Jou nal o Building Enginee ing 103 (2025) 112031
A ailable online 10 Feb ua y 2025
2352-7102/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
S udy o in e io hyg ome y p o iles o he hyg o he mal
assessmen o social housing en elopes in humid
empe a e clima es
Robe o A iagada-Bus os
a
, A iel Bobadilla-Mo eno
a
, Ca los Rubio-Bellido
b,*
,
Alexis P´
e ez-Fa gallo
c
a
Cen e o Resea ch on Cons uc ion Technologies, Uni e si y o Bio-Bio, Chile
b
Depa men o A chi ec u al Cons uc ions II, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain
c
Escuela de A qui ec u a, Facul ad de Ingenie ía, A qui ec u a y Dise˜
no, Uni e sidad San Sebas i´
an, Lien u 1457, Concepci´
on, 4081339, Chile
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
hyg o he mal pe o mance
Humidi y and mold
Rela i e humidi y
Residen ial buildings
Moni o ing
ABSTRACT
The building sec o has ocused on ene gy e iciency o p omo e sus ainable de elopmen .
Howe e , inco po a ing ene gy e iciency measu es in buildings usually a ec s hei hyg o-
he mal pe o mance and can cause condensa ion and mold g ow h in hei en elopes. These
phenomena a e ela ed o he indoo clima e, he enclosu e se up, and he ou doo clima e, so
p ope ly cha ac e izing hese pa ame e s is undamen al o making hyg o he mal assessmen s.
F om his pe spec i e, he indoo clima e is usually de ined based on hyg ome y classes o
p o iles, such as hose in he ISO13788, EN15026, WTA, and DIN4108 s anda ds. These s anda ds
ha e di e en limi alues ha seek o e lec he p ac ices and cul u es o use o buildings. The
no el y o his esea ch is o make new indoo hyg ome y p o iles based on pos -occupa ional
measu emen s. The indoo and ou doo humidi y and empe a u e o 67 social housing uni s
we e moni o ed o build he new indoo hyg ome y p o iles, wi h 74,440 indoo and 4089
ou doo eco ds. The excess indoo humidi y was de e mined om hese pa ame e s, and he
dis ibu ion o indoo a iables using he ou doo empe a u e was analyzed. Subsequen ly, h ee
ypes o new indoo hyg ome y p o iles we e made ha link ou doo empe a u e o excess in-
doo humidi y, indoo ela i e humidi y, and indoo ai empe a u e. To es he new p o iles, a
compa a i e analysis o he hyg o he mal pe o mance o a buil elemen was made using he
WUFI P o 6.4 so wa e (168 simula ions), conside ing he p o iles o he ISO13788 s anda d and
hose de eloped in his s udy. The esul s show indoo en i onmen al condi ions a e ou side
commonly accep ed com o anges o mo e c i ical condi ions om he hyg o he mal poin o
iew, wi h mean empe a u es o 17 ◦C and ela i e humidi ies exceeding 80 % du ing 33.1 % o
he moni o ed imespan. The esul s also show ha he p o iles de eloped in his s udy a e mo e
igo ous and p ope ly e lec he indoo clima e o he s udied homes han he in e na ional
s anda ds commonly used. This esea ch pa es he way o new speci ic s udies in simila clima e
condi ions.
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (R. A iagada-Bus os), [email p o ec ed] (A. Bobadilla-Mo eno), [email p o ec ed] (C. Rubio-Bellido),
[email p o ec ed] (A. P´
e ez-Fa gallo).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Jou nal o Building Enginee ing
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112031
Recei ed 24 No embe 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 21 Janua y 2025; Accep ed 3 Feb ua y 2025
Jou nal o Building Enginee ing 103 (2025) 112031
2
1. In oduc ion
A global need o sus ainable de elopmen has p omp ed se e al coun ies o adop con ol measu es ha gua an ee he in eg a ion
o his concep in buildings [1,2]. Ene gy e iciency has been a p io i y, and new egula ions and s anda ds ha e been implemen ed
wi h speci ic objec i es associa ed wi h educing buildings’ene gy demand o consump ion [3–5]. In some cases, highe he mal
insula ion and he me ici y s anda ds inco po a ed in Eu opean buildings ha e gene a ed a hyg o he mal imbalance, causing
condensa ion phenomena ha a ec habi abili y [6–8]. In his sense, a eliable p edic ion o hyg o he mal condi ions and mold isk is
i al o ensu e a heal hy en i onmen and a oid building damage [9,10].
Cu en ly, he e a e di e en me hods and ools o e alua e he hyg o he mal pe o mance o building en elope elemen s, which
conside di e en hea and mass ans e phenomena. Two me hodologies a e dis inguished: simpli ied me hods (s eady-s a e/Glase ),
which a e desc ibed in he ISO 13788 s anda d, and nume ical simula ion me hods ( ansien models/WUFI), which a e desc ibed and
egula ed by he EN 15026 s anda d [11,12]. In gene al e ms, he Glase me hod only conside s s eady-s a e hea conduc ion and
apo di usion, while he ansien models also ake in o accoun hea s o age and mois u e, he e ec s o la en hea , and he anspo
o liquid and con ec ion unde ealis ic ini ial and limi condi ions [13,14].
Rega dless o he me hod used, a se ies o pa ame e s and bounda y condi ions mus be de ined o pe o m a hyg o he mal
assessmen , namely he numbe o laye s he buil elemen has, he physical p ope ies o ma e ials, and he indoo and ou doo
clima e, among o he s [15–17]. O he ac o s linked o he use o space, such as en ila ion, ene gy po e y, and o e c owding, a e
also de e mining ac o s in he esul s [18].
Today, he e a e di e en al e na i es o de ine he indoo clima e depending on he s anda d, me hodology, and/o calcula ion
ool used. The ISO 13788 s anda d es ablishes ha indoo empe a u e and ela i e humidi y alues should be used conside ing he
in ended use o he building [13]. Indoo ela i e humidi y can be ob ained om excess indoo apo p essu e (Δp), which, in u n, can
be ob ained om indoo excess mois u e (Δ ). Appendix A in he s anda d es ablishes wo mechanisms o ob ain indoo clima e
condi ions, one o con inen al and opical clima ology and ano he o ma i ime clima ology. Fo con inen al and opical clima-
ology, simpli ied app oxima ions based on he ou doo ai empe a u e (daily a e age) a e used, om which he empe a u e and
humidi y o ai -condi ioned buildings (only in homes and o ices) can be de e mined (See Fig. 1). Fo ma i ime clima ology, i es-
ablishes i e indoo hyg ome y classes de ined acco ding o he ou doo empe a u e (mon hly a e age), om which he indoo
excess mois u e and p essu e a e de e mined (Δ and Δp). The s anda d es ablishes one hyg ome y class pe building ype and
ecommends using he uppe limi o each class o calcula ions unless he designe can demons a e ha he condi ions a e less se e e
(See Fig. 2). On he o he hand, i es ablishes ha measu ed da a can be used o ob ain he alues applicable in o he clima es since he
da a used o es ablish he hyg ome y classes a e o buildings in Wes e n Eu ope.
The EN 15026 s anda d ecommends using he app op ia e indoo condi ions o he mos se e e p obable use o he building, o
which i es ablishes h ee al e na i es [14]. Fi s : using alues measu ed o simila buildings in a simila clima e o alues es ablished
by speci ied ai condi ioning sys ems; Second: esul s o buildings’hyg o he mal simula ions; and hi d: speci ica ions o mois u e
p oduc ion and en ila ion a es and calcula ion o indoo condi ions based on mois u e p oduc ion speci ica ions and en ila ion
a es. I uses he same c i e ia de ined in he ISO 13788 s anda d o es ablish he indoo mois u e and empe a u e.
Howe e , in he case o Chile, empe a u e and humidi y di e ences om hese s anda ds ha e been obse ed in social housing.
These a e mainly linked o ene gy ulne abili y si ua ions [19,20].
1.1. Mois u e p oduc ion, indoo hyg ome y, and mold exposu e
P edic ing mold g ow h du ing he design s age in acade cons uc ion is essen ial o p e en inancial losses and ensu e a heal hy
and com o able indoo en i onmen . Fo his eason, se e al au ho s ha e made s udies whe e he hyg o he mal pe o mance o
con en ional o inno a i e cons uc ion elemen s is e alua ed using indoo clima e pa ame e s es ablished by de aul in s anda ds o
simula ion so wa e [21–23] and, in o he s, by using indoo clima e pa ame e s measu ed a a labo a o y le el o calib a e hei
models [24–28], e idencing di e ences in hyg o he mal beha io when he pa ame e s used o make he analyses ha e an
Fig. 1. Indoo p o iles o Con inen al and T opical Clima ology (a) Indoo Tempe a u e/Ou doo Tempe a u e p o ile. (b) Indoo Rela i e Hu-
midi y/Ou doo Tempe a u e p o iles. Sou ce: EN13788 [13].
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expe imen al basis.
Kemp on e al. [29] e alua ed he e ec i eness o hyg o he mal emedia ion measu es o di e en esiden ial complexes,
moni o ing i e homes, de ec ing ha he indoo ela i e humidi ies we e abo e 80 % o be ween 7 % and 45 % o he ime, a scena io
no o eseen when making p e ious assessmen s o emedia ion solu ions using he me hodologies de ined in he BS5250, ISO13788,
CIBSE Guide A, and ASHRAE 160 s anda ds and echnical documen s. They aised he need o in es iga e u he he in e ac ions o
occupan beha io and he indoo en i onmen and how o use hese pa ame e s o es ima e he isk o mold appea ance. This has also
been seen in o he si ua ions whe e low-cos housing uses ligh weigh cons uc ion solu ions in small olumes ha , added o humidi y
le els abo e 80 % up o 12.3 h a day, gene a e a high isk o cumula i e mold g ow h [30]. Sha pe e al. [31] es ablish ha ene gy
po e y in social housing is a isk ac o o inc eased exposu e o damp and mold condi ions. This has also been seen in Chile, whe e
indoo empe a u es in low-cos housing can be 14 ◦C [19].
Du e al. [32] conduc ed a li e a u e e iew ela ed o he building en i onmen and mold exposu e in building in e io s, es ab-
lishing ha he appea ance o mold is closely ied o indoo ela i e humidi y, he ma e iali y o he enclosu es (subs a e), exposu e
ime, and ou doo clima e. Rega ding he ou doo clima e, hey explain ha he isks a e mo e signi ican when buildings a e loca ed in
an a ea wi h a ho and humid clima e and high ain all. On he o he hand, hey sugges ha ene gy e iciency measu es, bo h in new
and exis ing buildings, could ha e a seconda y e ec ha would a ec he hyg o he mal pe o mance o indoo en i onmen s, a-
o ing mold g ow h. Reca e al. [33], when e iewing he impac s o implemen ing ene gy e iciency measu es in esiden ial
buildings, es ablished ha , om he hyg o he mal poin o iew, he en elopes migh su e highe le els o humidi y, g ea e isks o
condensa ion and, ul ima ely, mo e a o able condi ions o he g ow h o mold. In u n, hey concluded ha he indoo en i onmen
is a ec ed mos due o he highe le els o he mal insula ion and ai igh ness.
Chile was he i s coun y in La in Ame ica o inco po a e Ene gy E iciency (EE) concep s in o i s s anda ds. I has imp o ed he
he mal insula ion le els o en elopes in esiden ial buildings wi h he same objec i es se a a Eu opean le el [33–35]. Howe e , hese
s anda ds do no ocus on o p io i ize measu es ega ding speci ic ene gy- ela ed social con ex s, such as social housing. In ac , i has
been ound ha ulne able households in sou h-cen al Chile main ain e y low empe a u es du ing he win e and ha hei in-
habi an s a e unable o main ain adequa e empe a u es [36], which would sugges ha hey a e looking o o he s a egies o
wi hs and en i onmen al condi ions and also ha hey a e mo e exposed o heal h p oblems. On he o he hand, i has been obse ed
ha a be e he mal s anda d will no always be associa ed wi h en i onmen al condi ions ha gua an ee heal hiness and en i on-
men al e gonomics [37]. In pa icula , wi h ega d o condensa ion p oblems, i has been obse ed ha hey a e unchanged in social
housing in sou h-cen al Chile [38]. F om 1964 o 2015, he Chilean Go e nmen ga e ou 3,671,646 subsidies o social housing [36].
The cu en Eme gency Habi a ional Plan 2022–2025 (PEH, in Spanish), which was gene a ed o add ess he housing sho age in Chile,
aims o hand o e 260,000 dwellings wi h p og ess o Ma ch 2024, s anding a 44.1 % [39]. Howe e , much o he housing handed
o e p e iously has had se ious humidi y-associa ed pa hologies, which has mean he e is in e es in de eloping s anda ds ha a oid
condensa ion p oblems and, consequen ly, he pa hologies associa ed wi h humidi y (mold). The PEH 2022–2025, among i s go -
e ning p inciples, jus as in o he in e na ional-le el policies, looks o os e e i o ially pe inen sus ainable plans and p ojec s ha
p omo e en i onmen al ca e and imp o e people’s li ing and heal h condi ions. Despi e his, no hyg o he mal p o iles o he indoo
en i onmen o social housing wi h ulne able amilies ha e been de eloped a a domes ic o in e na ional le el ha allows mold
g ow h o be e alua ed in cons uc ion solu ions. Fo his eason, his esea ch aims o analyze pos -occupa ional moni o ed in o -
ma ion on he empe a u e and humidi y condi ions, bo h indoo s and ou doo s, in social housing loca ed in a humid empla e clima e.
Secondly, his analysis will gene a e indoo hyg o he mal p o iles ha assess he beha io o cons uc ion elemen s and mold
gene a ion.
2. Me hodology
To build he indoo hyg ome y p o iles, he humidi y and indoo and ou doo empe a u e o 67 social housing uni s we e
moni o ed wi h 74,440 eco ds pe a iable. The indoo excess mois u e was de e mined om hese pa ame e s, and he dis ibu ion o
indoo a iables based on ou doo empe a u e was analyzed. Subsequen ly, h ee ypes o indoo hyg ome y p o iles we e made ha
ie Ou doo Tempe a u e o Indoo Excess Mois u e, Indoo Rela i e Humidi y, and Indoo Tempe a u e. Finally, a compa a i e
analysis o he hyg o he mal pe o mance o a buil elemen was ca ied ou using he WUFI P o 6.4 so wa e (168 simula ions),
Fig. 2. Indoo Excess Mois u e p o ile and hyg ome y classes ecommended conside ing he use o Ma i ime clima ology. Sou ce: EN13788.
R. A iagada-Bus os e al.
Jou nal o Building Enginee ing 103 (2025) 112031
4
conside ing he excess mois u e p o iles o he ISO13788 s anda d and hose de eloped in his s udy wi h he moni o ing eco ds.
2.1. Case s udies
This mac o-s udy was ca ied ou using six moni o ing campaigns pe o med by he Cen e o Resea ch on Cons uc ion Tech-
nologies o he Uni e si y o Bio-Bio, Chile (CITECUBB, in Spanish) be ween 2015 and 2019 in 6 esiden ial social housing complexes.
Acco ding o he 2017 Census, housing complexes ep esen 20 % o u ban housing in Chile. In o ma ion was collec ed om a o al o
67 homes/apa men s loca ed in he ci ies o Talcahuano, Hualp´
en, and Co onel in he P o ince o Biobío, Chile, an a ea cha ac e ized
by ha ing a wa m empe a e clima e wi h win e ains and high a mosphe ic humidi y, Csbn acco ding o he Koppen clima e clas-
si ica ion. Fig. 3 shows he loca ion o he di e en buildings and hei immedia e su oundings.
All he esiden ial complexes we e buil a e he 2010 ea hquake and complied wi h he The mal Condi ioning equi emen s
es ablished in he Gene al O dinance o U banism and Cons uc ion a ha da e. Thei e ical enclosu es consis ed mainly o Con-
c e e, Mason y, and Wood. Acco ding o he 2019 building yea book o he Chilean Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics [40], hese ma e ials
we e used in mo e han 87 % o he homes wi h new building pe mi s.
2.2. Moni o ing o indoo and ou doo clima e pa ame e s
Fo his s udy, he da abase was consolida ed by moni o ing indoo and ou doo ambien empe a u e and humidi y pa ame e s.
These pa ame e s we e eco ded in he dwellings in he con ex o di e se echnical hyg o he mal s udies, conside ing measu emen
pe iods spanning June o Oc obe , which a e conside ed a o able o hyg o he mal analysis in he sou he n hemisphe e.
The moni o ing o he ou doo clima e pa ame e s was made using a DAVIS wea he s a ion (Model: Van age P o2 (P ecision: RH
±2 %; Tempe a u e 1 ◦F; RH anges: 1–100 %; Tempe a u e −40 a +150 ◦F), which was ins alled in an open a ea on he espec i e
esiden ial complex’s o building’s oo , 1.8 m om oo le el, eco ding da a ( empe a u e, ela i e humidi y, ain all, wind speed and
di ec ion, among o he s) e e y 15 min h oughou he moni o ing pe iod. Fo his s udy, only he ou doo ela i e humidi y and
empe a u e we e conside ed.
The indoo clima e o he dwellings/apa men s was moni o ed in 2 ooms: a li ing-dining oom and a bed oom. In bo h ooms, his
was done a a heigh o 1.1 m om he g ound so ha i would no in e e e wi h he esiden s’daily ou ine [41]. The eco ds we e
ob ained simul aneously using da a logge s (HOBO U12-013) (P ecision: RH ±2.5 %; Tempe a u e 0.35 ◦C; RH anges: 5–95 %;
Tempe a u e −20 a +70 ◦C) e e y 15 o 30 min, depending on he esiden ial complex, o one week. In some complexes, he
moni o ing was ca ied ou in wo pe iods due o he numbe o homes e alua ed and equipmen a ailabili y.
The da alogge s we e ins alled 1.5 m om he inished loo and a ached o one o he walls o he moni o ed ooms, ensu ing hey
Fig. 3. The loca ion o he complexes moni o ed and hei immedia e su oundings.
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Jou nal o Building Enginee ing 103 (2025) 112031
5
Table 1
Summa izes he main cha ac e is ics o he housing uni s in he di e en esiden ial complexes.
Cha ac e is ics o he Residen ial Complexes
Complex Type Floo s Housing uni s Locali y
1 Buildings 4 and 5 400 Talcahuano
2 Buildings 4 and 5 1.032 Talcahuano
3 Buildings 4 and 5 400 Hualp´
en
4 Houses 1 and 2 158 Co onel
5 Houses 1 and 2 87 Co onel
6 Buildings 2 150 Co onel
Cha ac e is ics o housing uni s
Complex Su ace a ea (m2) N◦o Beds. En elope Wall Ma e ial Moni . Uni
1 57 3 Conc e e +Indoo The mal Coa ing 5
2 57 3 Conc e e +Indoo The mal Coa ing 13
3 56 3 Conc e e +Indoo The mal Coa ing 5
4 57–89 1–3 Ae a ed Conc e e Block Mason y/Wooden Pa i ion Wall 14
5 67–68 3 B ick mason y - Wooden pa i ion wall 10
6 56 3 Exac Walls (Conc e e +Expanded Polys y ene (EPS)) 20
Moni o ing pe iods
Complex Pe iod
1 01-06-2015/08-06-2015
2 23-09-2015/30-09-2015
3 31-08-2015/07-09-2015
4 29-09-2017/06-10-2017_06-10-2017/13-10-2017
5 20-08-2018/26-08-2018_27-08-2018/02-09-2018
6 09-09-2019/16-09-2019
Ven ila ion sys ems
1 Passi e en ila ion in d y p emises is achie ed by opening windows and using la icewo k in he ki chen and ba h oom.
2 Passi e en ila ion in d y p emises is achie ed by opening windows and using la icewo k in he ki chen and ba h oom.
3 Passi e en ila ion in d y p emises is achie ed by opening windows and using la icewo k in he ki chen. Mechanical en ila ion is used in he ba h oom, and discha ge is done using a sha .
4 Passi e en ila ion in d y p emises is achie ed by opening windows and using la icewo k in he ki chen and ba h oom.
5 Passi e en ila ion in d y p emises is achie ed by opening windows and using la icewo k in he ki chen and ba h oom.
6 Passi e en ila ion is achie ed by opening windows in d y p emises and h ough la icewo k in mois p emises.
Images o Residen ial Complexes
(con inued on nex page)
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Jou nal o Building Enginee ing 103 (2025) 112031
6
Table 1 (con inued)
Cha ac e is ics o he Residen ial Complexes
Complex Type Floo s Housing uni s Locali y
Images o Hyg o he mal Pa hologies in Residen ial Complexes
Sou ce: P epa a ion by he au ho s wi h in o ma ion p o ided by CITECUBB
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we e no a ec ed by di ec sola adia ion, hea sou ces, and in e nal/ex e nal ai lows.
2.3. De ini ion o indoo hyg ome y p o iles
The indoo and ou doo empe a u e and ela i e humidi y eco ds collec ed by CITECUBB we e p ocessed, il e ed, and consol-
ida ed in o a da abase. The indoo excess mois u e, calcula ed using he o mulas de ined in Appendix E o he UNE EN ISO13788
s anda d [13], is included in his da abase. As a i s s ep, he p ocedu e conside ed calcula ing he indoo and ou doo ai ’s wa e
apo sa u a ion p essu e (Рsa ), exp essed in Pascals (Pa). This calcula ion was made om he ai empe a u es (θ) eco ded in each
case, using equa ion (E1) i he empe a u e was g ea e han o equal o 0 ◦C o equa ion (E2) i he empe a u e was less han 0 ◦C. Fo
he case o he indoo Psa , he indoo ai empe a u e is conside ed, and, o he case o he ou doo Psa , he ou doo ai empe a u e.
Psa =610.5e17.269 θ
237.3+θ o θ≥0◦C (E1)
Psa =610.5e21.875 θ
265.5+θ o θ<0◦C (E2)
As a second s ep, he indoo and ou doo ai ’s wa e apo p essu e was calcula ed (Р), exp essed in Pascals (Pa). This calcula ion
was made by mul iplying he ai ’s wa e apo sa u a ion p essu e (Psa ), exp essed in Pa, by i s espec i e ela i e humidi y (φ),
exp essed in %, using equa ion (E3). Fo he case o he indoo P, he Psa and he ela i e humidi y o he indoo ai a e conside ed. Fo
he case o he ou doo P, he Psa and he ela i e humidi y o he ou doo ai a e conside ed, espec i ely.
P=Psa φ
100 (E3)
As a hi d s ep, he indoo and ou doo ai humidi y by olume was calcula ed (
ν
), exp essed in kilog ams pe cubic me e (kg/m
3
).
This calcula ion was made by di iding he ai ’s wa e apo p essu e (P), exp essed in Pa, by he ai empe a u e (T), exp essed in
deg ees Kel in (K), and he gas cons an o wa e (R
ν
), whose alue is 462 [Pa m
3
/(K kg)], using equa ion (E4). Fo he indoo
ν
, he P
and he indoo ai empe a u e a e conside ed, and o he ou side
ν
, he P and he ou side ai empe a u e a e conside ed, espec i ely.
ν
=P
T R (E4)
Finally, he indoo excess mois u e (Δ
ν
), exp essed in kilog ams pe cubic me e (kg/m
3
), is de ined by calcula ing he di e ence
Table 2
Cha ac e is ics o he cons uc i e solu ion.
Cons uc i e elemen , om ou doo o indoo :
C1: Plas e , densi y 2000 kg/m
3
, he mal conduc i i y 1.2 W/mK
C2: Conc e e, densi y 2300 kg/m
3
, he mal conduc i i y 1.6 W/mK
C3: Ai laye , densi y 1.3 kg/m
3
, he mal conduc i i y 0.071 W/mK
C4: EPS, densi y 15 kg/m
3
, he mal conduc i i y 0.04 W/mK
C5: Plas e boa d, densi y 850 kg/m
3
, he mal conduc i i y 0.2 W/mK
Sou ce: P epa ed by he au ho s.
Table 3
Indoo clima e condi ions.
Condi ion Designa ion Excess mois u e p o ile Indoo empe a u e
1 HC 1 Hyg ome y Class 1, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788)
2 HC 2 Hyg ome y Class 2, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788)
3 HC 3 Hyg ome y Class 3, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788)
4 HC 4 Hyg ome y Class 4, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788)
5 HC 5 Hyg ome y Class 5, ISO13788 20 ◦C, WUFI(ISO13788)
6 P1A1 Hyg ome y Class Uppe B, Measu emen s 22 ◦C (Measu emen s)
7 P1A1 Hyg ome y Class Uppe B, Measu emen s 17 ◦C (Measu emen s)
8 P1A1 Hyg ome y Class Uppe B, Measu emen s 13 ◦C (Measu emen s)
9 P1A2 Hyg ome y Class 3 d Qua ile, Measu emen s 22 ◦C (Measu emen s)
10 P1A2 Hyg ome y Class 3 d Qua ile, Measu emen s 17 ◦C (Measu emen s)
11 P1A2 Hyg ome y Class 3 d Qua ile, Measu emen s 13 ◦C (Measu emen s)
12 P1A3 Hyg ome y Class Medians, Measu emen s 22 ◦C (Measu emen s)
13 P1A3 Hyg ome y Class Medians, Measu emen s 17 ◦C (Measu emen s)
14 P1A3 Hyg ome y Class Medians, Measu emen s 13 ◦C (Measu emen s)
R. A iagada-Bus os e al.
Jou nal o Building Enginee ing 103 (2025) 112031
8
be ween he ai humidi y by indoo olume (i
ν
) and he ai humidi y by ex e nal olume(e
ν
), using equa ion (E5).
Δ
ν
=i −e (E5)
The indoo hyg ome y p o iles a e buil om he consolida ed da abase p epa ed, aking as e e ence he p o iles de ined in he
UNE-EN ISO13788 and EN15026 s anda ds and he WUFI P o 6.4 so wa e o he a iables being conside ed [13,14,42]. The da a a e
compa ed o ma e ialize h ee ypes o p o iles: Indoo excess mois u e e sus ou doo ai empe a u e, indoo ai ela i e humidi y
e sus ou doo ai empe a u e, and indoo ai empe a u e e sus ou doo ai empe a u e.
Desc ip i e s a is ical echniques we e used o iden i y dis ibu ions, ends, and s a is ical indica o s o he di e en eco ds and
main pa ame e s used o p epa e he p o iles (Indoo excess mois u e, Indoo ela i e humidi y, and Indoo empe a u e). The eco ds
o he indoo pa ame e s o he consolida ed da abase we e ep ocessed and so ed conside ing he ou doo empe a u e, which, in
u n, was ounded o a whole numbe . Box and whiske diag ams we e made o obse e symme ies, iden i y a ypical poin s, and
compa e dis ibu ions. F om he box and whiske diag ams, sca e plo s we e made o he uppe whiske , hi d qua ile, median, i s
qua ile, and lowe whiske o es ablish di e en p o ile scena ios. The end equa ions we e ob ained om hese g aphs, de ining he
main poin s wi h which he p o iles we e made. On he o he hand, he espec i e R
2
- alues o he end equa ions associa ed wi h he
di e en scena ios we e ob ained om he sca e plo s. These di e en scena ios wi hin he same ype o p o ile we e de eloped o
iden i y he p o ile ha gene a es he mos un a o able indoo condi ion, as ecommended in he UNE-EN ISO 13788 and EN15026
s anda ds.
2.4. E alua ion o he hyg o he mal pe o mance o a e ical enclosu e
An analysis o he hyg o he mal beha io o a e ical pe ime e enclosu e is made using he WUFI P o 6.4 so wa e o analyze he
e ec o di e en ypes o p o iles on i s hyg o he mal pe o mance. Fo his assessmen and o de ine he indoo ela i e humidi y, 8
p o iles o he Indoo excess mois u e e sus ou doo ai empe a u e ype a e conside ed: he 5 es ablished in he UNE-EN ISO13788
s anda d and he 3 p o iles o his ype de ined om he da a measu ed in he di e en esiden ial complexes. As o he indoo
empe a u e, he WUFI P o de aul empe a u e o 20 ◦C is conside ed o he p o iles o he UNE-EN ISO13788 s anda d, along wi h
he 3 di e en empe a u es o each o he p o iles de ined based on he ac ual measu emen s. These a e 22 ◦C, which ep esen s he
a e age alue o he uppe whiske s o he indoo empe a u es e sus he ou doo empe a u e; 17 ◦C, which ep esen s he a e age
alue o he indoo empe a u e medians e sus he ou doo empe a u e; and 13 ◦C, which ep esen s he a e age alue o he indoo
empe a u e lowe whiske s e sus he ou doo empe a u e.
The e ical enclosu e assessed was one o he pe ime e wall solu ions in one o he moni o ed esiden ial complexes in he ci y o
Talcahuano. The enclosu e comp ised ein o ced conc e e coa ed ex e nally wi h mo a plas e and in e nally wi h a he mal coa ing
based on expanded polys y ene and plas e boa d. The indoo he mal coa ing was a ached o he conc e e wall using 10 mm hick
adhesi e spo s. In he hyg o he mal assessmen , he sec ion ha has an ai chambe was analyzed. The main cha ac e is ics o he
cons uc i e solu ion assessed a e shown in Table 2.
The ollowing a e conside ed o he hyg o he mal assessmen : 4 o ien a ions (N-S-E-W), 3 e alua ion pe iods (1 yea , 2 yea s, and
3 yea s), ou doo clima e da a ob ained wi h Me eono m 8.0 so wa e (hou ly pa ame e s o Talcahuano-Chile) [43], ma e ial
p ope ies o he WUFI so wa e da abase, elemen inclina ion o 90◦, small building heigh (up o 10m), ela i e humidi y and ini ial
empe a u e o he componen o 80 % and 20 ◦C espec i ely, 14 indoo clima e condi ions acco ding o hose speci ied in Table 3. A
o al o 168 simula ions we e made.
The cons uc ion solu ion e alua ion p ocess conside ed he ollowing gene al s eps: a) de ini ion o he componen o solu ion
being assessed, whe e all he laye s in he cons uc ion solu ion mus be included, speci ying hei ma e iali y and hickness; de ining
he o ien a ion, inclina ion, and heigh o he elemen being assessed; de ining he physical p ope ies o he ou doo and indoo
su ace conside ing he ma e ials used and ype o elemen ; es ablishing he ini ial condi ions o he elemen , ega ding i s empe a u e
and humidi y; b) es ablishing he con ol pa ame e s, de ining he e alua ion pe iod (s a and end da e), he ype o calcula ion, he
special hyg o he mal condi ions, he nume ical pa ame e s, and geome y (ca esian o adial symme y); c) es ablishing he clima e
by de ining he ou doo and indoo clima e. Fo he ou doo clima e, he WUFI so wa e p o ides di e en op ions. Fo his s udy, his
is es ablished by conside ing he Me eono m clima e ile. Di e en clima e p o iles a e loaded o he indoo clima e, namely hose o
ISO13788 and hose made using he moni o ing da e, h ough he able op ion. Finally, he calcula ion p ocess h ough which he
Table 4
Ou doo Rela i e Humidi y and Tempe a u es (minimum, maximum, and a e age) by esiden ial complex.
Pa ame e Residen ial Complex
CR1 CR2 CR3 CR4 CR5 CR6
Moni o ing Pe iod (See Table 1)11112121
Minimum ou doo T (◦C) 11.6 9.7 8.3 8.3 4.3 2.8 6.1 2.6
Maximum ou doo T (◦C) 17.6 16.9 20.8 19.5 24.3 17.6 15.1 17.2
A e age ou doo T (◦C) 14.1 12.1 13.7 12.8 13.0 10.0 11.8 10.6
Minimum ou doo RH (%) 71.0 70.0 47.5 59.9 45.6 46.0 45.9 51.0
Maximum ou doo RH (%) 98.0 97.0 91.9 96.7 92.4 93.0 92.8 89.0
A e age ou doo RH (%) 94.8 87.3 76.9 85.8 73.4 82.5 82.5 76.7
R. A iagada-Bus os e al.
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9
Table 5
Indoo Tempe a u e, Rela i e Humidi y, and Excess Mois u e by esiden ial complex.
Pa ame e Residen ial Complex
CR1 CR2 CR3 CR4 CR5 CR6
Pe iod 1 1 1
1 2 1 2 1
Room E D E D E D E D E D E D E D E D
Indoo ai Tempe a u e
Min T. (◦C) 15.5 13.2 14.3 8.3 14.3 11.1 12.5 12.7 12.4 11.9 11.1 7.8 13.5 14.6 12.0 10.0
Max. T (◦C) 23.2 24.1 24.1 26.8 24.1 21.1 24.6 25.0 27.0 22.2 28.3 24.3 20.5 23.7 28.1 22.9
A e age T (◦C) 17.4 17.2 17.1 17.1 17.1 17.1 16.3 16.8 18.0 18.0 16.2 15.5 16.4 17.3 17.4 17.1
% o ime when T ≥20 ◦C 3.3 2.5 3.6 5.6 2.0 6.5 5.7 4.0 18.9 7.0 17.2 6.4 2.8 2.5 12.9 4.0
% o ime when T <20 ◦C 96.7 97.5 96.4 94.4 98.0 93.5 94.3 96.0 81.1 93.0 82.8 93.6 97.2 97.5 87.1 96.0
% o ime when T ≤19 ◦C 92.1 93.3 91.3 88.5 85.9 80.8 91.1 92.8 67.3 66.8 79.9 89.6 86.6 89.3 78.6 85.6
% o ime when T ≤18 ◦C 75.6 78.8 78.6 78.5 67.0 65.1 86.1 83.6 51.4 40.6 76.9 80.6 74.3 73.7 65.5 68.3
% o ime when T ≤17 ◦C 43.8 50.3 51.7 52.5 43.2 50.9 76.1 58.3 39.2 24.8 72.2 69.7 62.9 41.2 49.4 48.1
Indoo ela i e humidi y
Min. indoo RH (%) 69.1 6709 57.7 60.6 49.4 46.7 54.7 57.8 43.6 50.8 40.1 47.9 63.5 61.2 40.6 51.0
Max. indoo RH (%) 99.0 94.1 96.0 94.6 91.5 91.2 95.4 94.3 87.6 85.0 84.2 85.9 83.8 82.2 99.7 100
A e age indoo RH (%) 85.1 82.2 78.7 81.5 75.1 77.8 76.6 78.8 64.3 68.9 65.0 68.3 73.2 73.2 70.3 74.2
% o ime when he RH ≤70 % 0.1 2.0 10.9 1.0 18.9 13.6 14.6 7.6 73.1 54.7 62.8 54.4 19.5 37.4 46.6 33.0
% o ime when he RH >70 % 99.9 98.0 89.1 99.0 81.1 86.4 85.4 92.4 26.9 45.3 37.2 45.6 80.5 62.6 53.4 67.0
% o ime when he RH >75 % 97.7 78.4 70.0 83.0 53.9 61.2 62.3 75.4 2.8 8.7 15.5 24.4 29.6 46.0 26.9 44.1
% o ime when he RH >80 % 85.9 68.5 45.8 61.7 23.6 45.0 33.6 44.3 0.2 0.3 1.3 6.5 4.6 5.1 10.5 28.6
% o ime when he RH >85 % 51.8 39.5 19.2 27.8 5.5 22.6 7.3 14.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 3.2 15.6
Indoo Excess Mois u e
Min. Excess Mois u e (g/m3) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Max. Excess Mois u e (g/m3) 4 5 7 7 6 6 6 6 5 7 5 6 4 5 11 11
A e age Excess Mois u e (g/m3) 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 3 3
R. A iagada-Bus os e al.
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16
5. Conclusions
In his a icle, a s udy o he indoo and ou doo clima ic condi ions o social housing loca ed in humid empe a e clima es, spe-
ci ically in ci ies o he P o ince o Concepci´
on, Chile, was ca ied ou . The empe a u e and ela i e humidi y pa ame e s o 67
dwellings we e analyzed, and he excesses o indoo mois u e o each we e calcula ed. Di e en in e io hyg ome y p o iles we e
buil om hese pa ame e s, and a compa a i e analysis was made agains hose a ailable in in e na ional s anda ds. Finally, 168
hyg o he mal simula ions o a ype o e ical enclosu e we e pe o med o analyze he impac o he di e en p o ile al e na i es on
i s hyg o he mal pe o mance.
The moni o ing eco ds show he indoo en i onmen al condi ions ou side he commonly accep ed com o anges o mo e c i ical
condi ions om he hyg o he mal poin o iew. Be ween 24.8 and 76.1 % o he ime, he indoo empe a u e emained equal o o
lowe han 17 ◦C. The indoo ela i e humidi y was high, and 33.1 % o he ime emained abo e 80 %, eaching maximum alues ha
a ied be ween 88.2 and 100 %. By compa ing he indoo clima e pa ame e s wi h hose o he ou doo clima e, i was de e mined ha
he maximum indoo excess mois u e luc ua ed be ween 4g /m
3
and 11g /m
3
.
3 ypes o in e io hyg ome y p o iles we e made, and o each, 3 al e na i es we e de ined using desc ip i e s a is ics and box and
whiske diag ams. All he p o iles c ea ed ha e limi alues di e en om hose a ailable in he s anda ds o hyg o he mal analysis
and design ISO13788, EN15026, WTA, and DIN4108. The i s ype o p o ile compa ed he Indoo Excess Mois u e wi h he Ou doo
Tempe a u e, es ablishing he uppe limi s o each o he al e na i es a 11 g/m
3
(0.011 kg/m
3
), 7 g/m
3
(0.007 kg/m
3
), and 5 g/
m
3
(0.005 kg/m
3
), all wi h a lowe limi o 0 g/m
3
(0.000 kg/m
3
). The second compa es he Indoo Rela i e Humidi y o he Ou doo
Tempe a u e, whe e he limi alues o each o he al e na i es we e 57–100 %, 52–85 %, and 48–79 %. The hi d compa es he
Indoo Tempe a u e o he Ou doo Tempe a u e, whe e he limi alues o each o he al e na i es we e 3–18 ◦C, 13–18 ◦C, and
15–18 ◦C.
The hyg o he mal simula ions showed ha he excess mois u e p o ile buil om he alues o he uppe whiske s o he box di-
ag am "excess mois u e/ou doo empe a u e" is he p o ile ha gene a es he mos c i ical hyg o he mal condi ions, inco po a ing a
g ea e amoun o o al wa e o he cons uc i e solu ion, a g ea e amoun o wa e o he ma e ials o he indoo he mal coa ing, and
a highe su ace humidi y (83.0–96.5 %). The hyg ome y class 5 p o ile o he ISO13788 s anda d, he mos un a o able s anda d,
gene a es less c i ical condi ions han he p o ile desc ibed abo e.
Hyg o he mal simula ions equi e basic en ies such as loca ion, o ien a ion, clima e, and cons uc ion. Howe e , hyg o he mal
modeling is no di icul . The in e ac ions be ween he mac o-le el en ies (indoo and ou doo clima e) and he cha ac e is ics o he
ma e ials mean ha he hyg o he mal pe o mance p edic ion is e y a iable. This a iabili y could lead o an unsui able p edic ion
o he isk ela ed o humidi y in he cons uc ion elemen s. Howe e , knowledge o ealis ic humidi y and empe a u e p o iles can
help o educe a iabili y and imp o e he accu acy o he esul s.
The cu en p o iles in he ISO13788, EN15026, WTA, and DIN4108 s anda ds ail o p ope ly e lec he se e i y o he indoo
clima e in he s udied homes. This can lead o e o s om he hyg o he mal pe spec i e, whe e designs could be accep ed ha , in
eali y, could ha e mois u e sho comings due o condensa ion and mold o ma ion.
The ollowing a e conside ed as he limi a ions o he s udy: The cons uc ion o he p o iles was made based on moni o ing
en i onmen al a iables o a signi ican bu limi ed numbe o social housing uni s (67); he loca ion o he housing is only in 3 lo-
cali ies; and he measu emen and egis a ion o en i onmen al a iables was only one week in each housing complex, which was also
done in di e en pe iods, which could modi y he p o iles made. Ano he limi a ion is associa ed wi h he hyg o he mal assessmen , as
an ou doo clima e gene a ed h ough he Me eono m so wa e was used o his. In addi ion, he physical p ope ies o ma e ials om
he WUFI P o da abases we e used, aspec s ha can in luence he hyg o he mal pe o mance o he assessed elemen .
F om he s udy ca ied ou , he ollowing u u e esea ch is isualized. F om he pe spec i e o social housing, o analyze how
inco po a ing a mo e signi ican numbe o dwellings wi h o he ypologies and o he loca ions has an impac . Also, analyzing and/o
de eloping indoo hyg ome y p o iles o p i a e housing would allow he compa a i e analysis o aspec s such as he exis ence o no
o hea ing and/o cooling sys ems, o ms o use (le els o mois u e gene a ion) and occupancy, he mal p o ec ion, su ace/ olume o
buildings, en ila ion, ai igh ness, o o he s. On he o he hand, esea ch associa ed wi h c ea ing clima ic da abases and local ma-
e ials o hyg o he mal analysis.
Ul ima ely, public policies o social housing in a humid empla e clima e mus conside ha using eal da a in hyg o he mal
simula ion shows he high p obabili y o mold gene a ion linked o ene gy and social ulne abili y, which gene a es low empe a u es
and high indoo mois u e. In his sense, he de elopmen o ene gy e iciency s anda ds and ene gy policies o social housing ha
imp o e indoo en i onmen al quali y and educe he isk o mold appea ance is essen ial.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Robe o A iagada-Bus os: W i ing – e iew &edi ing, W i ing –o iginal d a , Visualiza ion, So wa e, Me hodology, Da a
cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion. A iel Bobadilla-Mo eno: W i ing – e iew &edi ing, Me hodology, Concep ualiza ion. Ca los Rubio-
Bellido: W i ing – e iew &edi ing, Concep ualiza ion. Alexis P´
e ez-Fa gallo: W i ing – e iew &edi ing, Visualiza ion, Fo mal
analysis.
Financing
"This esea ch did no ecei e ex e nal unding."
R. A iagada-Bus os e al.
Jou nal o Building Enginee ing 103 (2025) 112031
17
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o
in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgmen s
We a e g a e ul o he Uni e si y o Bío–Bío, Chile, and he Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain, o hei suppo in he doc o al co- u elage
ellowship o he lead au ho , pe iod when his a icle was w i en. On he o he hand, o he Cen e o Resea ch on Cons uc ion
Technologies o he Uni e si y o Bío-Bío, Chile, CITECUBB, o p o iding he echnical in o ma ion ela ed o he en i onmen al
moni o ing p ocesses o esiden ial complexes. This wo k is a p oduc o he collabo a ion wi h Ibe oame ican ne wo ks: Thema ic
Ne wo k 722RT0135 “Red Ibe oame icana de Pob eza Ene g´
e ica y Bienes a Ambien al (RIPEBA)”. This s udy was unded by he
Spanish Minis y o Science and Inno a ion, unde he esea ch p ojec PID2021-122437OA-I00 ‘‘Posi i e Ene gy Buildings Po en ial
o Clima e Change Adap a ion and Ene gy Po e y Mi iga ion (+ENERPOT)”.
Da a a ailabili y
No da a was used o he esea ch desc ibed in he a icle.
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