Recei ed: 14 Janua y 2025 / Accep ed: 11 June 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y
mapping h ough an in e ac i e geo- e e enced web ool:
demons a ion applicabili y o sou he n Spain
C. M.Calama-González1· R.Escandón2· R.Suá ez2· E.Abajo-Casado3· A. R.Diánez-
Ma ínez3
En i onmen , De elopmen and Sus ainabili y
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10668-025-06490-z
Abs ac Building deca boniza ion h ough ene gy eno a ion is a key challenge ac oss
he Eu opean Union, pa icula ly in social housing sec o s ma ked by high ulne abili y.
To suppo his goal, his s udy in oduces a GIS-based open-access web ool o e alua -
ing he ene gy pe o mance and social ulne abili y o he exis ing esiden ial s ock a he
u ban scale. The ool in eg a es da a om public and open-sou ce da abases in o a geo e-
e enced en i onmen , enabling sys ema ic cha ac e iza ion o geome ic, cons uc ional,
ene gy and social pa ame e s a he u ban-le el, and suppo ing bo om-up and op-down
app oaches. This allows o pe o mance e alua ions, simula ion model cons uc ion and
he iden i ica ion o high-p io i y buildings h ough ene gy and socioeconomic ulne abili y
indica o s. Resul s om he ci y o Se ille, used as a case s udy in ol ing 2,888 dwellings)
e eal ha o e 90% o buildings p esen se e e win e ene gy ulne abili y, while sum-
me ulne abili y is gene ally low. Socioeconomic analysis shows ha mo e han a hi d o
buildings house use s li ing in se e e po e y condi ions. The combined ulne abili y index
highligh s speci ic neighbou hoods, such as Polígono Su , wi h pa icula ly acu e ulne -
abili y le els. The ool’s scalabili y was demons a ed by ex ending i o 41 municipali ies
in sou he n Spain. This s udy concludes ha his app oach enables de ailed diagnosis o
s uc u al and ene gy- ela ed inequali ies, in eg a ing and analysing exis ing open da a o
pe o m ho ough building pe o mance assessmen a u ban le el, and o e s a apid and
eliable me hod o acqui ing key building da a and ensu ing long- e m adap abili y h ough
con inuous upda es.
Highligh s
● An open-access geo e e enced ool is c ea ed o assess housing in sou he n Spain
● Da a o ene gy cha ac e isa ion and socioeconomic aspec s a e p o ided
● Building ene gy and socioeconomic ulne abili y le els may be e alua ed
● The mos ulne able buildings may be de ec ed o u u e e o i p ocesses
● A use ul da a ool is gene a ed o suppo bo om-up and op-down building analysis
Keywo ds Ex ensi e building da abase · GIS-based analysis · U ban mapping · Social
ulne abili y assessmen · Ene gy e iciency
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C. M. Calama-González e al.
1 In oduc ion
The building sec o ep esen s one o he mos signi ican ene gy consume s wi hin he
Eu opean Union (EU), accoun ing o app oxima ely 40 % o ene gy consump ion and
a ound 36 % o ca bon dioxide emissions (Li e al., 2017). A p esen , a ound 75 % o he
EU's 210 million esiden ial buildings, up o 80 % o which a e expec ed o s ill be in use
in 2050 acco ding o p ojec ions, a e ene ge ically ine icien (Fab i e al., 2016). Gi en he
slow pace o annual building eplacemen (Ha less, 2003), he highes po en ial o ene gy
sa ings can be ound in he exis ing building s ock (Eu opean Commission, 2011). The e-
o e, a pi o al s a egy in he sec o 's deca boniza ion e o s is o diminish ene gy demand
and enhance ene gy e iciency in exis ing buildings, while also ensu ing bo h heal h and
com o (Pasichnyi e al., 2019). In his ega d, building ene gy pe o mance and clima e
policy emain op p io i ies o he EU, p edominan ly since he Ene gy Pe o mance o
Buildings Di ec i e (Eu opean Commission, 2010a) and i s subsequen e isions up un il
he la es i e a ion o 2030 (Eu opean Commission, 2024). In o de o add ess he clima e
eme gency and he associa ed ene gy challenges h ough building e o i , i is impe a i e o
ully unde s and ene gy pe o mance (Jiang e al., 2013) and ene gy ulne abili y (Sánchez-
Gue a a e al., 2019; Calama-González e al., 2024;) in he cu en sec o . This in u n will
enable he de elopmen o well- ailo ed e o i ac ions, which can mainly be app oached
om wo undamen al pe spec i es: global o local (Capu o & Pase i, 2017).
In he u ban con ex , building ene gy cha ac e iza ion poses a challenge due o he la ge
numbe o buildings and he ex ensi e in o ma ion o be sys ema ically collec ed, classi-
ied, and analysed. One o he mos commonly employed app oaches o building cha ac-
e iza ion and pe o mance assessmen is he analysis o in o ma ion con ained in Ene gy
Pe o mance Ce i ica es (Johansson e al., 2016). Hjo ling e al. (2017) analysed 186,021
buildings in Sweden, using a combina ion o CSV o ma ex iles and he MySQL da abase
managemen sys em. They de e mined how a iables such as clima ic zone, yea o con-
s uc ion, and building ypology in luence he ene gy consump ion o buildings. Simila ly,
S eiche e al. (2018) examined in o ma ion om app oxima ely 10,400 esiden ial build-
ings in Swi ze land, conduc ing s a is ical analysis o es ima e he he mal pe o mance
le el in e ms o U- alues o di e en building a che ypes. This in ol ed iden i ying build-
ing g oups classi ied by yea o cons uc ion and building and u ban ypology. Gangolells
e al. (2016) c ea ed a Mic oso Excel ile o ex ac in o ma ion ela ing o emissions,
p ima y ene gy consump ion, building ype, yea o cons uc ion, clima ic zone, and ene gy
consump ion o building sys ems (hea ing, cooling, ho wa e , and ligh ing) om 129,635
ce i ica es, s a is ically analysing hem.
Ano he app oach o mapping he exis ing building s ock and assessing ene gy pe o -
mance is based on u ban mo phology, p o iding a g ea e insigh in o en elope cons uc ion
(ex e io walls, oo , windows and doo s, and ounda ion o loo in con ac wi h he g ound)
and building ypology. Tsi igo i and Bikas (2017) compiled in o ma ion on u ban blocks
in Thessaloniki and s udied 10 o hem in o de o asce ain he in luence o geome y and
compac ness on ene gy e iciency. As pa o he SHERIFF Resea ch P ojec , Cue da e
al. (2014) ca ied ou a classi ica ion and cha ac e iza ion o building acades in 13 neigh-
bou hoods in Mad id o ene gy e alua ion, collec ing in o ma ion om a ious sou ces
(cadas e, building plans, local public adminis a ions, municipal a chi es...). Dascalaki e
al. (2010) also ocused hei s udies on he u ban con ex h ough he DATAMINE P ojec ,
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U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y mapping…
which includes 12 pilo s udies ac oss a ious Eu opean coun ies. These au ho s de eloped
an ex ensi e Excel da abase con aining in o ma ion on 250 exis ing buildings in di e en
egions o G eece. They e alua e 255 pa ame e s, co e ing gene al building in o ma ion
(usage, loca ion, o ien a ion, clima ic zone, yea o cons uc ion...); cons uc ion cha ac-
e iza ion o he he mal en elope (U- alues o opaque and anspa en a eas, shading sys-
ems, he mal b idges...); and ene gy pe o mance (ene gy demand, Hea ing Ven ila ion and
Ai -Condi ioning (HVAC) sys ems, ene gy and elec ici y consump ion, CO2 emissions...),
among o he aspec s. The p ima y sou ces o in o ma ion used a e audi epo s, isual
inspec ions, and Ene gy Pe o mance Ce i ica es o he buildings.
Simila ly, o he s udies in ol e he use o cadas al da a and ec o ial ca og aphy
(2018b; O egi e al., 2018a) on an u ban scale. Ma ín-Consueg a e al. (2018) p oposed
a me hodology analysing he he mal beha iou o building en elopes h ough he h ee-
dimensional gene a ion o building models (using SHP ec o s). They p esen ed u ban
ene gy e iciency indica o s o 1,424 dwellings based on en elope cha ac e iza ion, hea
ansmission coe icien s, and en elope ene gy losses, all co ela ed using Py hon so wa e.
Yang e al. (2020) ob ained ene gy hea ing demand o ou building a che ypes in he ci y
o Leiden (Ne he lands), de ined om he TABULA da abase, ob aining missing in o ma-
ion om s eady assump ions and calcula ions. These au ho s con e ed ene gy demand
in o ene gy consump ion using he TABULA supply sys em simula ion me hod (TABULA
P ojec , 2013), and mapped he esul s in e ms o na u al gas consump ion. Fe nández e
al. (2020) also cha ac e ize hea ing ene gy demand a he building s ock le el using he ci y
o Bilbao as case s udy and cons uc ing 17 ep esen a i e building a che ypes, which a e
assessed in he Design Builde dynamic simula ion so wa e.
In he use o cadas al da a, Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys em (GIS) also becomes a key
open access sou ce pla o m equen ly used o e icien ly and apidly collec , manage, e al-
ua e and isualize ex ensi e da a (A esoglu e al., 2025). Fo ins ance, Jakob e al. (2013)
u ilized geo- e e enced da a and in o ma ion om a GIS en i onmen as inpu a iables
o building s ock modelling and subsequen ene gy pe o mance analysis. Oezdemi e
al. (2017) combined geospa ial analysis ia GIS and on-si e s udy in o de o analyse 179
esiden ial buildings in Ge many. Kleemann e al. (2017) also employed a GIS pla o m
o p o ide in o ma ion on g oss olume, cons uc ion pe iod, use, and ma e ial composi-
ion o app oxima ely 580,000 da a poin s, co esponding o buildings o building compo-
nen s in Vienna. Howe e , he wo la e s udies p ima ily ocus on an h opogenic s ock
assessmen , om he speci ic pe spec i e o he consump ion o esou ces in buildings. The
DATAMINE p ojec men ioned abo e is expanded by D ou sa e al. (2016) h ough he
Eu opean TABULA and EPISCOPE P ojec s (2024). The objec i e is o c ea e a ha mo-
nized s uc u e o na ional ypologies o aid c oss-coun y compa isons o he esiden ial
building s ock. This collabo a i e e o om 16 coun ies has acili a ed he classi ica ion
o buildings, hei cons uc i e and he mal de ini ion, and hei ac i e sys ems (space hea -
ing, domes ic ho wa e ...). This in o ma ion was ob ained om Ene gy Pe o mance Ce -
i ica es, ca og aphic documen a ion, geome ic da a, and na ional s a is ical su ey da a
h ough a GIS pla o m, wi h he ul ima e aim o e alua ing ene gy pe o mance o build-
ings. Simila ly, Sánchez-Apa icio e al. (2020) p esen ed he He i ageCa e pla o m, a web-
GIS ool o gene a e a digi al da abase o p e en i e building conse a ion o his o ical
and cul u al he i age buildings, and compiling in o ma ion om a ious esou ces (on-si e
moni o ing, 360º i ual ou s, geospa ial da a, e c.). Al hough his app oach is in e es ing,
1 3
C. M. Calama-González e al.
only da a on a his o ic lib a y in Salamanca is included and ex ensi e p io manual analysis
is also needed. Fu he mo e, Fabb i e al. (2012) conside ed he i age buildings (966 u ban
uni s) in a case s udy in he ci y o Fe a a (I aly) o p opose a ool o include in o ma ion on
mo phological and his o ical cha ac e is ics o buildings, as well as cadas e da a and ene gy
pe o mance indexes, gene a ing a use ul da a pla o m in a GIS en i onmen . Deng e al.
(2021) p oposed a me hod o de e mine building p ima y use (ho el, shopping mall, o ice,
esiden ial…) in he ci y o Changsha h ough a GIS-based da ase , conside ing he build-
ing’s oo p in and communi y bounda ies, simply o e ing quan i a i e in o ma ion on he
use classi ica ion o he s ock. Kucukpehli an e al. (2023) used a GIS pla o m o de ine he
impac s o u ban planning, aking he ci y o Eskisehi (Tu key) as a case s udy. They p e-
sen ed a ious indica o s o poin s o in e es (dwellings, cul u al and comme cial buildings,
public se ice buildings, e c.), displaying he esul s h ough sel -p oduced maps. Simila ly,
Ze en Ce in e al. (2023) used a GIS en i onmen o e alua e he impac o su ace empe a-
u e inc eases caused by clima e change in he u ban a ea o Ba in (Tu key), assessing sleep
dep i a ion and he mal s ess expe ienced by use s. P ades-Gil e al. (2023) cons uc ed
building models om cadas al and al ime ic da abases using a GIS-based en i onmen in
o de o e alua e hea ing and cooling ene gy demand hough a bo om-up app oach whe e
a o al o 1026 buildings in he ci y o Valencia a e analysed, ex apola ing he esul s o
he whole egion. Mu ani e al. (2024) analysed 8 ep esen a i e building a che ypes in he
ci y o San iago de Chile, assessing hei ene gy demand and po en ial ene gy sa ing ak-
ing in o accoun ou e o i ing in e en ions. Then, hese au ho s ex apola e he esul s
ob ained o he commune o Renca, a subu b o he ci y, mapping he esul s and o e -
ing a isual s a ic classi ica ion o he ene gy pe o mance based on he analysed a che-
ypes. Bel án-Velamazán e al. (2024) c ea ed a na ional-scale u ban ool o Spain based
on in o ma ion om Ene gy Pe o mance Ce i ica es and open big da a da abases, such as
Cadas al Ca og aphy Se ices o Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e. These au ho s in eg a ed
da a on geog aphical, physical, and use- and ene gy- ela ed a iables h ough a bo om-up
p ocess in a GIS ool. Using he ci y o Bilbao (Spain) as a case s udy Villanue a-Díaz e
al. (2024) p o ided an au oma ed me hod o eco ding geome ic and he mal p ope ies
in esiden ial buildings on an u ban scale ia a GIS ool. These au ho s compile exis ing
in o ma ion om public da abases ela ed o one ci y, only p esen ing an au oma ed me h-
odology and he da ase used, bu wi hou c ea ing and sha ing o he communi y a public
and open isualiza ion ool o he esul s ob ained. A u a e al. (2025) c ea ed a ool o
de e mine ene gy pe o mance o a dis ic , ob ained h ough simpli ied s eady s a e calcula-
ions and e e ences buildings (minimum he mal and ene gy equi emen s). These au ho s
showed an applica ion example o he ci y o Naples, alida ing he ool h ough punc ual
dynamic building simula ion esul s only o he clima e condi ions o he a o emen ioned
ci y. Al hough u u e wo ks will be ocused on he in eg a ion o his ool wi h GIS so wa e
o mapping pu poses, he au ho s do no make he designed ool a ailable. Ano he ele an
wo k is he s udy conduc ed by Mod ego-Mon o e e al. (2023), who p esen ed a mul i-
c i e ia me hodology o assess he ulne abili y o he esiden ial s ock in he Donos ia-San
Sebas ian ci y based on he use o a GIS ool. These au ho s elabo a e s a ic plans de i ed
om he conduc ed ulne abili y analysis aking in o accoun spa ial pa ame e s (dwelling
a ea, pe cen age o açade openings, building s uc u e…), en i onmen al cha ac e is ics
(na u al en ila ion, building compac ness, he mal ansmi ance…), ene gy c i e ia (hea -
1 3
U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y mapping…
ing ene gy demand, elec ici y demand…) and social aspec s (popula ion ageing, mig an
popula ion, popula ion wi h basic educa ion…).
The majo i y o hese s udies p opose au oma ed da a collec ion me hodologies (p i-
ma ily ela ed o geome ic, cons uc ional, he mal, and ene gy pa ame e s) as a p elimi-
na y s ep in he assessmen o building he mal and ene gy pe o mance a he u ban scale.
Geome ic in o ma ion is ypically sou ced om he Cadas e pla o m o he municipali y
unde analysis, wi h da a upda e equency a ying depending on he egion, while ene gy-
ela ed da a is gene ally de i ed om publicly a ailable Ene gy Pe o mance Ce i ica es.
Al hough nume ous s udies depic he cu en pe o mance o buildings, mainly h ough
s a ic u ban mapping o g aphical ep esen a ions, he e is a no able absence o in eg a ed
assessmen s ha simul aneously add ess bo h ene gy e iciency and socioeconomic ul-
ne abili y o he exis ing building s ock. Fu he mo e, mos s udies p esen hei indings
h ough nume ical da ase s o s a ic igu es included wi hin he publica ions, o en ocusing
on a single municipali y o speci ic u ban de elopmen as a case s udy. In o he wo ds, he e
is a lack o open-access, in e ac i e ools ha enable easy isualiza ion o cu en building
pe o mance and ulne abili y ou comes, c ucial aspec s o e o i ing pu poses.In con-
as o simila wo ks conduc ed in he ield, he aim o his a icle is o p o ide an open-
access web ool o assess he ene gy cha ac e iza ion and ulne abili y o exis ing public
social housing buildings in sou he n Spain (Medi e anean clima e) om a dual analysis: he
ene gy and socioeconomic pe spec i es. This conside s he building s ock le el (no only
single-building le el) and a me hodological app oach based on a GIS. This ool p oposes a
sys ema ic me hod o compiling use ul in o ma ion, ga he ed om open-sou ce da abases,
o de e mine he mos ep esen a i e geome ic, cons uc i e, ene gy and socioeconomic
aspec s o esiden ial buildings in sou he n Spain. This GIS ool may be used o ob ain inpu
da a o gene a ing ene gy simula ion models a bo h building and s ock le els o simila
he mal calcula ions o he assessmen o building ene gy pe o mance, which could sup-
po bo om-up o op-down analysis. I could also be o use o householde s, s akehold-
e s o public adminis a ions in he e o i p ocesses since i enables he isualiza ion o
he mos ulne able exis ing buildings which should unde go high-p io i y e o i ac ions,
aking in o conside a ion ulne abili y ela ing o building ene gy pe o mance and use s’
socioeconomic limi a ions. Unlike simila wo ks, he no el y o his esea ch is ha his ool
implemen s open-access da a o p o ide a ulne abili y classi ica ion o he public social
housing buildings in sou he n Spain ( egion o Andalusia). Fu he mo e, gene al and ul-
ne abili y da a on hese buildings a e also made a ailable as a ee, open-access and in e ac-
i e web ool o any use o Adminis a ion, wi h basic echnical knowledge.
The manusc ip has been s uc u ed as ollows: sec ion 2 p o ides in o ma ion on he
me hodological app oach, desc ibing he building cha ac e iza ion da abase used in his
wo k, as well as he de ini ion o he ulne abili y indica o s (ene gy ulne abili y indica o ,
socioeconomic ulne abili y indica o and global ulne abili y indica o ) and he c ea ion
o he da a web- ool; a eal applicabili y example is desc ibed in sec ion 3, o e ing main
quan i a i e esul s; while in sec ion 4, a compa ison wi h simila wo ks is p esen ed; las ly,
main conclusions epo ed in his esea ch a e included in sec ion 5.
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C. M. Calama-González e al.
2 Ma e ials and me hods
Figu e 1 shows he schema ic diag am o he me hodological wo k low ollowed in his
esea ch, wi h he s ages desc ibed in g ea e de ail in he subsequen subsec ions.
2.1 C ea ion o an ex ensi e building cha ac e iza ion da abase
Fo his s udy, in o ma ion was i s ga he ed om he public and open-access da abase on
public social housing buildings in sou he n Spain, compiled and managed by he Andalusian
Housing and Re o i Agency (AVRA, 2023). A e ini ial p ocessing and p elimina y il e -
ing ea men he con en o his da abase was expanded and imp o ed by inco po a ing new
s udy a iables. This was o ocus he analysis on he p edominan exis ing building s ock,
en ed H-block and linea block mul i amily housing ypologies, buil be ween 1950 and
2010 in sou he n Spain. This p edominan s ock, comp ising app oxima ely 30,600 public
dwellings, ep esen s a ound 77.5 % o he o al public housing s ock in Andalusia (Calama-
González, 2020). The inal upda ed da abase includes he a iables desc ibed in Table 1, all
ob ained om public esou ces and ools.
2.2 Assessmen o ulne abili y indica o s
Two main indica o s ha e been conside ed in he ulne abili y assessmen o he exis ing
housing s ock in sou he n Spain. The i s ela es o ene gy ulne abili y associa ed wi h he
analysis o he ene gy pe o mance o he exis ing building i sel . The second ulne abili y
indica o ela es o he economic capaci y o he social use o he dwelling. By combining
bo h, a global ulne abili y index is de ined, allowing o he analysis o he cu en ene gy
pe o mance o he building, while also aking in o accoun he social dimension o he
use s. These aspec s a e c ucial when add essing he ene gy e o i p ocess o he build-
ing sec o , whe e he main a ge add esses he educ ion o building deca boniza ion o
achie e ene gy objec i es wi hin he amewo ks o 2030 and 2050, by p io i izing s a e-
gies applied o he mos ulne able pa o he building s ock om bo h ene gy and social
pe spec i es.
Fig. 1 Me hodology wo k low and s ages ollowed
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U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y mapping…
2.2.1 De ini ion o he ene gy ulne abili y indica o (EVI)
Fo he assessmen o he EVI o he social housing s ock in sou he n Spain, an analysis o
he ene gy demand o he buildings is p oposed, ini ially o ocus he ulne abili y indica o
on he pe o mance o he building i sel , and secondly, o o e come he limi a ions s em-
ming om he in luence o use s du ing he ope a ion o HVAC sys ems and hei lack o
knowledge ela ing o he exac e iciency alue o hese sys ems. The wo k s ages we e
de eloped as ollows:
1. Fi s ly, he ene gy demand a iables included in he o iginal public AVRA da abase we e
iden i ied. The speci ic alues a e a ailable o hea ing and cooling ene gy demand (in
kWh/m2 pe yea ) o each building included in he da abase. This in o ma ion is p e i-
ously ob ained om he Building E alua ion Repo , a Spanish s anda dised documen
de ailing he s a e o conse a ion o he building, i s le el o adap a ion and accessibil-
i y, and i s ene gy e iciency aspec s. In his case, hese epo s may be eely accessed
om he o icial websi e o he Regional Minis y o De elopmen , Te i o ial S uc u -
ing and Housing o he Jun a de Andalucía Go e nmen . I is impo an o highligh ha
Type Va iable Uni Desc ip ion
Gen-
e al
da a
AVRA building complex code - In o iginal
AVRA da abase
AVRA building code -
Cadas al Re e ence -
P o ince -
Town -
Spanish clima ic a ea - Ob ained om
he Spanish
Building Techni-
cal Code (CTE,
2019)
Geo-
me -
ic
Da a
Cons uc ion yea - In o iginal
AVRA da abase
Typology - Ob ained om
Google Maps
ool
O ien a ion º
Numbe o dwellings (pe build-
ing complex)
- In o iginal
AVRA da abase
Numbe o dwellings (pe
building)
-
Numbe o loo s abo e g ound -Ob ained om
he Elec onic
Pla o m o
he Spanish
Cadas e (Online
Cadas al O ice,
2024)
Numbe o loo s below g ound -
A e age dwelling a ea m2
Re ail space a ea m2
To al buil a ea m2
To al occupied a ea m2
Window- o-wall a io % In o iginal
AVRA da abase
En-
e gy
Da a
Global emissions pe yea kWh/
m2 pe
yea
Hea ing demand
Cooling demand
Table 1 Va iables included in he
upda ed e sion o AVRA build-
ing da abase
1 3
C. M. Calama-González e al.
hese da a is pe iodically upda ed, enhancing he expandabili y and scalabili y o he
s udy.
2. Ene gy demand h esholds we e hen de ined, so ha buildings exceeding hese limi
alues we e conside ed ulne able in e ms o ene gy. These h esholds we e de e -
mined based on he 2013 e sion o he Basic Documen o Ene gy Sa ing o he
Spanish Technical Building Code (CTE, 2013), aking in o accoun he limi a ion o
hea ing and cooling ene gy demand in p i a ely owned esiden ial buildings included
in he egula ions. I should be no ed ha he egula ions speci y di e en limi alues
o ene gy demand depending on he Spanish clima ic zone (Calama-González, 2020)
as well as he seasonal pe iod (win e o summe ).
3. A a la e s age, based on he ene gy h esholds speci ied in he Spanish egula ions,
di e en deg ees o le els o ene gy ulne abili y o he dwellings ( om 0 o 3) we e
de ined, again depending on he clima ic zone and seasonal pe iod wi hin Spain. These
le els we e ob ained om he es ablishmen o ene gy anges in which he uppe and
lowe limi demand alues accumula e based on he p e ious le el. Thus, acco ding o
he in ensi y o hei ene gy ulne abili y, he dwellings we e classi ied in o 4 ca ego ies:
no isk, low, medium and se e e. In o he wo ds, ca ego y 0 co esponds o dwellings
ha mee he egula o y h eshold alues; ca ego y 1 includes dwellings wi h demand
alues up o wice he egula o y limi ; ca ego y 2 comp ises hose wi h demand alues
up o h ee imes he egula o y limi , and, inally, ca ego y 3 includes dwellings wi h
demand alues exceeding h ee imes he egula o y limi . Table 2 p o ides a summa y
o he ene gy h esholds de ined o he EVI analysis.
4. Bea ing all his in mind, he EVI o he win e season and he EVI o he summe
season we e ob ained. Addi ionally, annual in o ma ion was p o ided by calcula ing
he annual EVI. This annual indica o esul s om he weigh ed a e age o he summe
and win e indica o s, whe e each indica o is assigned he same weigh , ha is, 50 %
(Equa ion 1).
EVIannual =(EVIwin e +EVIsumme )/2
(1)
Table 2 Value anges conside ed in he ene gy ulne abili y indica o (EVI) de i ed om applicable Spanish
egula ions (CTE, 2013)
EVI Spanish clima ic zone
A3 A4 B3 B4 C3
Hea ing ene gy
demand (kWh/
m2)
No ulne abili y = 0 ≤15 ≤15 ≤15 ≤15 ≤20+s
Low = 1 15 o 30 15 o 30 15 o 30 15 o 30 20+s o 2·(20+s)
Medium = 2 30 o 45 30 o 45 30 o 45 30 o 45 2·(20+s) o
3·(20+s)
Se e e = 3 >45 >45 >45 >45 >3·(20+s)
Cooling en-
e gy demand
(kWh/m2)
No ulne abili y = 0 ≤15 ≤20 ≤15 ≤20 ≤15
Low = 1 15 o 30 20 o 40 15 o 30 20 o 40 15 o 30
Medium = 2 30 o 45 40 o 60 30 o 45 40 o 60 30 o 45
Se e e = 3 >45 >60 >45 >60 >45
s e e s o he a io 1000/buil a ea o he building. A u he desc ip ion o he Spanish clima ic zones may
be ound in (Calama-González, 2020)
1 3
U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y mapping…
This en ails he c ea ion o 7 le els o assess he in ensi y o annual ene gy ulne abil-
i y (le el 0 o 3 e e y 0.5), de ined in ascending o de o in ensi y: no ulne abili y, low,
medium-low, medium, medium-high, high and se e e.
2.2.2 De ini ion o he socioeconomic ulne abili y indica o (SVI)
The SVI o he Andalusian social housing s ock was e alua ed h ough he analysis o he
social p o ile and economic capaci y o he use s li ing in hese homes. An indi ec analysis
me hod based on he census sec ion was used o de ine his SVI. The p ocess ollowed is
explained below:
1. Fi s ly, he economic capaci y o he use s was de e mined. This a iable is de ined
based on he s udy o he median income pe consump ion uni , conside ing he o al
income ecei ed a e deduc ing axes and o he social ans e s. To s anda dize he
median alue and allow o income compa ison be ween households wi h di e en
numbe s o ocupan s, he “household equi alen income” was used. This median alue
o he equi alen income pe consump ion uni (N) o he use s was ob ained om pub-
lic da a con ained in he Su ey on Li ing Condi ions (INE, 2021), documen p epa ed
by he Spanish Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics in 2021, wi h da a e e ing o he yea
2020. This open-access in o ma ion was eely ob ained om he o icial websi e o he
Spanish Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics. A.cs ile wi h a homogeneous s uc u e and
sec ion o ganiza ion is downloaded, con aining all he selec ed s udy a iables. The
a o emen ioned Ins i u e egula ly upda es his da a, main aining he s uc u e o he
iles o e ime, which allows he ool o be upda ed and expanded o e ime.
2. Subsequen ly, h esholds o po e y and se e e po e y we e de ined. To do his,
he"A isk o po e y and exclusion"indica o was e alua ed ollowing he guidelines
o he Eu ope 2020 S a egy (Eu opean Commission, 2010b) and he AROPE epo
(AROPE, 2021) on he s a e o po e y in Spain. This indica o de ines a po e y h esh-
old and a se e e po e y h eshold co esponding o incomes below 60 % and 40 %
o he median equi alen income pe consump ion uni , espec i ely. Taking bo h his
and he su ey men ioned abo e in o accoun , he na ional alue o he median equi a-
len income pe consump ion uni in Spain o 2020 was 16,043 €. Thus, he po e y
h eshold was es ablished o incomes equal o o less han 9,625.80 €, while he se e e
po e y h eshold e e ed o incomes equal o o less han 6,417.20 €.
3. Finally, 4 le els o he SVI we e de ined o assess socioeconomic anges ( om 0 o 3
co esponding o: no isk, low, medium and se e e), classi ying householde s acco ding
by po e y in ensi y. To do his, he me hodology es ablished in he Household Income
Dis ibu ion A las (INE, 2022), was applied, esul ing in he anges indica ed in Table 3.
4. Fu he mo e, o he social pa ame e s ha may signi ican ly in luence use s’ deg ee o
ulne abili y a e also included as socioeconomic da a o complemen he economic
analysis o use s. Th ee speci ic demog aphic indica o s, again ob ained om he INE
su ey (INE, 2021), we e analysed: 1) pe cen age o elde ly people (%), e e ing o
he numbe o indi iduals aged 65 o olde pe hund ed people in he o al popula ion;
2) old-age a io (%), ela ing o he numbe o indi iduals aged 85 o o e pe hun-
d ed people aged 65 o o e ; 3) egis e ed unemploymen a e (%), ep esen ing he
1 3
C. M. Calama-González e al.
Se ille no mally e e s o he medium-low le el (35.7 % o buildings) and bo h he ex a
high and se e e le els (17.4 % and 17.1 % o he buildings, espec i ely). Howe e , 13 % o
he houses in he ci y p esen medium-high GVI and 10.2 % a e classi ied as medium GVI
ulne abili y. I is ema kable ha no cases a e ound wi h he lowes and highes ulne -
abili y le els (no ulne abili y, ex a low, e y se e e and ex a se e e) in Se ille. The a ea
o Polígono Su is a clea example o a neighbou hood wi h signi ican ulne abili y issues
gi en ha : 34.9 % o he buildings p esen ex a high GVI, 34.4 % p esen se e e GVI, and
22.9 % a e wi hin he medium-high GVI le el (Fig. 7).
4 Discussion: compa ison wi h o he s udies
A signi ican po ion o simila s udies conduc ed in he ield whose objec i e is he assess-
men o he cu en pe o mance o exis ing buildings (as a undamen al p elimina y s ep
p io o implemen ing ene gy e o i ing s a egies) a e mainly based on he analysis o
ep esen a i e o a che ype buildings. These a che ypes a e gene ally de ined h ough da a
collec ion p ima ily de i ed om Ene gy Pe o mance Ce i ica es, as well as ca og aphic
documen s and s a is ical su eys, de ining building da abases, as was de eloped in he
TABULA and EPISCOPE P ojec s (2024). Once hese a che ypes a e de ined, hese ep-
esen a i e buildings a e assessed using ene gy simula ion ools o simpli ied s a ic ene gy
calcula ions. Th ough bo om-up app oaches, he esul s ob ained om he simula ed ep-
esen a i e buildings a e la e ex apola ed o en i e building s ocks a he neighbou hood
o ci y le el, ypically using GIS en i onmen s as isualiza ion ools. This me hodology is
gene ally adop ed by Yang e al. (2020), Fe nández e al. (2020), o P ades-Gil e al. (2023)
o analyse building a che ypes in he ci ies o Leiden (Ne he lands), Bilbao (Spain), and
Fig. 6 Cap u e o he web map gene a ed. Example o da a isualiza ion in Polígono Su neighbou hood
(Se ille): SVI
1 3
U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y mapping…
Valencia (Spain), espec i ely. Howe e , hese au ho s epo esul s only in e ms o ene gy
demand and consump ion, wi hou e alua ing o he pa ame e s o p o iding addi ional
in o ma ion o he de elopmen o u u e building-le el ene gy models. Ano he ele an
example is he s udy by Mu ani e al. (2024), who, ollowing he same a che ype de ini ion
c i e ia, analyse ene gy- ela ed pa ame e s in he Renca dis ic o San iago de Chile (Chile).
In con as o hese s udies, whe e ex apola ion e o s may a ise om assigning ep esen-
a i e mo phological and ypological alues o buildings ha , due o hei i egula i ies o
speci ic cha ac e is ics, may no i hese s anda dized schemes, he p esen wo k is based
on ac ual ene gy da a speci ic o each building. This in o ma ion was di ec ly ob ained om
he Ene gy Pe o mance Ce i ica es o each cons uc ion, which a e publicly a ailable and
eely accessible h ough o icial da abases. The e o e, no in e media e a che ypal simpli i-
ca ion p ocess is applied; ins ead, he speci ic ene gy da a o each building is di ec ly linked
o i sel in he GIS en i onmen , a oiding ex apola ion al oge he .
Fu he mo e, unlike he wo k o Sánchez-Apa icio e al. (2020), who applied he He i-
ageCa e GIS pla o m o he ci y o Salamanca (Spain), o Fabb i e al. (2012), who con-
duc ed a s udy wi hin a GIS en i onmen in he ci y o Fe a a (I aly), bo h o which ocused
exclusi ely on his o ically signi ican and monumen ally aluable buildings, he p esen
s udy a ge s he b oade and mo e ep esen a i e building s ock o ci ies, speci ically, he
exis ing esiden ial s ock and, mo e p ecisely, he housing s ock managed by public admin-
is a ions. This ul ima e aspec adds u he alue o he wo k, as i p o ides public s ake-
holde s in ol ed in he e o i ing p ocess wi h a ool ha con ains c ucial in o ma ion o
planning ene gy e o i s a egies, o e ing alue da a o allow p io i izing e o i measu es
applied o he mos ulne able a eas.
O he au ho s, such as Deng e al. (2021), employed GIS-based ools solely o clas-
si y buildings by use ac oss a ci y map in hei s udy o Changsha (China). Some s udies
Fig. 7 Cap u e o he web map gene a ed. Example o da a isualiza ion in Polígono Su neighbou hood
(Se ille): GVI
1 3
C. M. Calama-González e al.
p esen au oma ed me hodologies whe e GIS ools a e used o ga he ele an in o ma ion
ac oss a ious ci ies. Fo ins ance, Villanue a-Díaz e al. (2024) p o ide geome ic and
he mal p ope y da a o se e al buildings in he ci y o Bilbao (Spain), while A u a e al.
(2025) p opose a no el me hod o pe o ming simpli ied he mal and ene gy calcula ions
o mul iple buildings in Naples (I aly). Ne e heless, none o hese au ho s make such ools
publicly a ailable, o e ing only a me hodological desc ip ion. This limi a ion means ha , in
some cases, hei me hods canno be eplica ed by o he esea che s o applied o di e en
egions, as hey ha e only been alida ed o speci ic case s udies.
Among he e iewed li e a u e, he wo k o Bel án-Velamazán e al. (2024) s ands ou as
pa icula ly aligned wi h he p esen a icle. These au ho s in eg a e in o a GIS ool c i ical
geog aphic, physical, and ene gy in o ma ion o a ious buildings a a na ional le el, using
da a om mul iple open and publicly a ailable sou ces, speci ically Ene gy Pe o mance
Ce i ica es, Cadas al Pla o ms, and he Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e o Spain. Howe e ,
in con as o his wo k, he p esen s udy in oduces an inno a i e con ibu ion by o e -
ing aluable insigh s in o bo h he ene gy ulne abili y o buildings and he socioeconomic
ulne abili y o hei use s, di ec ly linking wo key indica o s ha a e highly ele an and
mus be conside ed in he e o i p ocesses.
In addi ion, and unlike he s udy by Mod ego-Mon o e e al. (2023), who p opose a
GIS-based me hodology o assess he ulne abili y o he building s ock in he ci y o Don-
os ia-San Sebas ián (Spain) using s a ic esul images, he cu en a icle explici ly c ea es
and sha es an open-access, in e ac i e ool ha allows o he isualiza ion o ulne abili y
analysis esul s and he cha ac e iza ion o he building s ock (as Suplemmen a y Da a).
This ool p o es highly use ul o bo h s akeholde s in ol ed in he e o i p ocess and
he gene al public. Mo eo e , he ool de eloped in his s udy includes in o ma ion om
a ious municipali ies in sou he n Spain, speci ically he Andalusian egion, and unlike he
p e iously men ioned wo k, i is no limi ed o a single ci y (e en hough only one ci y is
isually p esen ed as an example).
Beyond ulne abili y assessmen , he designed ool c ea ed in his s udy also includes
addi ional geome ic, physical, ene gy, and social da a o g ea ele ance o he de el-
opmen o dynamic single-le el building ene gy simula ion models. In summa y, his
wo k p esen s and sha es an open-access, ee- o-use ool ha can be execu ed in any web
b owse , as desc ibed in Sec ion 2.3.
5 Conclusions
This s udy p esen s an in e ac i e geo- e e enced da a web- ool o gene al building cha -
ac e iza ion and ene gy ulne abili y assessmen o be used by householde s, s akeholde s
and public adminis a ions in he e o i p ocess. I also desc ibes he me hodology ol-
lowed. This ool con ains in o ma ion on building cha ac e iza ion and he deg ee o ene gy
and socioeconomic ulne abili y o he public social housing s ock in sou he n Spain, con-
side ing he p edominan mul i- amily H-block and linea block buildings. In his a icle,
an applicabili y example was shown o he ci y o Se ille, bu da a o 41 sou he n Spain
municipali ies we e conside ed.
O e all, his esea ch has p o ed ha , once he exis ing open da a a ailable is co ela ed
and simul aneously analysed, i can p o ide an ini ial app oxima ion and global assess-
1 3
U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y mapping…
men o he cu en s a e o he exis ing buildings a s ock o egional le el. This app oach
allows he scope, dispa i ies and causes o ulne abili y o be iden i ied, which enables a
de ailed and accu a e diagnosis a he egional scale, as well as he design o mo e app o-
p ia e and e ec i e policies. Thus, he usabili y o he me hodology de ined has also been
demons a ed h ough i s applica ion a a local scale, p o ing o be an e ec i e me hod o
apidly ob ain gene al and ene gy da a on an ex ensi e sample, os e ing conc e e local
ac ions allowing he p oblem o be add essed. This dual app oach a egional o local le el
acili a es he de elopmen o di e en ia ed and coo dina ed ene gy and social long- e m
policy ac ions, ul ima ely aiming o mi iga e s uc u al p oblems. These aspec s will help
a ge public aid and unding owa d he mos ulne able a eas, s a egic alloca ing public
esou ces. Fu he mo e, he c ea ion o a ee open-access ool allows he inco po a ion
o new in o ma ion a any ime, making he in e ace a dynamic esou ce which can be
imp o ed o e ime using upda ed in o ma ion ob ained om public da ase s. This aspec
democ a izes in o ma ion and empowe s ci izens, social s akeholde s and public adminis-
a ions in he decision-making p ocess.
The de eloped ool in eg a es GIS echnologies o make i in e ac i e and capable o
accu a e and gene ally apid da a analysis. Mo eo e , i is based on an open-sou ce na u e,
ensu ing accessibili y o end use s and policymake s, among o he public. The ool o e s
comp ehensi e co e age since i add esses enginee ing, social and en i onmen al ac o s
ha cha ac e ised public social housing in sou he n Spain, p o iding a holis ic iew o his
s ock. And, u he mo e, he scalabili y o he ool mus be highligh ed, gi en ha i may
be upda ed and e en expanded wi h new da a ob ained om public da abases, ensu ing i s
ongoing ele ance.
The iles included in he ool con ain in o ma ion on he cu en s a e and ene gy pe o -
mance o he social housing s ock o each municipali y, which is use ul o subsequen ene gy
analysis o dynamic simula ion in hese buildings, as i p o ides undamen al pa ame e s o
he de ini ion o ene gy simula ion models o bo h bo om-up and op-down app oaches.
Addi ionally, ele an da a is p o ided o decision-making in he eno a ion p ocess, ocus-
ing on he esiden ial building sec o mos a ec ed by ene gy and social ulne abili y.
On he o he hand, some limi a ions ough o be also men ioned. Fo ins ance, he depen-
dence on public open da a, which may esul in limi ed-quali y da ase s, and he egional
ocus, since he ool is speci ically designed o sou he n Spain. This aspec may limi he
applicabili y o he ool o o he egions, depending on he o ma o open-sou ce da a
ob ained om public da ase s c ea ed and managed by public adminis a ions, which may
equi e a p e ious da a adap a ion p ocess o inpu a iables o be used in he GIS ool.
Despi e he possible dynamic ou comes, which may a y conside ing inpu da a and assess-
men c i e ia, he inco po a ion o new e alua ion objec i es may be easily implemen ed,
enhancing i s u u e applica ions.
Acknowledgmen s Escandón acknowledges he inancing o he VI PPIT-US, h ough he 2020 Call o
Con ac s o Access o he Spanish Science, Technology and Inno a ion Sys em o he De elopmen o he
US's Own R&D&I P og am.
Au ho con ibu ions C.M. Calama-González: Da a cu a ion, Fo mal analysis, In es iga ion, Me hodol-
ogy, Valida ion, Visualiza ion, So wa e, W i ing – o iginal d a , W i ing – e iew & edi ing. R. Escandón:
Resou ces, W i ing – e iew & edi ing, Funding acquisi ion, P ojec adminis a ion. R. Suá ez: Concep ual-
iza ion, Me hodology, Supe ision, W i ing – e iew & edi ing. E. Abajo-Casado: Me hodology, So wa e,
W i ing – e iew & edi ing. A.R. Diánez-Ma ínez: Me hodology, So wa e, W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
1 3
C. M. Calama-González e al.
Funding Open Access unding p o ided hanks o he CRUE-CSIC ag eemen wi h Sp inge Na u e. This
esea ch was unded by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund (FEDER) and he Regional Go e nmen
o Jun a de Andalucía, h ough he esea ch p ojec “Ene gy Re o i ing o he Andalusian social housing.
Op imiza ion o passi e solu ions in esiden ial s ocks wi h a high ulne abili y index” (US.22-06).
Da a a ailabili y Da a will be made a ailable on eques .
Decla a ions
Compe ing in e es The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal
ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
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ins i u ional a ilia ions.
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U ban-scale building assessmen and ene gy ulne abili y mapping…
Au ho s and A ilia ions
C. M.Calama-González1· R.Escandón2· R.Suá ez2· E.Abajo-Casado3· A. R.Diánez-
Ma ínez3
C. M. Calama-González
[email p o ec ed]
1 Depa amen o de Cons ucciones A qui ec ónicas y su Con ol. Escuela Técnica Supe io
de Edi icación, Uni e sidad Poli écnica de Mad id. A da, Juan de He e a 4, 28040 Mad id,
Spain
2 Ins i u o Uni e si a io de A qui ec u a y Ciencias de la Cons ucción, Escuela Técnica
Supe io de A qui ec u a, Uni e sidad de Se illa, A . de Reina Me cedes 2, 41012 Se ille,
Spain
3 Depa amen o de Ma emá ica Aplicada I, Escuela Técnica Supe io de A qui ec u a,
Uni e sidad de Se illa, A . de Reina Me cedes 2, 41012 Se ille, Spain
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