Add essing accele a ion a eas o enewable ene gy de elopmen in he
Eu opean Union (EU): A case s udy o mainland Po ugal
Pila Díaz-Cue as
a,*
, Bel´
en P´
e ez-P´
e ez
b
, H´
elde Sil a Lopes
c
, Paula Fe ei a
d
a
Depa men o Physical Geog aphy and Regional Geog aphical Analysis, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain
b
Depa men o Human Geog aphy, Facul y o Philosophy and Le e s, Uni e si y o G anada, G anada, Spain
c
Lab2PT – Labo a o y o Landscape, He i age and Te i o y, Depa men o Geog aphy, Uni e si y o Minho, IdRA – Wa e Resea ch Ins i u e, Uni e si y o Ba celona,
Spain
d
ALGORITMI Resea ch Cen e /LASI, Uni e si y o Minho, Po ugal
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Renewable accele a ion a eas
Wind ene gy planning
Spa ial zoning
Di ec i e (EU) 2023/2413
Geog aphical in o ma ion sys ems
Ene gy ansi ion
ABSTRACT
The u gen need o accele a e he ene gy ansi ion in he Eu opean Union has made spa ial planning a key ool
o e ec i e and equi able deploymen o enewable ene gy. Di ec i e (EU) 2023/2413 equi es Membe S a es
o designa e “ enewable accele a ion a eas” whe e enewable p ojec s can be apidly implemen ed wi h minimal
en i onmen al impac . Howe e , he me hodological basis o iden i ying such a eas emains unde de eloped
and une en ac oss coun ies. This pape p oposes a me hodological amewo k o iden i ying a eas o wind
ene gy implemen a ion in mainland Po ugal, wi h implica ions o o he EU coun ies. Resul s show ha , unde
he mos es ic i e scena io, wind ene gy de elopmen is incompa ible o highly inad isable in 95 % o he
e i o y. S ill, land emains a ailable o ins alling 11,513 u bines, equa ing o 23,026 MW (assuming 2 MW pe
u bine). A less conse a i e in e p e a ion o slope es ic ions would allow o he ins alla ion o 1194 addi-
ional u bines. These indings highligh ha pa icula a en ion should be paid o echnical c i e ia, such as
slope, in he same way ha en i onmen al p o ec ion and popula ion- ela ed ac o s a e c i ically e iewed. I
also emphasizes he need o assess “incompa ible” a eas mo e c i ically, ca ego izing hem by he ype and
numbe o cons ain s. P oximi y o ene gy demand is highligh ed as a key ac o o enhancing sel -su iciency
and educing ex e nali ies. Finally, i is ecommended ha sui abili y weigh ings be delega ed o local planne s,
os e ing lexibili y and local empowe men wi h he in ol emen o expe s amilia wi h he e i o y o be
planned. This app oach p omo es balanced and lexible enewable ene gy zoning o he implemen a ion o EU
enewable ene gy a ge s and planning manda es.
1. In oduc ion
The ansi ion o enewable ene gy ac oss he EU-27 - he 27 Membe
S a es o he Eu opean Union -is a cen al in e es o he Eu opean G een
Deal and he EU’s s a egy o clima e neu ali y by 2050. This shi
esponds o p essing challenges: clima e change mi iga ion, ossil uel
dependency, and conce ns o e ene gy secu i y and p ice ola ili y.
Inc easing he sha e o enewables is expec ed o educe emissions,
p omo e economic de elopmen , gene a e employmen , and s abilize
ene gy cos s.
In his con ex , he REPowe EU Plan (2022) (Eu opean Union, 2022),
aims o accele a e he clean ene gy ansi ion in esponse o geopoli ical
and ene gy ma ke dis up ions, no ably he wa in Uk aine. One o i s
key measu es is he simpli ica ion o adminis a i e p ocedu es o
enewable ene gy deploymen . Pe mi ing p ocesses o enewable en-
e gy p ojec s a y conside ably ac oss EU Membe S a es, o en
in ol ing mul iple laye s o go e nance, complex en i onmen al as-
sessmen s, and leng hy consul a ion p ocedu es. These adminis a i e
hu dles ha e become one o he main bo lenecks o enewable ene gy
deploymen . To accele a e he implemen a ion o enewable ene gy
acili ies, Di ec i e (EU) 2023/2413 (Eu opean Pa liamen o he
Council, 2023) es ablishes a legal amewo k o he designa ion o
“ enewable accele a ion a eas”, de ined as zones sui able o he apid
deploymen o enewable ene gy wi h minimal en i onmen al impac .
This measu e p o ides a s a egic pa hway o s eamline pe mi ing
p ocedu es by p e-selec ing a eas whe e p ojec s a e expec ed o ha e
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (P. Díaz-Cue as).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jclep o.2025.145748
Recei ed 22 Janua y 2025; Recei ed in e ised o m 15 Ap il 2025; Accep ed 17 May 2025
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
A ailable online 23 May 2025
0959-6526/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ).
low en i onmen al impac and ace ewe egula o y obs acles, he eby
enhancing legal ce ain y and in es o con idence. A icle 15 manda es
ha Membe S a es designa e such a eas by Feb ua y 2026, using
a ailable da a and p io i izing a i icial o deg aded land, while
excluding en i onmen ally sensi i e a eas.
EU coun ies a e p og essing a di e en paces. I aly adop ed he
“A ee Idonee” Dec ee (Minis e o dell’Ambien e e della Sicu ezza Ene -
ge ica, 2024), es ablishing manda o y c i e ia o de ining sui able and
unsui able a eas, wi h egional au ho i ies esponsible o implemen a-
ion. Addi ionally, he “Ag icul u e Dec ee” egula es enewable ene gy
on a mland, balancing ene gy p oduc ion wi h ag icul u al p o ec ion.
Spain launched in 2020 he En i onmen al Zoning Tool o Renewable
Ene gies (Minis y o he Ecological T ansi ion and he Demog aphic
Challenge, 2020) which e alua es en i onmen al sensi i i y o guide he
placemen o sola and wind p ojec s. Po ugal lacks an o icial zoning
ool bu has ad anced h ough echnical s udies. Sim˜
oes e al. (2023)
conduc ed a na ional analysis iden i ying low-sensi i i y a eas o po-
en ial “Go-To A eas” unde Di ec i e 2023/2413.
Despi e ongoing e o s, Membe S a es con inue o ace signi ican
challenges: o e lapping land uses, da a limi a ions, and adminis a i e
bu dens complica e zoning. A ha monized ye lexible app oach is
essen ial o ensu e e icien , equi able, and con ex -sensi i e enewable
ene gy planning.
Spain’s model is cen alized and ad iso y, ocused on en i onmen al
ac o s. I aly’s is legally binding and in eg a es socio-economic and
in as uc u al conside a ions, wi h egional implemen a ion. Sim˜
oes
e al. (2023) app oach o Po ugal, despi e he commendable p og ess
achie ed h ough his ini ial zoning ini ia i e, se e al no ewo hy issues
me i a en ion and u he discussion:
- The esul ing zones conside ed he same c i e ia o wind and sola
ene gy e en hough he impac s o hese wo ypes o ene gy a e e y
di e en . Also, he analyses emphasized ha he sui abili y o he
emaining zones has no been assessed, ea ing all zones as equally
sui able.
- Exis ing ins alla ions we e no conside ed, making i di icul o
assess he ac ual emaining de elopable a ea.
- La ge-scale p ojec s elimina ed a eas smalle han 100 ha om
conside a ion. The e o e, a comp ehensi e unde s anding o a ail-
able emaining a ea is essen ial o e ec i e planning. I would be
necessa y o know how much a ea emains a ailable.
- Al hough he ene gy ansi ion in ol es b inging p oduc ion close
o consump ion, in line wi h ensu ing ene gy sel -su iciency, his
c i e ion has no been inco po a ed in o he analysis.
- The examina ion o he analysis o “Go-To A eas” o wind and sola
deploymen , he s udy gene a es ou scena ios based on applied
cons ain s. In Scena io 1, wind and sola ac i i ies a e conside ed
incompa ible ac oss 88 % o he Po uguese su ace. This pe cen age
inc eases o 90 % in Scena io 2, and u he o 95 % and 97 % in
Scena ios 3 and 4, espec i ely. The e o e, a de ailed analysis o he
a eas conside ed incompa ible mus be inco po a ed.
These esul s highligh he u gen need o e ine and expand cu en
zoning me hodologies in line wi h Di ec i e 2023/2413. In pa icula ,
A icle 15.3 o he Di ec i e calls o he use o all app op ia e da a and
ools o iden i y a eas whe e enewable ene gy deploymen would no
cause signi ican en i onmen al ha m which implies bo h exclusion and
sui abili y analyses, in o med by echnical and socio- e i o ial
conside a ions.
The objec i e o his s udy is o de elop a comp ehensi e me hod-
ological amewo k o guide he iden i ica ion o enewable ene gy
a eas based no only on en i onmen al c i e ia, using he case o
Po ugal o illus a e i s p ac ical applica ion. This amewo k, which
encompasses bo h me hodological and concep ual componen s, will be
demons a ed h ough i s applica ion o wind ene gy deploymen in
Po ugal. The p oposed case is expec ed o enhance unde s anding o he
iden i ica ion o po en ial a eas o enewable ene gy, gene a ing new
knowledge ha goes beyond he bounda ies o he case i sel and pa es
he way o a mo e equi able and e icien designa ion o enewable
ene gy a eas ac oss Membe S a es.
2. Li e a u e e iew. Add essing he iden i ica ion o po en ial
a eas o enewable ene gy
The iden i ica ion o op imal loca ions o enewable ene gy
deploymen has been a g owing conce n since he ea ly 21s cen u y.
K ewi and Ni sch (2003), we e among he i s o highligh he e i-
o ial planning challenges posed by enewable ene gy de elopmen .
Since hen, nume ous s udies ha e p oposed me hodologies o delinea e
sui able a eas, pa icula ly o wind and sola a ms.
Díaz-Cue as e al. (2025) analysed some o hese s udies, alongside
o he wo ks (H¨
o e e al., 2016; Díaz-Cue as e al., 2018; Yushchenko
e al., 2018; Rome o-Ramos e al., 2023, among o he s), emphasizing
he ole o Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GIS) and Mul ic i e ia
Decision Me hods (MCDM) in spa ial ene gy planning. These me hod-
ologies in ol e he delinea ion o exclusion zones based on en i on-
men al and echnical conside a ions. Subsequen ly, he emaining a eas
a e assessed acco ding o sui abili y ac o s, which a e o en p io i ized
h ough he assignmen o speci ic weigh s, ollowed by a analysis in
which hese ac o s a e agg ega ed in o a composi e sui abili y index.
A key obse a ion is he a iabili y o c i e ia ac oss s udies. The
numbe o exclusion c i e ia employed a ies signi ican ly depending on
he s udy a ea, da a a ailabili y, and e i o ial speci ici y (Díaz-Cue as
e al., 2025). Fo ins ance, o sola ene gy 28 c i e ia we e conside ed in
he case o I an (Ha eznia e al., 2017), whe eas only six a e applied in
Tanzania (Aly e al., 2017), and some s udies use as ew as h ee
(Rome o-Ramos e al., 2023).
On he o he hand, access o upda ed in o ma ion on exis ing wind
and sola powe plan s in s udy a eas is o en no included in analyses
due o he una ailabili y o such geospa ial da a. Howe e , ha ing ac-
cess o his in o ma ion would enable he exclusion o al eady occupied
a eas and he assessmen o po en ial syne gis ic e ec s. A common issue
in many s udies is he eliabili y o geospa ial da a, which equen ly
exhibi he e ogeneous o ma s, di e ing coo dina e sys ems, and
limi ed documen a ion ega ding spa ial esolu ion o e e ence sys ems
(Elkadeem e al., 2022). Ha monizing coo dina e sys ems using a ail-
able GIS ools and adop ing common s anda ds such as he INSPIRE
Di ec i e would help o e come hese limi a ions. Ne e heless, ew
s udies pe o m adequa e quali y con ol o implemen me hodological
enhancemen s such as sensi i i y analysis, c oss- alida ion wi h eal
in as uc u e da a, o egula upda es o spa ial da ase s—despi e hei
po en ial o signi ican ly imp o e he obus ness and eliabili y o
esul s.
Res ic ions applied o exclusion c i e ia a e o en de i ed om
p e ious s udies conduc ed in di e en e i o ial con ex s, a he han
being de ined by he legal amewo k o he s udy a ea (Díaz-Cue as
e al., 2018). In some cases, he bu e dis ances used a e adop ed om
p io s udies and applied in new con ex s wi hou a consensus on hei
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
2
sui abili y conce ning echnical aspec s such as wind speed o sola a-
dia ion. Fo ins ance, Wa son and Hudson (2015) adop ed es ic ions
o wind a ms based on dis ances used in he Uni ed Kingdom 14 yea s
ea lie (Díaz-Cue as e al., 2025).
Rega ding he analysis o he sui abili y o he emaining land,
sui abili y ac o s also a y acco ding o he s udy a ea. Fo ins ance,
H¨
o e e al. (2016) conside ed nine sui abili y ac o s, whe eas o he
s udies, such as ha by Nasehi e al. (2016), used 11. The selec ion o
hese ac o s is gene ally based on p e ious s udies and expe opinions.
Howe e , as wi h exclusion c i e ia, some s udies de i ed hei ac o s
selec ion om li e a u e e iew (Tah i e al., 2015). No ably, none o
hese s udies inco po a e elec ici y demand as a sui abili y ac o ,
despi e i s po en ial o guide enewable ene gy si ing owa d a eas o
highe consump ion and o p omo e ene gy sel -su iciency.
Once he ac o s a e selec ed, hey a e no malized and spa ially
ep esen ed. A e no maliza ion, he ac o s a e weigh ed. One o he
mos used echniques o his ask is he Analy ic Hie a chy P ocess
(AHP), as his me hod is pa icula ly use ul when dealing wi h c i e ia o
di e en na u e, such as echnical, economic, and en i onmen al ac-
o s. This me hod, p oposed by Saa y (1980, 1989), is widely used in
such s udies. Howe e , as s a ed in Díaz-Cue as e al. (2025), one o he
main c i icisms is he ambiguous way he ela i e weigh s o he c i e ia
a e de i ed and whe he he c i e ia a ings a e consis en (H¨
o e e al.,
2016). The e a e cases whe e he au ho s hemsel es de e mine he
weigh s (La inopoulos and Kechagia, 2015; Rome o-Ramos e al., 2023)
o ely on weigh s es ablished o hese c i e ia in o he s udies, as seen
wi h Bimenyimana e al. (2024), who use he same weigh s o all
ECOWAS coun ies, which does no help minimize biases and does no
ensu e ha he weigh s e lec local eali ies, despi e a ying
p e e ences.
In all analyses conduc ed, he p esence o wind and sola esou ces in
su icien quan i y and quali y ecei es he highes weigh ing. Howe e ,
o a eas wi h abundan sola o wind esou ces, he dis ance o ans-
mission lines may be conside ed a mo e impo an ac o (Díaz-Cue as
e al., 2025). Yushchenko e al. (2018), assumed in one o hei scena ios
ha he gene al le el o sola i adiance in Wes A ica is adequa e o
sola powe p oduc ion and sugges ha he ocus should be on mini-
mizing po en ial in es men cos s, ep esen ed by limi ing he dis ance
o elec ici y g id lines ( o lowe connec ion cos s) and majo oads ( o
lowe accessibili y cos s). The weigh s assigned o each ac o a y
conside ably ac oss s udies. Fo example, Aly e al. (2017) assigned a
high weigh o sola esou ces (i adiance) a 69.6 %, ollowed by
accessibili y a 22.9 %, and dis ance o popula ion cen e s a 7.5 % o
pho o ol aic plan si ing. In con as , Al Ga ni and Awas hi (2017)
weigh ed sola esou ces (i adiance and empe a u e) a 0.587 and
e ain slope a 0.159.
Due o hese di e ences and conside ing he scale o he s udy a ea,
Díaz-Cue as e al. (2021) decided o lea e ac o weigh ing o he
planning and managemen bodies o each speci ic a ea (e.g., p o inces,
municipali ies) and o u u e, mo e de ailed analyses (Díaz-Cue as
e al., 2025). Acco dingly, he aim o ha s udy was only o iden i y
sui able a eas, highligh ing hose wi h g ea e po en ial o enewable
ene gy, which can be u he analysed using di e en me hodologies
and c i e ia. This unde sco es he need o a mul iscale analysis.
All hese me hodological di e gences can be explained by con ex ual
ac o s—legal, poli ical, economic, and e i o ial— ha shape zoning
s a egies. Coun ies wi h s ong cen alized planning may adop na-
ional ools, while decen alized sys ems delega e analysis o egional o
local le els. The a ailabili y and openness o spa ial da a, public
accep ance, in as uc u e ma u i y, and adminis a i e capaci y also
play a key ole in shaping me hodological choices.
The e o e, he de ini ion/iden i ica ion o compa ible a eas o he
ins alla ion o enewable ene gy plan s becomes one o he key chal-
lenges, whe e he analysis o hese expe iences highligh s how, wi hou
a well-de ined heo e ical s uc u e, hese ools may be misunde s ood
o misused, po en ially leading o subop imal planning decisions. I is
hus essen ial o es ablish a obus heo e ical amewo k ha acili a es
a mo e e ec i e and bene icial use o hese echnologies in spa ial
planning. Wi hou his, ools isk being inconsis en ly applied o
misunde s ood, leading o subop imal planning ou comes. This e iew
highligh s bo h he oppo uni ies and limi a ions o cu en p ac ices
and suppo s he design o con ex -sensi i e, e idence-based me hod-
ologies o zoning enewable ene gy de elopmen .
3. S udy a ea, ma e ial and me hods
3.1. S udy a ea
Po ugal is si ua ed on he Ibe ian Peninsula in sou hwes e n Eu ope,
co e ing app oxima ely an a ea o 92,230 km
2
. In 2020, he coun y
achie ed his o ically low ene gy dependence, eaching 67.4 %, al hough
his was in luenced by ac o s such as he pandemic’s impac on ene gy
consump ion. The Na ional Ene gy and Clima e Plan (Minis ´
e io do
Ambien e e da Aç˜
ao Clim´
a ica, 2024) aims o educe ene gy dependence
o 65 % by 2030.
In e ms o elec ici y consump ion (Fig. 1), he a eas o highes
consump ion a e loca ed on he cen al-no he n coas (wi h in ensi y in
Opo o, Lisbon and Se úbal) and in he Alga e (whe e he annual peak
occu s in summe , unlike he o he egions o highes consump ion,
because his a ea is known as a sun and beach a ea). Also, Po uguese
indus y is his o ically concen a ed, wi h i e dis ic s iden i ied as he
main cen e s o indus ial consump ion: B aga, Po o, A ei o, Lisbon
and Se úbal (Ama o, 1991).
Acco ding o Sim˜
oes and Es anquei o (2003), a eas wi h high wind
po en ial a e o en ound in emo e egions wi h low ene gy consump-
ion, limi ing he injec ion o wind ene gy in o he g id (Plano de
Desen ol imen o e in es imen o da Rede Nacional de T anspo e,
2022–2031, Regulado a dos Se iços Ene g´
e icos -ERSE-, 2021). Su -
p isingly, some o he municipali ies wi h he highes elec ici y con-
sump ion pe inhabi an a e iden i ied as " Go-To A eas " by Sim˜
oes e al.
(2023), (Figs. 1 and 2).
The coun y hos s 2906 wind u bines wi h a o al ins alled capaci y
o 5602 MW connec ed o he g id. Dis ic s like Viseu, Coimb a, and
Vila Real lead in ins alled wind powe capaci y, collec i ely ep esen -
ing 46 % o he o al capaci y in Po ugal (Fig. 2).
Conce ning “Go-To A eas” de ined by Sim˜
oes e al. (2023), wind and
sola ac i i y a e a p io i o be incompa ible in app oxima ely 88 % o
he Po uguese su ace in scena io 1, 90 % in scena io 2, and 95 % and
97 % o he incompa ible su ace in scena ios 3 and 4, espec i ely
(Table 1).
Fu he analysis o e i o ial dis ibu ion o ins alled wind u bines
in ela ion o he p oposed “Go-To A eas” o wind and sola deploy-
men , Scena io 1 e ealed ha 356 wind u bines a e al eady si ua ed in
hese a eas. Scena io 2 shows 252 wind u bines, Scena io 3 has 171
wind u bines, and Scena io 4 has 115 wind u bines. This dis ibu ion
highligh s he need o ca e ul conside a ion o exis ing ins alla ions
when planning o u u e p ojec s.
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
3
Fig. 1. Popula ion and elec ici y ene gy consump ion (KWh) pe inhabi an in Mainland Po ugal (2021).
Fuen e: Own elabo a ion based on popula ion da a and he Di ec o a e-Gene al o Ene gy and Geology
1
.
1
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
4
3.2. Ma e ial and me hods
To add ess po en ial o wind ene gy deploymen , spa ial da a mus
be collec ed and p ocessed o in eg a ion in o a Geog aphic In o ma ion
Sys em (GIS). Da a a ailabili y is essen ial o accu a e e i o ial
assessmen and mos EU coun ies p og ess ex ensi e geog aphic da a-
se s ha mee he quali y s anda ds es ablished by he INSPIRE Di ec i e
(Eu opean Pa liamen and Council, 2007).
In Po ugal, he e a e se e al bodies esponsible o p oducing and
dis ibu ing socio-demog aphic and en i onmen al in o ma ion a he
na ional le el. Table 2 lis s he main o ganisa ions consul ed, including
he Di ec o a e-Gene al o Te i o ial Planning, he na ional public
body esponsible o spa ial and u ban planning policies and he Ins i-
u o de Conse aç˜
ao da Na u eza ou das Flo es, a Po uguese s a e body
whose pu pose is o con ibu e o he e alua ion and conse a ion o
aspec s ela ed o na u e and biodi e si y in Po ugal.
Fo wind-ene gy esou ces, he wind speed g id wi h 50 m esolu ion
( o a u bine heigh o 100 m) was based on esul s published by he
Global Wind A las 3.0, a ee, web-based applica ion de eloped, owned,
and ope a ed by he Technical Uni e si y o Denma k (DTU). The Global
Fig. 2. Wind ene gy plan s and wind speed in Mainland Po ugal (Fig. 2a) and “Go-To A eas” (Scena io 1) and wind u bines (Fig. 2b).
Sou ce: Au ho ’s own wo k based on Sim˜
oes e al. (2023) and The Wind A las
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
5
Wind A las is eleased in pa ne ship wi h he Wo ld Bank G oup, u i-
lizing da a p o ided by Vo ex, using unding p o ided by he Ene gy
Sec o Managemen Assis ance P og am (ESMAP) (Technical Uni e si y
o Denma k & Wo ld Bank, 2023).
Slope da a we e de i ed om he Digi al Ele a ion Model (DEM),
ob ained by he Shu le Rada Topog aphy Mission using SAR In e e -
ome y, wi h an app oxima e esolu ion o 30 m, be ween la i udes 60S
and 60N. The da a we e collec ed by Gonçal es & And ´
e Pinhal.
2
The coo dina e sys em used was he Eu opean Te es ial Re e ence
Sys em o con inen al Po ugal 1989 (ETRS89), p ojec ed in
(EPSG:3763). All collec ed da a has been ans o med and p ojec ed o
his e e ence sys em and he esolu ion o he model is 100 m.
Pa icula a en ion was paid o he p ocesses o spa ial da a collec-
ion, managemen and p ocessing o spa ial da a (e.g., ep ojec ion/
ans o ma ion, con e sion o as e / ec o , inco po a ion in a spa ial
da abase) o he shape iles, gjson, as e iles o spa ial ables ep e-
sen a i e o each c i e ion. The A cGIS 10.3 so wa e was used because
o i s ex ensi e spa ial analysis capabili ies.
The me hodological app oach in ol ed cons uc ing a GIS-based
loca ional model, ollowing a wo-s ep sequence.
- S ep 1. De elopmen o a loca ional sub-model o iden i y a eas
whe e he cons uc ion o wind ene gy plan s is incompa ible.
C i e ia and cons ain s we e mapped, and a inal exclusion map was
gene a ed in which each 100 ×100 m cell ecei es a alue co e-
sponding o he numbe o c i e ia i ails o mee . These c i e ia aim
o sa egua d cul u al and na u al he i age while ensu ing ene gy
e iciency, he eby p omo ing he economic and spa ial e iciency o
ene gy in as uc u e.
The exclusion c i e ia ou lined in Table 2, we e based on local
planning and legisla ion, as documen ed in Sim˜
oes e al. (2023). When
legal h esholds we e una ailable, alues we e adop ed om scien i ic
li e a u e, pa icula ly om s udies wi h simila spa ial esolu ion and
geog aphic scope. In he case o in as uc u e (e.g., ai po s, ailways,
and oads), he he e ogenei y o exclusion dis ances ound in he li e -
a u e led us o adop a p ecau iona y and echnically g ounded
app oach: a eas we e conside ed incompa ible i loca ed wi hin he
in as uc u e oo p in o wi hin a 250 m bu e . This dis ance is jus i-
ied no only on en i onmen al and planning g ounds, bu also o sa e y
easons assu ing ha wind u bine blades emain a a sa e dis ance om
oads and anspo co ido s. This same es ic ion was applied o wa e
bodies, in line wi h common p ac ice in spa ial planning and en i on-
men al p o ec ion.
All c i e ia and cons ain s we e spa ially mapped and eclassi ied
(using he Reclassi y ool in he Spa ial Analys module o A cGIS).
Incompa ible a eas we e assigned a alue o 1 and compa ible a eas a
alue o 0. This bina y classi ica ion allowed he subsequen use o as e
algeb a o sum he indi idual cons ain laye s using he Ras e Calcu-
la o ool, esul ing in a inal map in which each cell indica es he
numbe o exclusion c i e ia i iola es.
- S ep 2. E alua ion o a eas whe e wind ac i i y is compa ible.
Once compa ibili y a eas ha e been iden i ied, hese will be e alu-
a ed acco ding o hei sui abili y le el p io i izing in o.
1) A eas wi h highes p esence o wind esou ce in su icien quali y
and quan i y. Fo his pu pose, al hough he A las o Wind Powe
Po en ial in Po ugal elabo a ed by Cos a and Es anquei o (2006),
which measu es he wind po en ial in numbe o equi alen hou s o
ope a ion, was used in he s udy by Sim˜
oes e al. (2023). Fo his
s udy, da a we e no a ailable a he le el o de ail and o ma
equi ed. Fo his eason, wind speed da a will be collec ed om The
Wind A las which has been eclassi ied in o h ee le els o sui abili y
(low, high, and e y high).
Table 1
Compa ible a eas (km
2
1
/%) ollowing scena ios.
A ea
(Km
2
) (%)
Scena io 1 10,350 11.2
Scena io 2 (Scena io 1 & mine al esou ce p o ec ion a eas) 8977 9.7
Scena io 3 (Scena io 2 & emo ing a eas om mainland Po ugal
aqui e sys ems, emo ing 500m bu e in esiden ial
buildings)
4162.02 4.5
Scena io 4 (Scena io 3 & wi hd awing Na ional Ag icul u al
Rese e and Na ional Ecological Rese e a eas)
2652.20 2.9
Sou ce: Au ho ’s own wo k based on Sim˜
oes e al. (2023).
Table 2
C i e ia and Res ic ions applied.
C i e ia Res ic ion applied Sou ce
Buil -up a eas (con inuous
and dispe sed)
Con inuous <500 m
Sca e ed; Ru al illages
and buildings <250 m
(Wa son and Hudson,
2015; Díaz-Cue as
e al., 2018)
Ca a de Uso e Ocupaç˜
ao
do Solo - 2018
Di ec o a e-Gene al o
Te i o ial Planning
O he uses: ou ism
acili ies (ho els, gol
cou ses, e c.), leisu e
acili ies, spo s
acili ies, ag icul u al
acili ies, pa ks and
ga dens, sal pans,
comme cial acili ies …
Road ne wo k & Rail
ne wo k
Incompa ible +bu e
250 m
In aes u u as de
Po ugal, S. A.
Ae od omes, Ai po s
Ri e s, wa e public
domain, lagoons,
we lands, zones wi h
signi ican po en ial
lood isk, i e s,
ba hing wa e s
Incompa ible +bu e
250 m
Agˆ
encia Po uguesa do
Ambien e (APA)
Na u al a eas, p o ec ed
landscapes,
en i onmen al
p o ec ed a eas
Incompa ible Bu e
150 m. (Sim˜
oes e al.,
2023).
Ins i u o da Conse aç˜
ao
da Na u eza e das
Flo es as
Fo es ed a eas, Biogene ic
esou ces, Ecological
co ido s & Public
in e es ee
Incompa ible. (Sim˜
oes
e al., 2023).
Bu e <250 m, Yue and
Wang (2006)
A eas al eady occupied by
any enewable ene gy
acili y
<250 m wind u bines (
Díaz-Cue as e al.,
2018, 2019)
Endogenous Ene gies o
Po ugal (E2P) (h p
://e2p.inegi.up.p /)
Beaches and Coas line
P og ams,
Albu ei as
Incompa ible (Sim˜
oes
e al., 2023)
Po uguese En i onmen
Agency (APA)
Co k oak ag o o es y;
Holm oak ag o o es y;
S one pine ag o o es y;
Co k oak and holm oak
ag o o es y; Co k oak
o es s; Holm oak
o es s; O he oak
o es s; O he deciduous
o es s; S one pine
o es s.
Incompa ible (Sim˜
oes
e al., 2023)
Di ec o a e-Gene al o
Te i o ial Planning
Classi ied cul u al
he i age, A chaeological
he i age …
No in hose a eas
A chaeological he i age
(+bu e o 150
acco ding o Sim˜
oes
e al., 2023)
Di eç˜
ao-Ge al de
Pa im´
onio Cul u al
(DGPC)
Na ional Rese es (REN) No in zones 1 and 1 and
2
Linking Landscape,
En i onmen , Ag icul u e
and Food (LEAF) – h
p://epic-webgis-po ugal.
isa.ulisboa.p
DEM/Slope <20 %. No in a eas (Sim˜
oes
e al., 2023)
Gonçal es and Pinhal (n.
d.)
Sou ce: Au ho ’s own wo k
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
6
2) Municipali ies wi h he highes elec ici y consump ion pe inhabi-
an ha e been eclassi ied in o h ee le els o sui abili y (low, high,
and e y high). This aligns wi h he p inciple o ene gy sel -
su iciency, would a oid nega i e ex e nali ies in a eas wi h lowe
elec ici y consump ion, and would educe he impac s associa ed
wi h he need o build new lines and in as uc u e o b ing ene gy
close o consump ion cen e s.
Once he maps ep esen a i e o he eclassi ied sui abili y based on
wind consump ion and wind speed we e ob ained, we e combined wi h
he incompa ibili y map ( eclassi ied be ween 0 and 1), using he
combine op ion in A cGIS, as desc ibed in Díaz-Cue as e al. (2019). The
combine ool, de eloped by ESRI and in eg a ed in o ARCGIS, enables
he consolida ion o mul iple as e s in a manne ha assigns a single
ou pu alue o each dis inc combina ion o inpu alues.
Finally, he pe cen age o su ace a ea wi h high o e y high po-
en ial o wind ene gy implemen a ion will be calcula ed o each
municipali y.
4. Resul s
4.1. Incompa ible a eas
Fig. 3 shows he a eas o Po uguese e i o y whe e, based on he
c i e ia analysed, wind ene gy ac i i y is incompa ible o highly inad-
isable. Se e al aspec s mus be highligh ed.
In app oxima ely 95 % e i o y, wind ene gy uni s a e incompa ible
o highly inad isable while a o al o 4260 km
2
, needs o be analysed in
dep h o assess he sui abili y o wind ene gy ac i i y he e (Fig. 3).
Al hough 4260 km
2
migh seem a p io i a e y small a ea o e i o y,
howe e , ollowing he wo k o Díaz-Cue as e al. (2018), and aking
in o accoun ha he space be ween u bines should be h ee imes he
o o diame e (Yue and Wang, 2006; Tegou e al., 2010) o 2 MW wind
u bines (114 m o o ), his implies a adius o 342 m a ound each
u bine o , in o he wo ds, 367,442 m
2
(0.37 km
2
). The e o e, he e
would s ill be land a ailable o he ins alla ion o 11,513 u bines, ha
would amoun o 23,026 MW a an a e age o 2 MW pe u bine.
Mos o he e i o y whe e wind ene gy ac i i y is a p io i o highly
incompa ible, 15.6 %, is so because i ails o mee one c i e ion (o he
c i e ia analysed), so hese a e he e i o ies which, in he absence o a
su icien su ace a ea wi h high o e y high sui abili y, would me i
s udy. Te i o ies whe e i e o mo e c i e ia a e no me should be
disca ded om he analysis.
On he o he hand, ega ding he wind u bines al eady ins alled, he
o e lap o hese wi h he laye o numbe c i e ia allows o iden i y i
any o hem do no ul il some o he c i e ia analysed. Fo his pu pose,
he model has been ecalcula ed, disca ding he c i e ion o a eas
incompa ible wi h wind ac i i y due o ins alled wind u bines. A o al o
2606 wind u bines do no ul il some o he c i e ia analysed (Fig. 3 –A-
B).
An analysis o he un ul illed c i e ia e eals ha 606 exis ing wind
u bines do no comply wi h he slope c i e ion, highligh ing ha i is
Fig. 3. Incompa ible a eas and nº un ul illed c i e ia in Scena io 1 (slope >20 %) (A–B) and in Scena io 2 (slope >26.44 %) (C–D).
Sou ce: Au ho ’s own wo k
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
7
bo h easible and economically iable o ins all wind u bines in a eas
wi h slopes exceeding 20 % (a c i e ion included in he gene a ed model,
de i ed om Sim˜
oes e al., 2023). By examining wind u bines loca ed
in a eas wi h slopes g ea e han 20 % and excluding ou lie s om he
analysis (calcula ed using Equa ions (1) and (2)), he a e age slope
alue in hese a eas is 26.44 % (Table 3). This new inding will be
inco po a ed in o he ecalib a ion o he p e ious model. I is hypo h-
esized ha he p esence o wind u bines in hese a eas, despi e no
mee ing he slope es ic ion, demons a es hei economic iabili y. The
esul s e eal ha 5.3 % o he e i o y alls wi hin his conside a ion. In
his e ised scena io (Fig. 3 –C-D), a p io i compa ibili y wi h wind
a ms is es ima ed a 5.1 % o he e i o y (equi alen o 4702 km
2
),
which would accommoda e 1194 new u bines. This equa es o a o al
new capaci y o 25,414 MW, assuming an a e age u bine capaci y o 2
MW. In addi ion, i should be no ed ha he maximum numbe o un-
ul illed c i e ia in his model has dec eased om 15 o 14.
A=Q1−1.5RI (Eq.1)
A=Q3+1.5RI (Eq.2)
Whe e Q1 is he alue o i s qua il; Q3 is he alue o hi d qua il; and
RI is he in e qua ile ange.
4.2. Analysing compa ible a eas
Once he a eas whe e wind ene gy ac i i y is highly inad isable we e
ob ained, he compa ible a eas we e analysed acco ding o wind
esou ce and elec ici y consump ion pe inhabi an . These alues ha e
been eclassi ied be ween 1 and 3 (low, medium, high).
To e alua e wind esou ce sui abili y (Fig. 4A), he s udy i s
es ablished he lowes sui abili y ange by examining he wind speed
alues a loca ions wi h exis ing wind u bines. The minimum a e age
wind speed alue o ins alled u bines in he s udy a ea was de e mined
as 4.9 m/s. The emaining in e als, medium and high, we e de ined
h ough e iles, esul ing in sui abili y in e als ca ego ized as Low
(<4.9 m/s), Medium (4.9 <6.0 m/s), and High (6.0 ≤15.8 m/s).
Simul aneously, elec ici y consump ion pe inhabi an (Fig. 4B) was
assessed using e iles o es ablish sui abili y in e als: Low (≤3202
kWh/inhabi an ), Medium (3202 <4525 kWh/inhabi an ), and High
(4525–83,563 kWh/inhabi an ). The sui abili y maps gene a ed om
hese c i e ia we e hen combined wi h he map indica ing compa ible/
incompa ible a eas using he COMBINE ool de ESRI.
This in eg a ion was in ended o highligh a eas o p io i ized
analysis a mo e de ailed scales, pa icula ly hose classi ied as “high” in
Fig. 4C. This s a egic app oach ensu es a nuanced unde s anding o
a eas wi h a ou able wind esou ces and high elec ici y consump ion,
acili a ing a ge ed analysis and decision-making in subsequen plan-
ning and implemen a ion phases.
Fig. 4. Compa ible a eas classi ied acco ding o wind speed alues (A), elec ici y consump ion pe inhabi an (B) and combina ion o bo h wi h compa ible and
incompa ible zones (C).
Sou ce: Au ho ’s own wo k
Table 3
S a is ics alues o slope c i e ia.
RI Q1 Q3 OUTLIERS A e age
7.54 22.38 29.93 <11.07 & >41.24 26.44 %.
Sou ce: Au ho ’s own wo k
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
8
5. Discussion and policy implica ions
The Eu opean Union’s enewable ene gy a ge s o 2030 and 2050
ha e d i en a signi ican inc ease in wind and sola ins alla ions,
enabling he EU-27 o mee i s 2020 objec i es and mo e han double i s
wind ene gy capaci y since 2010 (Eu os a , 2023; M´
a quez-Sob ino
e al., 2023). Howe e , his apid deploymen has exposed majo chal-
lenges in spa ial planning and si e designa ion. Di ec i e (EU)
2023/2413 esponds o hese challenges by equi ing Membe S a es o
designa e “ enewable accele a ion a eas” by 2026.
This s udy, ocused on mainland Po ugal, p oposes a me hodolog-
ical amewo k o u he elabo a e designa ion and iden i ies key
analy ical dimensions ha Membe S a es should conside . Se e al
essen ial challenges eme ged om he applica ion o his amewo k:
De ini ion o c i e ia, model alida ion, and scena io design -
Es ablishing app op ia e exclusion c i e ia is c i ical. These c i e ia
o en encompass p o ec ed a eas, bodies o wa e , and minimum
equi ed dis ances om he i age si es. Howe e , he iden i ica ion o
compa ible a eas should go beyond en i onmen al cons ain s and
inco po a e social, economic, and cul u al ac o s, con ibu ing o mo e
inclusi e and con ex -sensi i e spa ial planning.
In many cases, speci ic es ic ions a e no clea ly de ined by na ional
legisla ion, which o en leads o he adop ion o alues om o he
con ex s. pa icula ly in ela ion o echnical c i e ia ha ha e adi-
ionally guided exclusion analyses. This p ac ice can esul in in-
consis encies, as obse ed in Po ugal wi h he slope c i e ion. Simila ly,
imp o emen s in u bine ounda ions and cons uc ion echniques ha e
expanded he easibili y o ins alla ions on s eepe slopes. In addi ion,
he de elopmen o la ge u bines wi h highe hub heigh s and la ge
o o diame e s—ha e signi ican ly imp o ed pe o mance unde lowe
wind speed condi ions. As a esul , a eas p e iously conside ed ma ginal
due o subop imal wind speeds o s eepe slopes may now be iable o
ene gy p oduc ion.
In line wi h hese conside a ions, he eliabili y o he model was
assessed h ough a c oss- alida ion exe cise: he model was econ-
s uc ed excluding he cons ain ela ed o exis ing wind u bines, and
he esul s we e compa ed o ac ual u bine loca ions. O he 2906 wind
u bines ins alled in mainland Po ugal, 2606 a e in a eas classi ied as
incompa ible. Nea ly wo- hi ds o hese cases a e mainly due o hei
p oximi y (less han 250 m) o oads, ailway lines, o wa e bodies.
These indings sugges ha exclusion h esholds should no be
ea ed as s a ic pa ame e s, bu a he as lexible guidelines ha mus
be pe iodically e ised o e lec e ol ing echnical capabili ies and
adap ed o empi ical e idence and local con ex s. This ein o ces he
impo ance o de eloping mul iple scena ios ha accoun o poli ical,
legal, and e i o ial speci ici ies, a oiding he unnecessa y dismissal o
po en ially sui able a eas and ensu ing mo e con ex -sensi i e and
e ec i e spa ial planning.
Following Díaz-Cue as e al. (2017), a leas wo scena ios should be
analysed: one e lec ing cu en legal cons ain s, and ano he mo e
es ic i e scena io based on he p ecau iona y p inciple (Eu opean
Union, 2012). In Po ugal, he absence o egula o y h esholds o
in as uc u e such as oads and ailways led o he applica ion o a
gene ic 250 m bu e . This, combined wi h he exclusion analysis,
enabled he de elopmen o a less es ic i e slope-based scena io. This
app oach aligns wi h A icle 15.3 o Di ec i e 2413, which calls o he
use o all app op ia e ools and da a—including GIS analy ical capa-
bili ies— o p e en signi ican en i onmen al impac s.
Da a limi a ions and he need o mul iscale analysis - One o he
main ba ie s iden i ied is es ic ed access o c i ical spa ial da a, such
as he na ional elec ici y ansmission ne wo k. Al hough such da a
exis , hey a e no always publicly accessible due o secu i y conce ns.
Likewise, a iables such as mig a o y co ido s, isual impac , o social
accep ance a e di icul o map and highly dynamic, equi ing local-
scale assessmen s.
To add ess hese challenges, he c ea ion o join Eu opean
da abases, imp o ed da a anspa ency, and s eng hened collabo a ion
be ween au ho i ies and esea che s a e ecommended. Na ional-scale
analyses should be unde s ood as p elimina y sc eening o iden i y
iable a eas and exclude clea ly unsui able ones, bu no as de ini i e
planning ools. This i s il e acili a es deepe , egionally adap ed
s udies and accele a es decision-making p ocesses. In ac , Elkadeem
e al. (2022:20) emphasize ha “ he a ailabili y o a ecen and
au ho i a i e da ase a a mo e de ailed geospa ial scale could lead o a
mo e obus in e p e a ion.” The me hodology p esen ed he e se es as
a aluable esou ce o planne s and decision-make s, helping o iden-
i y a eas ha equi e mo e de ailed analysis, pa icula ly conside ing
he EU’s commi men s o enewable ene gy
The exis ence o hese da a and planning gaps has p ac ical conse-
quences o ene gy ansi ion s a egies. Fo ins ance, insu icien access
o in as uc u e da a (such as g id connec ion poin s) o he use o
o e ly igid exclusion c i e ia a na ional scales can lead o he
misiden i ica ion o sui able a eas o o he ejec ion o si es ha , unde
local condi ions, may be iable. This no only isks hinde ing enewable
deploymen bu may also esul in spa ially unbalanced planning,
educed public accep ance, o inc eased implemen a ion cos s due o
poo ly aligned in as uc u e. The e o e, b idging hese gaps is essen ial
o suppo imely, con ex -sensi i e, and socially legi ima e ene gy
planning. Add essing hem h ough in eg a ed da abases, empi ical
alida ion o c i e ia, and coo dina ion ac oss scales will inc ease he
accu acy and usabili y o zoning me hodologies and make hem mo e
impac ul in eal-wo ld decision-making con ex s.
Sui abili y ac o s and he need o local expe ise - Sui abili y
ac o s a e weigh ed di e en ly ac oss s udies, and no consensus exis s
on which a iables should be p io i ized. Gi en hese di e gences and
he na ional scale o he p esen s udy, i is p oposed ha he p io i i-
za ion o c i e ia and ac o s be delega ed o local planning bodies (e.g.,
municipali ies, p o inces), whe e con ex ual and echnical knowledge
can be in eg a ed in o decision-making. This app oach enhances
go e nance and decision-making by ecognizing ha each speci ic e -
i o y should de e mine i s own p io i ies based on local alues and
cons ain s (Díaz Cue as e al., 2017). This mul iscale app oach e-
in o ces he guiding na u e o he me hodological amewo k: i does no
de e mine inal loca ions bu a he iden i ies p io i y a eas o mo e
de ailed analysis and e ined planning.
Accele a ion zones mus complemen - bu no eplace - en i on-
men al and social impac assessmen s a he sub- egional o local le el.
These a e essen ial o add essing issues ha canno be cap u ed na-
ionally, such as cumula i e impac s, social accep ance, o landscape
pe cep ion. Mo eo e , esou ce a ailabili y (wind o sola ) should no
be he sole p io i y c i e ion, especially when echnical condi ions a e
adequa e ac oss he e i o y (Haddad e al., 2021). P oximi y o in a-
s uc u e and demand cen e s mus also be conside ed (Elkadeem e al.,
2022; Díaz-Cue as e al., 2021), u he ein o cing he impo ance o
expe knowledge and mul iscale app oaches.
Te i o ial inequali y and di e si ica ion o esou ces - This
esea ch e eals ha mee ing all exclusion c i e ia is no su icien o
achie e ene gy ansi ion objec i es, gi en he unequal e i o ial dis-
ibu ion o wind po en ial. This poses a challenge o high-consump ion
e i o ies. The ollowing s a egies a e p oposed.
•Assess al e na i e enewable sou ces (e.g., sola , biomass) in a eas
whe e wind is no iable; This concep ual amewo k can also be
applied o o he enewable ene gy sou ces - such as sola o biomass -
in a eas whe e wind ene gy is no iable, whe e speci ic c i e ia and
cons ain s a e ca e ully conside ed.
•P io i ize a i icial o deg aded lands in line wi h Di ec i e 2413.
•P omo e ene gy e iciency and demand educ ion policies.
In addi ion, explo ing a eas ini ially deemed incompa ible bu wi h
high wind po en ial and local demand may be a iable s a egy h ough
mo e de ailed, localized assessmen s.
P. Díaz-Cue as e al.
Jou nal o Cleane P oduc ion 519 (2025) 145748
9
