkalis (sodium equi alen )
UNE-EN 196-2:2014 Tes me hods o
cemen s. Pa 2: Chemical analysis
o cemen s.
Me hodology: X- ay
luo escence spec oscopy.
K2O and Na2O con en s may a ec
he olume s abili y p ope y due o
he eac ion o agg ega es wi h he
alkalis p esen in cemen s used in he
manu ac u e o mo a s
and conc e es.
Insoluble esidue in hyd ochlo ic
acid and sodium ca bona e
UNE-EN 196-2:2014 Tes me hods o
cemen s. Pa 2: Chemical analysis
o cemen s.
Uncombined silica index p o ides
in o ma ion on he ypology o he
cons i uen elemen s o he SMCs.
Humus con en
UNE-EN 1744-1:2010+A1:2013 Tes s o
de e mine he chemical p ope ies o
agg ega es. Pa 1: Chemical analysis.
The humus con en o an agg ega e is
de e mined by he colo ha appea s
when a es po ion is s i ed in a
sodium hyd oxide solu ion. I may
a ec he se ing ime and ha dening
o cemen .
To al o ganic ca bon con en
DIN EN 13137 [41] Cha ac e iza ion o
was e—de e mina ion o o al o ganic
ca bon in was e, sludge and sedimen s.
UNE-EN 13639 [42] De e mina ion o
o al o ganic ca bon in limes one.
Tes o he used SMCs. Has he
possibili y o a ec ing he se ing
ime and ha dening o he cemen .
Hea y me als
S anda d e e ed o in he able o
esul s. Va ies depending on he elemen
o be de e mined.
Hea y me al analysis o each SMC
and o he cemen CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3
used as a base in he o mula ion.
This es is used as a e e ence o
leaching es s.
Buildings 2025,15, 479 6 o 26
2.3. Me hodology: Cemen Tes Plan
The nex s ep is he p epa a ion o he samples o he o mula ed cemen s, using he
aw ma e ials analyzed in he p e ious sec ion as SMCs. The p ocedu e is based on cemen
ype CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3, a sample o g ound indus ial cemen om a Cemen os Po land
Valde i as, S.A. plan loca ed in Se ille, Spain, o which SMCs we e added in p opo ions
o 5%, 20%, and 30% o mass. All he SMCs o be in oduced in o he lab mill (Re sch
GmbH, Haan, Ge many) we e d ied a 105
◦
C un il a cons an mass was achie ed. The
ineness speci ica ion o all he SMCs o 33% maximum was e ained on he 32
µ
m sie e,
wi h 20 min in he lab mill a e 80 min lab g inding o coa se SMCs: limes one, albe o, i on
silica e, and s eel slags. No p epa a ion was equi ed o he g anula ed slag and ly ashes
as hey we e as ine as he cemen . The cemen esul ing om his ype I-SR p epa a ion
was called “base cemen ”, wi h 20 min in he lab mill.
Comp essi e s eng h ep esen s he a e age alue o wo es s o he age o b eakage
o each cemen . Fo he es o he es s, an analysis was ca ied ou o each ype o cemen .
Addi ionally, leaching es s we e conduc ed a a haza dous was e land ill acili y, wi h h ee
analyses o each sample pe o med o de e mine he a e age alues.
Table 2lis s all he o mula ed cemen s es ed in his s udy wi h hei de ailed composi-
ion and he sample code used o simpli y he ull designa ion in u he ables
and igu es.
The pu pose o he es plan, gi en in Table 3, was o de e mine he physical and
chemical beha io o cemen s manu ac u ed wi h he al e na i e SMCs by compa ing he
es esul s ob ained wi h hose SMCs wi h he cemen s manu ac u ed wi h he SMCs
cu en ly pe mi ed acco ding o UNE-EN 197-1.
Buildings 2025,15, 479 7 o 26
Table 2. Cemen mix u es’ composi ion (% mass).
Cemen Composi ion
(% Mass) To als 100% Sample Code Clinke Gypsum Fe ous
Sul a e Limes one Albe o Whi e S eel
Slag Black S eel
Slag I on Silica e Fly Ash G anula ed
Slag
Base cemen BC 92.00 3.50 0.50 4.00
Base cemen + 5% Limes one BC5Limes one 87.40 3.33 0.48 8.80
Base cemen + 5% Albe o BC5Albe o 87.40 3.33 0.48 3.80 5
Base cemen + 5% Whi e slag BC5Whi e slag 87.40 3.33 0.48 3.80 5
Base cemen + 5% Black slag BC5Black slag 87.40 3.33 0.48 3.80 5
Base cemen + 5% I on silica e BC5I on silica e 87.40 3.33 0.48 3.80 5
Base cemen + 5% Fly ash BC5Fly ash 87.40 3.33 0.48 3.80 5
Base cemen + 5% G anula ed slag BC5G anula ed slag 87.40 3.33 0.48 3.80 5
Base cemen + 20% Limes one BC20Limes one 73.60 2.80 0.40 23.20
Base cemen + 20% Albe o BC20Albe o 73.60 2.80 0.40 3.20 20
Base cemen + 20% Whi e slag BC20Whi e slag 73.60 2.80 0.40 3.20 20
Base cemen + 20% Black slag BC20Black slag 73.60 2.80 0.40 3.20 20
Base cemen + 20% I on silica e BC20I on silica e 73.60 2.80 0.40 3.20 20
Base cemen + 20% Fly ash BC20Fly ash 73.60 2.80 0.40 3.20 20
Base cemen + 20% G anula ed slag BC20G anula ed slag 73.60 2.80 0.40 3.20 20
Base cemen + 30% Limes one BC30Limes one 64.40 2.45 0.35 32.80
Base cemen + 30% Albe o BC30Albe o 64.40 2.45 0.35 2.80 30
Base cemen + 30% Whi e slag BC30Whi e slag 64.40 2.45 0.35 2.80 30
Base cemen + 30% Black slag BC30Black slag 64.40 2.45 0.35 2.80 30
Base cemen + 30% I on silica e BC30I on silica e 64.40 2.45 0.35 2.80 30
Base cemen + 30% Fly ash BC30Fly ash 64.40 2.45 0.35 2.80 30
Base cemen + 30% G anula ed slag BC30G anula ed slag 64.40 2.45 0.35 2.80 30
Buildings 2025,15, 479 8 o 26
Table 3. Tes plan o he cemen s o mula ed in his s udy wi h egula ions, applicable me hodology,
and pe o mance jus i ica ion.
Tes Plan Regula ion/Me hodology/(Specimen S a e) Commen s
Pa icle size dis ibu ion Lase g anulome y: Mal e n Mas e size 2000
(Mal e n Panaly ical L d., Wo ces e shi e,
UK)/(dus )
Fineness a ec s cemen beha io mainly in he
de elopmen o ini ial s eng hs, hyd a ion
eac ions, and g inding pe o mance.
Blaine UNE-EN 196-6:2019 [43] Tes me hods o
cemen s. Pa 6: De e mina ion o ineness. (dus )
Blaine gi es a measu e o he pa icle speci ic
su ace a ea. I a ec s he ini ial s eng h,
hyd a ion hea , hyd a ion eac ions, and
g inding pe o mance.
Chemical composi ion—main elemen s
UNE-EN 196-2:2014 Tes me hods o cemen s.
Pa 2: Chemical analysis o cemen s.
Me hodology: X- ay luo escence spec oscopy.
ARL 9800 XP TCA (The mo Fishe Scien i ic Inc.,
Wal ham, MA, USA). (dus )
I may allow us o explain ce ain beha io s o
he cemen s and conc e es ha a e analyzed in
he di e en es s. Due o he me hodology
used, hey a e ep esen ed in he o m
o oxides.
Elemen al mine alogical composi ion X- ay di ac ion wi h Rie eld me hod, CubiX3
Cemen (Mal e n Panaly ical L d.,
Wo ces e shi e, UK). (dus )
The cha ac e iza ion o he c ys alline phases
con ained in he es ed cemen s helps o
explain ce ain beha io s seen in he o he
es s ca ied ou .
Se ing ime UNE-EN 196-3:2017 [44] Tes me hods o
cemen s. Pa 3: De e mina ion o se ing ime
and olume s abili y. (pas e)
I explains wo kabili y condi ions, iden i ying
he s ages in which he cemen pas e loses
plas ici y by inc easing i s iscosi y (ini ial
se ing ime), and ceases i s de o mabili y by
acqui ing mo e igidi y ( inal se ing ime).
Soundness UNE-EN 196-3:2017 (pas e) E alua ion o expansi e beha io in cemen s.
Comp essi e s eng h
UNE-EN 196-1:2018 [45] Tes me hods o
cemen s. Pa 1: De e mina ion o s eng hs.
Mixe , IB32-40E compac ing uni , IB32-045E and
b eaking p ess, Au o es 250/10 W (IBERTEST
S.A.E, Mad id, Spain), clima ic chambe , CCK
NG (Dycome al S.L., Banyoles, Gi ona,
Spain). (mo a )
E alua ion o comp essi e s eng h
de elopmen o cemen mo a a 1, 2, 7, 28, 60,
and 90 days.
Loss on igni ion (975 ◦C) UNE-EN 196-2:2014 Tes me hods o cemen s.
Pa 2: Chemical analysis o cemen s. (dus )E alua ion o calcina ion weigh loss in
o mula ed cemen s.
Insoluble esidue in hyd ochlo ic acid and
sodium ca bona e UNE-EN 196-2:2014 Tes me hods o cemen s.
Pa 2: Chemical analysis o cemen s. (dus )
E alua ion o he calcina ion loss in cemen . I
may allow us o explain some beha io s o he
es ed cemen s.
F ee lime UNE 80243:2014 [46] Tes me hods o cemen s.
Chemical analysis. De e mina ion o ee
calcium oxide. E hylene glycol me hod. (dus )I may in luence olume s abili y beha io s.
Pozzolanici y UNE-EN 196-5:2011 [47] Tes me hods o
cemen s. Pa 5: Pozzolanici y es o pozzolanic
cemen s. (dus )
Indica o o pozzolanici y o he SMC due o
i s capaci y o eac wi h he po landi e
eleased du ing cemen hyd a ion, c ea ing
hyd aulically ac i e compounds.
Hea y me als The applied egula ion is explained in he able
o esul s. (dus )This es is used as a e e ence o
leaching es s.
Leaching
UNE-EN 12457-4:2003 [48]; UNE-EN
15216:2008 [49]
US EPA 9056-1 [50]; Analy ical echniques:
induc i ely coupled plasma op ical emission
spec oscopy, ICP-OAS, A io 200 (Pe kinElme ,
Inc., Shel on, CT, USA), and ion ch oma og aphy,
Me ohm IC Ne 2.3.SR3 (Me ohm AG, He isau,
Swi ze land) and in a ed spec oscopy, LECO
CS 230, (LECO Co po a ion, S . Joseph, MI,
USA). (mo a )
Cha ac e iza ion o wa e leaching o he
hea y me als p esen in he cemen .
3. Resul s
3.1. Resul s o SMC Tes s
3.1.1. XRF Analysis SMCs
The magnesium con en o he slags is exp essed as MgO due o i s po en ial expansi e
o igin in he o m o pe iclase, and he sul u p esen in he s eel slags is exp essed in Table 4
as SO3due o i s possible e ec on he se ing o he cemen s.
Buildings 2025,15, 479 9 o 26
Table 4. Elemen a y chemical composi ion.
Seconda y Main Componen
SiO2Al2O3Fe2O3CaO MgO SO3Na2O K2O
Limes one 0.19% 0.10% 0.12% 54.93% 0.48% 0.12% 0.04% 0.18%
Albe o 23.76% 0.70% 2.53% 39.91% 0.19% 0.11% 0.04% 0.15%
Whi e slag 19.17% 13.39% 4.81% 45.63% 13.63% 3.77% 0.13% 0.05%
Black slag 18.00% 12.58% 17.60% 32.63% 6.84% 2.08% 0.12% 0.04%
I on silica e 24.00% 2.44% 60.97% 1.95% 0.73% 1.15% 0.54% 0.87%
Fly ash 51.93% 25.52% 9.58% 0.69% 0.91% 0.43% 0.50% 2.57%
G anula ed slag 32.89% 11.04% 0.36% 42.93% 7.41% 0.13% 0.27% 0.47%
3.1.2. O he Tes s on he S udied SMCs
As indica ed in Table 5, he le el o soluble chlo ides in all he SMCs s udied was no
a limi ing ac o o he maximum chlo ide con en in common cemen s (
≤
0.1%). Howe e ,
he p esence o chlo ide in slags and i on silica e wi h a con en o e 50% he chlo ide
allowed in he manu ac u e o cemen s (0.1%), acco ding o UNE-EN 197-1: 2011, should
be moni o ed mo e exhaus i ely depending on he p opo ion o use.
Table 5. Resul s o o he es s on he s udied SMCs.
Seconda y Main Componen
(SMC)
Insoluble
Residue Humus F ee Lime Alkalis
Na Eq. TOC Soluble
Chlo ides Na2Oeq
Limes one 0.09% Nega i e 0.16% 0.16% 0.09% 0.02% 0.16%
Albe o 21.57% Nega i e 0.05% 0.14% 0.36% 0.03% 0.14%
Whi e slag 4.22% Nega i e 0.42% 0.16% 0.25% 0.07% 0.16%
Black slag 6.23% Nega i e 0.22% 0.15% 0.30% 0.08% 0.15%
I on silica e 5.79% Nega i e 0.17% 1.11% 0.00% 0.06% 1.11%
Fly ash 86.82% Nega i e 0.28% 2.19% 0.10% 0.04% 2.19%
G anula ed slag 0.30% Nega i e 0.39% 0.58% 0.35% 0.05% 0.58%
The analysis o K
2
O and Na
2
O con en makes i possible o de e mine expansi e
beha io by he eac ion o agg ega es wi h he alkalis p esen in cemen s used in he
manu ac u e o mo a s and conc e es.
Using he a io o molecula weigh s, he o al con en o hese wo elemen s is ex-
p essed as equi alen sodium: Na
2
Oeq = Na
2
0 + 0.658
×
K
2
0. Fly ash and i on silica e
con ibu e he mos alkali o he mix u e—2% and 1%, espec i ely.
The ee lime oxide con en o he SMCs appa en ly does no p esen any h ea o he
olume s abili y o he cemen s manu ac u ed wi h hese SMCs.
In he de e mina ion o he insoluble esidue, i is wo h no ing ha he alue o he
albe o is due o i s qua z con en and he alue o he ly ash is due o he p esence o
silicoalumina e compounds and he low lime con en .
Humus is a subs ance o med in he soil by he decomposi ion o animal o ege able
esidues. I s p esence is e alua ed due o i s possible e ec on he se ing and ha dening o
cemen . The humus con en o an agg ega e is de e mined by he colo ha appea s when a
es po ion is shaken in a sodium hyd oxide solu ion; he esul s o he p esence o humus
we e all nega i e.
To al o ganic ca bon is ano he elemen ha may a ec he cemen se ing ime. I
is de e mined acco ding o UNE-EN 13639 De e mina ion o To al O ganic Ca bon o
limes one and o he es o he SMCs acco ding o DIN EN 13137 Cha ac e iza ion o
was e and De e mina ion o o al o ganic ca bon in was e, sludge and sedimen s. As a
e e ence, he limes one used as an SMC in common cemen s, acco ding o UNE-EN 197-1,
mus no exceed 0.5% o he o al o ganic ca bon con en by mass acco ding o UNE-EN
13639. All he SMCs ha e a o al o ganic ca bon (TOC) con en below his e e ence alue.
Acco ding o UNE-EN 13639, he TOC con en o he SMCs used is i ele an .
Buildings 2025,15, 479 16 o 26
3.3.2. Mechanical Pe o mance o Fo mula ed Cemen s
Based on he esul s o comp essi e s eng h and he equi alen no ma i e equi e-
men s, all cemen s o mula ed wi h he new SMCs mee he no ma i e limi s a 2 and
28 days o UNE-EN 197-1.
The lab g inding p ocedu e was e ec i e in ha he e was no signi ican co ela ion
be ween he pa icle size dis ibu ion and he comp essi e s eng h.
The s eng h esul s o all he o mula ed cemen s, wi h 5%, 20%, and 30% SMC in he
base cemen , we e accep able and homogeneous.
The di e ences in comp essi e s eng h o he o mula ed cemen s we e mo e ap-
p eciable wi h 30% SMC (Figu e 4). Acco ding o he b eaks a 2 and 28 days, hey all
complied wi h a comp essi e s eng h ca ego y o 32.5 R cemen . In he case o cemen
wi h g anula ed slag, i showed a s eng h ca ego y o 42.5 N. The comp essi e s eng h a
2 days showed no ele an a ia ions be ween SMCs. A 28 days, he g anula ed slag had
he highes s eng h.
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 26
Figu e 4. Resul s o comp essi e s eng h 30% SMC and base cemen [23].
As o he hea y me al componen s ( he luo ide, chlo ide, and sul a e con en o he
SMCs), no no able educ ion in comp essi e s eng h was associa ed wi h he zinc, cop-
pe , cobal , o a senic con en p esen in he cemen s wi h i on silica e o in he cemen s
wi h black slag; he concen a ion o ch omium and manganese is ano he pa ame e o
be moni o ed.
Acco ding o he s anda d de ia ion in Figu e 5, he esul s a e in an accep able
ange, <2 MPa. No e again ha he addi ion o black slag cemen p oduces a sligh ly
highe s anda d de ia ion, abo e 1 MPa, a 7 days, which is a no mal alue.
Figu e 5. S anda d de ia ion (SD) esul s o comp essi e s eng h 30% SMC and base cemen .
Figu e 4. Resul s o comp essi e s eng h 30% SMC and base cemen [23].
Rega ding s eng h eco e y a e up u e, wi h his p opo ion o supplemen a y ce-
men i ious ma e ials (SCMs), he hyd aulic p ope ies o g anula ed slag, he pozzolanici y
o ly ash, and, o a lesse ex en , i on silica e, exhibi ed he bes pe o mance be ween
28 and 90 days. Black slag was he ou h addi ion wi h he bes s eng h eco e y om
28 days o 90 days.
As o he hea y me al componen s ( he luo ide, chlo ide, and sul a e con en o
he SMCs), no no able educ ion in comp essi e s eng h was associa ed wi h he zinc,
coppe , cobal , o a senic con en p esen in he cemen s wi h i on silica e o in he cemen s
wi h black slag; he concen a ion o ch omium and manganese is ano he pa ame e o
be moni o ed.
Buildings 2025,15, 479 17 o 26
Acco ding o he s anda d de ia ion in Figu e 5, he esul s a e in an accep able ange,
<2 MPa. No e again ha he addi ion o black slag cemen p oduces a sligh ly highe
s anda d de ia ion, abo e 1 MPa, a 7 days, which is a no mal alue.
Buildings 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 o 26
Figu e 4. Resul s o comp essi e s eng h 30% SMC and base cemen [23].
As o he hea y me al componen s ( he luo ide, chlo ide, and sul a e con en o he
SMCs), no no able educ ion in comp essi e s eng h was associa ed wi h he zinc, cop-
pe , cobal , o a senic con en p esen in he cemen s wi h i on silica e o in he cemen s
wi h black slag; he concen a ion o ch omium and manganese is ano he pa ame e o
be moni o ed.
Acco ding o he s anda d de ia ion in Figu e 5, he esul s a e in an accep able
ange, <2 MPa. No e again ha he addi ion o black slag cemen p oduces a sligh ly
highe s anda d de ia ion, abo e 1 MPa, a 7 days, which is a no mal alue.
Figu e 5. S anda d de ia ion (SD) esul s o comp essi e s eng h 30% SMC and base cemen .
Figu e 5. S anda d de ia ion (SD) esul s o comp essi e s eng h 30% SMC and base cemen .
Simila conclusions can be d awn o he cemen s wi h 5% SMC: hey a e all cha ac-
e ized as cemen s in he 42.5 R s eng h ca ego y, while cemen s wi h 20% SMC a e all
cha ac e ized as cemen s in he 42.5 N s eng h ca ego y. The comp essi e s eng h da a
a 2 days clea ly show he slowe e olu ion o cemen wi h g anula ed slag. The s eng h
o his, howe e , inc eases a 28 days and highe because o i s hyd aulic p ope ies. This
beha io is also obse ed wi h ly ash and i on silica e bu he e is less o an inc ease in
s eng h. Acco ding o he s anda d de ia ion, all he esul s a e in an accep able ange
(<2 MPa).
3.4. Leaching Tes
Gi en he composi ion o he new SMCs, leaching phenomena we e e alua ed o
iden i y any elemen in he cemen wi h he capaci y o be eleased in an aqueous medium
and cause some isks, mainly en i onmen al. Acco ding o he esul s in Table 10, all
he hea y me als, chlo ides, luo ides, sul a es, dissol ed o ganic ca bon, DOC, and o al
dissol ed solids (TDS) alues we e below he leaching limi s o nonhaza dous was es
acco ding o Decision 2003/33/EC o 19 Decembe 2002, which es ablished c i e ia and
p ocedu es o he accep ance o was e in land ills [
55
]. Compa ed o ine was e egula ion
limi s, he speci ic alues o ce ain pollu an s exceeded he limi s, e.g., ch omium [
56
]
limi s we e exceeded in he base cemen , cemen s wi h ashes, and 5% g anula ed slag. In he
case o molybdenum, cemen s wi h he p esence o i on silica e had he highes alues. As
o he DOC es , he e was a wide dis ibu ion in e ms o cemen s ha exceeded he limi
alue o ine esidues, including he cemen wi h 5% black slag. In conclusion, he leaching
es s conduc ed p oduced no signi ican esul s when compa ing he cemen s wi h he new
SCMs, he base cemen , and wi h he cemen s manu ac u ed wi h he egula ed SMCs.
Buildings 2025,15, 479 18 o 26
Table 10. Cemen leaching es . TDS: o al dissol ed solids; DOC: dissol ed o ganic ca bon. No e: Cemen wi h SMCs ha con ain highe hea y me al concen a ions
ma ked wi h an as e isk (*). The highes alues o he cemen leaching es s o each elemen a e in bold ed.
Release o Ra io Liquid/Solid = 10 L/kg
mg/kg D y Ma e ial
As Ba Cd C
To al Cu Hg Mo Ni Pb Sb Se Zn
Chlo ide
Fluo ide Sul a e DOC TDS
mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR mg/kg
DR ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm
BASE CEMENT <0.2 5.9 <0.1 0.59 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 3.20 0.12 4.78 364 600
BASE CEMENT + 5% SMC
Limes one <0.2 4.8 <0.1 0.45 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 2.01 0.09 3.05 257 500
Albe o <0.2 5.1 <0.1 0.39 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 3.01 0.08 4.02 296 700
Whi e slag <0.2 6.3 * <0.1 0.31 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 3.02 0.42 * 7.08 * 299 800
Black slag <0.2 7.8 * <0.1 0.17 * <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 * 0.24 2.58 * 0.15 * 3.99 * 558 700
I on silica e <0.2 * 5.0 <0.1 * 0.18 <0.2 * <0.2 0.5 <0.2 * <0.2 * <0.2 * <0.4 <0.2 * 2.62 0.27 3.47 * 371 800
Fly ash <0.2 6.7 <0.1 4.6 <0.2 <0.2 * <0.1 * <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 2.34 0.31 5.68 351 * 600
G anula ed slag <0.2 7.0 * <0.1 0.89 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 3.51 0.19 6.82 389 900
BASE CEMENT + 20% SMC
Limes one <0.2 6.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 1.29 0.11 4.82 361 600
Albe o <0.2 5.7 <0.1 0.24 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 2.11 0.13 5.11 204 700
Whi e slag <0.2 9.0 <0.1 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 2.87 0.31 * 5.33 * 357 900
Black slag <0.2 15.3 <0.1 0.1 * <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 * <0.2 2.05 * 0.34 * 5.99 * 443 700
I on silica e <0.2 * 5.8 <0.1 * 0.12 <0.2 * <0.2 3.1 <0.2 * <0.2 * <0.2 * <0.4 <0.2 * 1.48 0.41 8.15 * 422 500
Fly ash <0.2 3.8 <0.1 3.7 <0.2 <0.2 * <0.1 * <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 0.8 2.48 0.27 5.52 227 * 1000
G anula ed slag <0.2 1.8 * <0.1 0.23 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 2.71 0.24 2.25 209 800
BASE CEMENT + 30% SMC
Limes one <0.2 4.9 <0.1 0.28 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 1.59 0.11 3.51 309 600
Albe o <0.2 5.2 <0.1 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 1.96 0.09 3.76 251 600
Whi e slag <0.2 11.1 * <0.1 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 1.89 0.22 * 4.25 * 284 600
Black slag <0.2 17.1 * <0.1 <0.1 * <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 * <0.2 2.99 * 0.18 * 4.01 * 425 1000
I on silica e <0.2 * 1.8 <0.1 * 0.16 <0.2 * <0.2 5.6 <0.2 * <0.2 * <0.2 * <0.4 <0.2 * 2.31 0.31 8.97 * 230 700
Fly ash <0.2 1.2 <0.1 3.5 <0.2 <0.2 * <0.1 * <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 0.39 3.18 0.26 5.45 284 * 700
G anula ed slag <0.2 8.3 * <0.1 0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.4 <0.2 2.14 0.29 2.67 165 600
Limi alue
Non-haza dous was e [55]2 100 1 10 50 0.2 10 10 10 0.7 0.5 50 15,000 150 20,000 800 60,000
Limi alue Ine was e [55] 0.5 20 0.04 0.5 2 0.01 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.06 0.1 4 800 10 1000 500 4000
Buildings 2025,15, 479 19 o 26
The pu pose o his analysis was o de e mine i he e is a connec ion be ween he
hea y me al con en o he SMCs and he leaching analysis o he cemen s. We concluded
ha , wi h he concen a ions o hea y me als p esen in he main aw ma e ials o he
o mula ed cemen s, he e is no clea ans e o he es ed compounds om he SMCs o he
leached solu ion o he cemen s, Table 10. In compounds such as ba ium and molybdenum,
a mo e di ec elua e/SMC ela ionship can be seen; in o he s such as zinc and ch omium,
we ound an in e se ela ionship.
A e ca ying ou he cemen es plan wi h he new SMCs, we concluded ha none
o he applied es s ha e p oduced pa ame e s ha ad ise agains hei usage. Key aspec s
should be aken in o accoun o u u e legisla i e p oposals, such as g ea e con ol o
olume s abili y o o mula ions wi h whi e and black slag due o he p esence o elemen s
wi h he po en ial o expansion.
3.5. En i onmen al Analysis: Ca bon Foo p in E alua ion
The en i onmen al impac o he cemen manu ac u ing p ocess is quan i ied by e al-
ua ing CO
2
emissions, Table 11, which a e he p ima y con ibu ion o cemen p oduc ion
o global wa ming [
57
,
58
]. To simpli y he calcula ions, we de eloped a simple me hodol-
ogy o di e en ial e alua ion o ca bon oo p in s, conside ing he di ec CO
2
emissions
associa ed wi h he clinke used in he manu ac u e o each cemen , he CO
2
associa ed
wi h he logis ical ac i i y o he main SMCs used in he cemen s e alua ed, and he CO
2
linked o he ex ac i e and s ockpile p epa a ion ac i i ies, whe e applicable.
Table 11. Me hodology o calcula ing he ca bon oo p in o o mula ed cemen s [59–61].
kg CO2/ Cemen
(% Clinke + SMCs T anspo +
Ex ac i e Ac i i ies)
CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3
+5% SMC CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3
+20% SMC CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3
+30% SMC
kg CO
2
/ Cemen
Va . s. CEM I
kg CO
2
/ Cemen
Va . s. CEM I
kg CO
2
/ Cemen
Va . s. CEM I
Limes one 748.1 −37.8 634.7 −151.2 559.0 −226.8
Fly ash 752.7 −33.2 653.3 −132.6 586.9 −198.9
G anula ed slag 787.7 1.8 793.3 7.4 797.0 11.1
Albe o 743.4 −42.4 616.0 −169.9 531.0 −254.8
Whi e slag 743.3 −42.5 615.7 −170.1 530.7 −255.2
Black slag 743.3 −42.5 615.7 −170.1 530.7 −255.2
I on silica e 749.8 −36.1 641.5 −144.4 569.3 −216.6
The en i onmen al impac o he cemen manu ac u ing p ocess, in e ms o CO
2
emissions, was quan i ied o compa e he en i onmen al impac o he cemen s s udied
agains ha o a e e ence, base cemen . This me hodology akes in o accoun some ules
om he UNE-EN 15804:2012+A2:2020 [
59
] abou en i onmen al p oduc decla a ions o
cons uc ion p oduc s “ om c adle o ga e” using equi alen CO
2
emissions om modules
A1 and A2, aw ma e ials supply, and anspo o he plan ga e.
A CO
2
emission ac o was de e mined o each cemen depending on he SMC and
p opo ion used, which was hen compa ed wi h he equi alen a io o he e e ence
cemen , CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3, conside ing only he emissions associa ed wi h i s clinke
con en and he anspo o he limes one.
O he assump ions ha in o med he me hodology included:
•
Only he CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h he clinke p oduc ion p ocess and he diesel
consump ion du ing he anspo s age o he SMCs used in he o mula ion o he
cemen s s udied ha e been used, inco po a ing he CO
2
associa ed wi h he ex ac i e
ac i i ies o limes one and albe o.
•
CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h he p oduc ion o eco e able ma e ials a e no conside ed.
•CO2emissions associa ed wi h elec ici y consump ion a e no conside ed.
Buildings 2025,15, 479 20 o 26
•
The s ages o g inding, dispa ch, dis ibu ion, use, and end o li e o he cemen ,
as well as indi ec emissions, a e no e alua ed because hey a e conside ed o be
di e en ially neu al.
•A a io o 850 kg o CO2pe on o clinke has been conside ed.
•The clinke con en o he e e ence cemen is 92%, as men ioned in Table 2.
•
The CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h he consump ion o gypsum and e ous sul a e
a e no accoun ed o .
We concluded ha , in all cases, excep cemen manu ac u ed wi h blas u nace slag,
he CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h cemen s ha con ain SMCs a e educed compa ed o he
e e ence cemen wi h a highe clinke con en . The usage o g anula ed slag is penalized
by he dis ance o he poin o consump ion. On he o he hand, CO
2
emissions associa ed
wi h ex ac i e ac i i ies a e no ele an .
3.6. Economic Analysis
The cemen s we e also analyzed om an economic poin o iew, as in Table 12; hei
p oduc ion cos was de e mined and compa ed wi h ha o he base cemen , CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3, unde he ollowing assump ions:
•
Ma e ial p ices a e conside ed a he cemen p oduc ion plan ; he cemen CO
2
p ice also has o be aken in o accoun , conside ing an emissions a io o 850 kg
CO2/ clinke .
•
Bulk cemen p oduc ion cos is calcula ed wi hou conside ing he cos o he cemen
g inding s age by mul iplying he p ice o he ma e ials used in hei manu ac u e.
•No a ia ion in cemen g inding cos be ween he di e en cemen s s udied is conside ed.
•
The e ec on he p oduc ion cos o di e ences in he pe o mance o he cemen s
s udied is no conside ed.
•
Va ia ions in he SMC o gypsum and e ous sul a e among he cemen s s udied a e
no conside ed.
•CO2is conside ed a aw ma e ial om he p oduc ion cos poin o iew.
•
Only he clinke p oduc ion CO
2
emissions ac o is conside ed. No indi ec CO
2
emissions ha e been aken in o accoun .
•Cos s and p ices ha e been included acco ding o he au ho s’ c i e ia.
In conclusion, wi hou aking in o accoun he di e ences in cemen p ope ies pe -
o mance, all he new o mula ions educe he p oduc ion cos compa ed wi h he base
cemen . Addi ionally, he highe he pe cen age o SMC, he g ea e he di e ence in cos
om he e e ence cemen due o he impac o he p ice o CO
2
on cemen s wi h highe
clinke con en .
Acco ding o he men ioned c i e ia, he mos p o i able SMCs o he s udied p oduc-
ion cen e a e: 1—whi e o black slag, 2—albe o, 3—limes one, 4—i on silica e, 5— ly ash,
6—g anula ed blas u nace slag.
Mo eo e , a sensi i i y analysis is p esen ed, which was only applied o he compa i-
son o cemen s o mula ed wi h SMCs o 5%, 20%, and 30% and he base cemen , based on
CO
2
p ice, he clinke p ice/cos , and bo h e ec s join ly— he wo s and bes case scena ios.
The conclusion o he sensi i i y analysis was simila o he base scena io: he g ea es
sa ings we e achie ed wi h he whi e and black slag cemen s (
−
31.6 EUR/ s. he base
cemen wi h 30% SMC a base scena io), ob aining he second bes sa ings wi h albe o
(−31.45 EUR/ s. he base cemen wi h 30% SMC a base scena io).
Buildings 2025,15, 479 21 o 26
Table 12. Sensi i i y analysis s. base scena io. Bes case scena io: inc ease o 40 EUR/ o CO
2
and
10 EUR/ clinke . Wo s case scena io: dec ease o 40 EUR/ CO
2
and 10 EUR/ o clinke . P oduc ion
cos o cemen s o mula ed wi h SMCs, 5%, 20%, and 30%, on base cemen . K—clinke ; G—gypsum;
L—limes one; FS— e ous sul a e.
Base Scena io Bes Case Scena io Wo s Case Scena io
Clinke 30 EUR/ 40 EUR/ 20 EUR/
Gypsum 11 EUR/ 11 EUR/ 11 EUR/
Fe ous sul a e 60 EUR/ 60 EUR/ 60 EUR/
Limes one 6 EUR/ 6 EUR/ 6 EUR/
Fly ash 12 EUR/ 12 EUR/ 12 EUR/
G anula ed slag 40 EUR/ 40 EUR/ 40 EUR/
Albe o 2.0 EUR/ 2.0 EUR/ 2.0 EUR/
Whi e slag 1.5 EUR/ 1.5 EUR/ 1.5 EUR/
Black slag 1.5 EUR/ 1.5 EUR/ 1.5 EUR/
I on silica e 8 EUR/ 8 EUR/ 8 EUR/
CO290 EUR/ 130 EUR/ 50 EUR/
P oduc ion cos CEM I
42.5 R-SR 3
K92% G3.5% L4%
FS0.5%
99.0 EUR/ 139.4 EUR/ 58.4 EUR/
P oduc ion Cos
Va ia ion
s.
CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+5% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+20% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+30% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+5% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+20% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+30% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+5% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+20% SMC
CEM I 42.5
R-SR 3
+30% SMC
Limes one −5.13 −20.20 −30.25 −7.23 −28.90 −43.35 −2.83 −11.30 −16.95
Fly ash −4.83 −19.00 −28.45 −6.93 −27.70 −41.55 −2.53 −10.10 −15.15
G anula ed slag −3.43 −13.40 −20.05 −5.53 −22.10 −33.15 −1.13 −4.50 −6.75
Albe o −5.33 −21.00 −31.45 −7.43 −29.70 −44.55 −3.03 −12.10 −18.15
Whi e slag −5.35 −21.10 −31.60 −7.45 −29.80 −44.70 −3.05 −12.20 −18.30
Black slag −5.35 −21.10 −31.60 −7.45 −29.80 −44.70 −3.05 −12.20 −18.30
I on silica e −5.03 −19.80 −29.65 −7.13 −28.50 −42.75 −2.73 −10.90 −16.35
4. Discussion
The new SMCs we e e alua ed acco ding o a se ies o ac o s o which equal weigh
is gi en, as shown in Table 13. We concluded ha , o his speci ic cemen plan , he low-
calcium-ca bona e-con en albe o p esen in he qua y close o he e e ence p oduc ion
cen e had he highes sco e. Fo he SMCs coming om indus ial p ocesses, he sco es
we e e y close be ween i on silica e and elec ic u nace s eel slags, wi h he s eel slags
ha ing a sligh ly be e sco e. Conside ing only he a ailabili y, cos , and ci cula economy
indica o s, s eel slags a e he bes op ions among he new s udied SMCs.
Table 13. E alua ion o he sui abili y o he new cemen SMCs s udied. Scale: 1 (mos sui able) o 4
(leas sui able).
Seconda y Main
Componen
Sui abili y
Seconda y Main Componen E alua ion
Hea y
Me als
Na
2
Oeq.
F ee
Lime TOC
Pozzolanic
Ac i i y
Soundness A ailabili y
Cos Ca bon
Foo p in Ci cula
Economy Global
E alua ion
Albe o 1 1 1 4 4 1 1 2 2 4 21
Black slag 3 4 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 23
Whi e slag 2 2 4 2 3 4 3 1 1 1 23
I on silica e 4 3 2 1 1 2 4 3 3 1 24
Conside ing he es plan o he p oposed SMCs, no de e mining pa ame e s ha e been
ound ha would ule ou he use o he new SMCs in he manu ac u e o cemen s. Howe e ,
ce ain equi emen s ha e o be aken in o accoun o u u e legisla i e p oposals, such as
g ea e igilance wi hin p oduc ion con ol o ensu e he olume s abili y o o mula ions
wi h whi e and black slags due o he p esence o magnesium-based expansi e compounds.
The soundness es o he s eel slags’ magnesium con en , exp essed as MgO, p oduced a
13.6% highes alue in whi e slag. The sul u pe cen age in he s eel slags had 3.7% as he
highes alue in SO
3
. Due o i s possible e ec on he cemen se ing ime, his should be
a majo conce n. In his case, i would be necessa y o adjus he gypsum con en in he
cemen . The chlo ides o o ganic compounds o he new SMCs did no cause any issues in
he cha ac e is ics o cemen . The hea y me als analysis highligh ed he unlikely impac o
Buildings 2025,15, 479 22 o 26
he coppe con en in he i on silica e (0.1%) on he cemen se ing ime, he manganese in
he black slag (0.4%) on s eng h de elopmen , and he sul a e in he h ee slags (>0.1%) on
he cemen se ing ime and olume s abili y.
F om he anhyd ous cemen es esul s, i can be seen ha he labo a o y milling
p ocedu e is adequa e o achie e an equi alen pa icle size dis ibu ion gua an eeing a
minimal di e en ial e ec on he pe o mance o he cemen s o be es ed. I was e i ied
ha all he analyzed cemen s mee he egula o y equi emen s in e ms o he SO
3
and
Cl con en , UNE-EN 197-1. The XRF and XRD analyses did no exclude any cemen . The
main cemen phases we e wi hin he no mal ange. The ee lime [0.6–1.2%] and pe iclase
[0–1.2%] con en s we e in an accep able ange o a oid expansi e phenomena, hough he
p esence o pe iclase was clea ly associa ed wi h he SMCs based on whi e slag, black slag,
and i on silica e. No e ec s we e expec ed om he e alua ed alkaline sul a es’ phases.
A cani e (K
2
SO
4
), wi h a ange o [1–3.4%] ob ained in 30% SMCs, was highes in black slag
cemen , wi h no delay in he se ing ime. None o he new SMCs, unde he pa ame e s o
his es , can be conside ed as new SMCs o he o mula ion o pozzolanic cemen s.
Rega ding he se ing and ha dening p ope ies o he o mula ed cemen s, an inc ease
in se ing imes wi hou any signi ican wa e demand a ia ion was obse ed as he
p opo ion o SMC inc eased. Addi ionally, om he new SMCs, black slag and i on silica e
had sligh ly longe se ing imes han he albe o and whi e slag. The hea y me al con en
o hese SMCs is he e o e co ela ed wi h hei se ing ime pe o mance.
Comp essi e s eng hs a 30% SMC in he cemen highligh black slag cemen ’s pe -
o mance a 28 days (41.3 MPa s. 35.3 MPa o albe o cemen and 56.5 MPa o he ype
I-SR e e ence). As he e was no much pozzolanici y ac i i y in he new SMCs, he e was
no s eng h inc ease a e 28 days. Howe e , he i on silica e cemen s exhibi ed a change
o +7.8 MPa, and a change o +2.8 MPa was obse ed in he black slag cemen s compa ed
o ly ash cemen (+20 MPa) and g anula ed slag cemen s (+17.4 MPa). The di e ences in
comp essi e s eng h esul s wi h 5% and 20% SMC cemen s a 2 and 28 days we e no ha
signi ican . The e does no appea o be any s ong in luence om hea y me als on he
esul s. The s anda d de ia ion was wi hin an accep able ange (<2 MPa).
As o he leaching es , he e a e no signi ican esul s compa ed wi h he base
cemen . All he e alua ed pa ame e s we e below he leaching limi s in he nonhaza dous
was e egula ions.
The pu pose o his analysis was o de e mine i he e is a connec ion be ween he
hea y me al con en o he SMCs and he leacha e analysis o he cemen s based on he
concen a ions o hea y me als p esen in he main aw ma e ials o he o mula ed cemen s.
We concluded he e was no clea ans e o he es ed compounds om he SMCs o he
leached solu ion o he cemen s. A mo e di ec elua e/SMC ela ionship was obse ed wi h
compounds such as ba ium and molybdenum, while in o he s such as zinc and ch omium,
we ound an in e se ela ionship.
In e ms o he ca bon oo p in , scope clinke con en , and SMCs anspo and
ex ac i e ac i i ies, o all cases excep cemen manu ac u ed wi h blas u nace slag,
because o he dis ance o he cemen plan , he CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h cemen s
ha use SMCs we e educed compa ed o he e e ence cemen wi h highe clinke con en .
The CO
2
emissions associa ed wi h ex ac i e ac i i ies o albe o a e no ele an . Albe o
and s eel slags a e he bes op ions acco ding o CO
2
emissions (
−
31% wi h 30% SMC s.
ype I-SR e e ence).
In he economic analysis, we obse ed ha all he new o mula ions educed p oduc-
ion cos s compa ed wi h he base cemen . No ee alloca ions we e conside ed, so he
CO
2
p ice is a ele an ac o . T anspo cos is ano he ele an a iable. Addi ionally, he
highe he pe cen age o SMC, he g ea e he di e ence in cos o he e e ence cemen due
Buildings 2025,15, 479 23 o 26
o he impac o he p ice o CO
2
in cemen s wi h highe clinke con en . Albe o and s eel
slags a e, he e o e, also he bes op ions acco ding o he cos sa ings (
−
32% wi h 30%
SMC s. ype I-SR e e ence, 30% i on silica e SMC; −28% s. ype I-SR e e ence).
5. Conclusions
Taking SR cemen CEM I 42.5 R-SR 3 as a e e ence, we p o ed ha i is possible
o p oduce, in acco dance wi h EU egula o y changes, high-pe o mance, low-ca bon-
oo p in and cos -e icien cemen s using SMCs ha a e no cu en ly au ho ized: low-
calcium-ca bona e-con en albe o, i on silica e, whi e elec ic s eel u nace slag, and black
elec ic s eel slag. This s udy o e s in o ma ion abou inno a i e, al e na i e, non egula ed
SMCs, along wi h SR clinke base cemen p oduc ion.
The main indings o his s udy a e as ollows:
•
The e a e no conce ns a ising om he anhyd ous, se ing, and leaching analyses
pe o med on he s udied cemen s.
•No ema kable pozzolanic ac i i y was obse ed in he non egula ed SMC cemen s.
•
Based on comp essi e s eng h es s and he equi alen no ma i e equi emen s, all
cemen s o mula ed wi h he new seconda y main componen s mee he egula o y
limi s a 2 and 28 days o UNE-EN 197-1. Cemen wi h 5% SMC complies wi h he
42.5 R s eng h ca ego y, 20% SMC cemen complies wi h he 42.5 N s eng h ca ego y,
and 30% SMC cemen complies wi h he 32.5 R s eng h ca ego y. Black slag wi h he
highes p opo ion o SMC, 30%, shows he bes beha io a e 28 days.
•
In he ca bon oo p in e alua ion, s eel slags we e shown o p oduce he maximum e-
duc ion compa ed o ype I-SR:
−
42.5 kg CO
2
/ (5%SMC),
−
170.1 kg CO
2
/ (20%SMC),
and
−
255.2 kg CO
2
/ (30%SMC). They we e closely ollowed by cemen s wi h albe o,
a
−
42.4 kg CO
2
/ (5%SMC),
−
169.9 kg CO
2
/ (20%SMC), and
−
254.8 kg CO
2
/
(30%SMC).
•
Finally, he economic analysis iden i ied s eel slag as he bes op ion, gene a ing
sa ings o 5.4 EUR/ (5%SMC), 21.1 EUR/ (20%SMC), and 31.6 EUR/ (30%SMC)
s. ype I-SR. Cemen s wi h albe o also p oduced ema kable sa ings o 5.3 EUR/
(5%SMC), 21 EUR/ . (20%SMC), and 31.5 EUR/ . (30%SMC) s. ype I-SR.
We ha e concluded ha he low-calcium-ca bona e-con en albe o p esen in qua ies
close o he e e ence p oduc ion cen e is he bes new SMC op ion, bu he e we e no
signi ican di e ences among he a ious SMCs. O he SMCs de i ed om indus ial
p ocesses, s eel slags a e he bes .
Complemen a y s eng h and du abili y es s o he conc e es made wi h his new
cemen should be pe o med [
62
,
63
] o ensu e hese cemen s can be applied in he mos
impo an p ac ices, such as in s uc u al conc e e.
These new high-SMC cemen s may ind hei applica ion niche in he sho e m and,
ul ima ely, imp o e pe o mance based on he g anulome y cu es o he cemen s, h ough
g inding ma e ials independen ly o new inish mill echnologies [
64
], and he usage o
g inding aid addi i es [
65
] a e wo wo king ends ha he cemen sec o will ha e o
add ess o ensu e an imp o ed pe o mance om hese new cemen s.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.Á.M.I. and B.N.R.; me hodology, M.Á.M.I.; alida ion,
L.F.V.A.; o mal analysis, M.Á.M.I.; in es iga ion, M.Á.M.I.; esou ces, B.N.R.; da a cu a ion, B.N.R.;
w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, M.Á.M.I.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, B.N.R.; isualiza ion,
M.Á.M.I., B.N.R. and L.F.V.A.; supe ision, B.N.R.; p ojec adminis a ion, M.Á.M.I. and B.N.R. All
au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Buildings 2025,15, 479 24 o 26
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy we e ob ained h ough he esea ch
and lab wo k o he au ho s. They a e a ailable om he au ho s upon eques .
Acknowledgmen s: The au ho s exp ess hei g a i ude o Se ille Uni e si y.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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