Academic Edi o s: Ba ba a Bo czak
and Joanna Kapus a-Duch
Recei ed: 4 May 2025
Re ised: 4 June 2025
Accep ed: 8 June 2025
Published: 11 June 2025
Ci a ion: T ujillo-Cayado, L.A.;
Sánchez-Ga cía, R.M.;
Ga cía-Domínguez, I.;
Rod íguez-Luna, A.;
Hu ado-Fe nández, E.; San os, J.
Eme ging T ends in Sus ainable
Biological Resou ces and Bioeconomy
o Food P oduc ion. Appl. Sci. 2025,
15, 6555. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
app15126555
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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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Re iew
Eme ging T ends in Sus ainable Biological Resou ces and
Bioeconomy o Food P oduc ion
Luis A. T ujillo-Cayado 1,*, Rosa M. Sánchez-Ga cía 2, I ene Ga cía-Domínguez 2, Azaha a Rod íguez-Luna 2,
Elena Hu ado-Fe nández 2and Jeni e San os 2,*
1Depa amen o de Ingenie ía Química, Escuela Poli écnica Supe io , Uni e sidad de Se illa,
c/Vi gen de Á ica 7, 41011 Se illa, Spain
2Facul ad de Ciencias de la Salud, Uni e sidad Loyola Andalucía, A da. de las Uni e sidades s/n,
Dos He manas, 41704 Se illa, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (R.M.S.-G.); [email p o ec ed] (I.G.-D.);
[email p o ec ed] (A.R.-L.); [email p o ec ed] (E.H.-F.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (L.A.T.-C.); [email p o ec ed] (J.S.)
Abs ac : The moun ing global popula ion and he challenges posed by clima e change
unde line he need o sus ainable ood p oduc ion sys ems. This e iew syn hesizes
e idence o a dual- ack bioeconomy, g een ( e es ial plan s and insec s) and blue (aqua ic
algae), as complemen a y pa hways owa d sus ainable nu i ion. A comp ehensi e e iew
o he ex an li e a u e, echnical epo s, and policy documen s published be ween 2015
and 2025 was conduc ed, wi h a pa icula ocus on en i onmen al, nu i ional, and echno-
economic me ics. In addi ion, p ecision ag icul u e da ase s, gene-edi ing b eak h oughs,
and ci cula bio e ine y case s udies we e ex ac ed and compa ed. As demons a ed in
his s udy, he use o g een esou ces, such as legumes, oilseeds, and edible insec s, esul s
in a signi ican educ ion in g eenhouse gas emissions, land use, and wa e oo p in s
compa ed wi h con en ional li es ock p oduc ion. In addi ion, hese al e na i e p o ein
sou ces o e subs an ial bene i s in e ms o bioac i e lipids. Blue esou ces, cen e ed on
mic o- and mac oalgae, u nish addi ional p o eins, long-chain polyunsa u a ed a y acids,
and an ioxidan pigmen s and seques e ca bon on non-a able o was ewa e subs a es.
The ansi ion o bio-based esou ces is acili a ed by echnological inno a ions, such as
gene edi ing and ad anced ex ac ion me hods, which p omo e he e icien alo iza ion
o ag icul u al esidues. In conclusion, he s udy s ongly sugges s ha policy suppo
be expedi ed and ha esea ch in o bioeconomy echnologies be inc eased o ensu e he
sus ainable mee ing o u u e ood demands.
Keywo ds: bioeconomy; biological esou ces; ci cula economy; ood p oduc ion;
sus ainabili y
1. In oduc ion
1.1. Con ex o he Global P oblem
Global popula ion g ow h is one o he mos p essing challenges o he 21s cen u y,
wi h p o ound implica ions o he sus ainabili y o biological esou ces and global ood
secu i y. The wo ld’s popula ion has now su passed 8 billion people and is expec ed o
each 9.7 billion by 2050, acco ding o Uni ed Na ions es ima es [
1
]. This inc ease is pu ing
unp eceden ed p essu e on ood p oduc ion sys ems and he ecosys ems ha suppo
hem, h ea ening bo h he capaci y o na u al esou ces and he s abili y o he economies
ha depend on hem [
2
]. The in ensi ica ion o ag icul u al p oduc ion o mee u u e
ood needs has led o an expansion o a able land and in ensi e use o soils, esul ing
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/app15126555
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 2 o 19
in he deg ada ion o ecosys ems, loss o biodi e si y, and deple ion o wa e esou ces.
Ag icul u e, which al eady accoun s o abou 70% o global eshwa e use and a hi d
o g eenhouse gas emissions, u gen ly needs o shi o mo e sus ainable models o a oid
o e shoo ing plane a y bounda ies [3,4].
Clima e change is p o oundly al e ing ag icul u al p oduc ion sys ems a ound he
wo ld, di ec ly a ec ing he a ailabili y o essen ial biological esou ces o human ood [
5
].
As global empe a u es con inue o ise, ain all pa e ns a e becoming mo e e a ic and
ex eme wea he e en s such as d ough s, loods, and hea wa es a e in ensi ying. These
changes a ec c op p oduc i i y, al e na u al g owing cycles, and deg ade he ecosys ems
ha suppo ag icul u e. In addi ion, biodi e si y loss, exace ba ed by clima e change,
h ea ens he s abili y o ag icul u al ecosys ems and he ecological se ices hey p o ide,
such as pollina ion and na u al pes con ol [6].
T ans o ming ood p oduc ion o a sus ainable u u e equi es bo h echnological
inno a ion and sys emic e o m. Key s a egies include adop ing p ecision ag icul u e o
educe esou ce was e, p omo ing mixed and in e c opping sys ems o imp o e soil heal h
and esilience, and scaling up soilless me hods like hyd oponics, aquaponics, and e ical
a ming o e icien yea - ound p oduc ion. Enhancing pos -ha es in as uc u e—such
as cold s o age and u al logis ics—can signi ican ly cu ood losses. These ad ancemen s
mus be suppo ed by public policies ha incen i ize sus ainable p ac ices, in es in
esea ch, and p o ec smallholde s. Addi ionally, e o ming ma ke s and supply chains
o suppo local ood sys ems and imp o e aceabili y is essen ial o ensu e e iciency,
equi y, and en i onmen al in eg i y in u u e ood sys ems. Simila ly, he ansi ion o a
ci cula bioeconomy, based on he e icien use o biological esou ces and he educ ion o
he en i onmen al impac o ag icul u e, is eme ging as a iable al e na i e o ensu e ood
secu i y in an unce ain u u e [7].
Sus ainable biological esou ces o e s a egic solu ions o mi iga e hese p essu es
and suppo long- e m human de elopmen . These esou ces—such as insec p o ein, algae,
mycop o eins, and plan -based al e na i es—can educe dependence on esou ce-in ensi e
sys ems like li es ock a ming, which equi e la ge amoun s o wa e , eed, and land.
1.2. The Bioeconomy as a Tool o Achie e Sus ainabili y
Gi en he scale and u gency o oday’s global challenges— anging om clima e
ins abili y and biodi e si y loss o ood insecu i y and esou ce deple ion—i is inc easingly
clea ha con en ional economic and p oduc ion models a e insu icien o ensu e long-
e m sus ainabili y. These in e connec ed c ises demand sys emic change ha aligns
en i onmen al s ewa dship wi h economic de elopmen . In his con ex , he bioeconomic
app oach eme ges as a s a egic solu ion. By le e aging enewable biological esou ces,
ci cula sys ems, and inno a ion in bio echnology, he bioeconomy o e s a pa hway o mee
g owing socie al needs while educing en i onmen al impac and egene a ing na u al
sys ems [8].
Bioeconomy is an economic model based on he sus ainable use o enewable biological
esou ces—such as plan s, animals, mic o-o ganisms, and biomass— o p oduce ood,
ene gy, ma e ials, and indus ial p oduc s. This app oach uses ad ances in bio echnology,
bioenginee ing, and en i onmen al sciences o gene a e economic alue om biological
p ocesses, wi h he aim o educing dependence on non- enewable esou ces such as ossil
uels and mi iga ing en i onmen al impac s [
9
]. The bioeconomy is closely ela ed o he
ood indus y as i p o ides inno a i e solu ions o he challenges o ood p oduc ion in a
mo e sus ainable and e icien way.
In ela ion o SDG 2, he bioeconomy can imp o e ood secu i y h ough he de elop-
men o new ag icul u al echnologies, such as clima e- esilien c ops and bio e ilize s ha
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 3 o 19
egene a e soils, enabling mo e e icien and sus ainable ood p oduc ion. In addi ion, he
con e sion o ag icul u al esidues in o biop oduc s (such as bio uels o bioplas ics) can
di e si y income sou ces in u al a eas, con ibu ing o local economic de elopmen and
po e y educ ion [10].
In ela ion o SDG 12, he bioeconomy p omo es a ci cula economy in which was e is
alo ized and he en i onmen al impac o p oduc ion is minimized. Fo example, eusing
ag icul u al by-p oduc s o ood was e o p oduce biogas o compos no only educes
was e bu also c ea es new oppo uni ies o p oduce clean ene gy o imp o e soil quali y.
This e icien and sus ainable app oach helps educe he consump ion o non- enewable
esou ces, educes he en i onmen al oo p in o he ood indus y, and is di ec ly aligned
wi h esponsible p oduc ion and consump ion goals [10].
The ansi ion o a sus ainable bioeconomy ep esen s a undamen al shi in he way
we use na u al esou ces, mo ing away om eliance on ossil uels o an app oach based
on biomass and o he enewable biological esou ces. This shi is c ucial because ossil
uels such as oil, coal, and na u al gas a e no only ini e and non- enewable, bu hei
in ensi e use has con ibu ed signi ican ly o clima e change, pollu ion, and ecosys em
deg ada ion. In con as , biomass—which includes plan s, ag icul u al esidues, algae,
and o he o ganic ma e ials—is a enewable esou ce ha can be egene a ed h ough
na u al p ocesses o sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices, o e ing a g eene and mo e e icien
al e na i e.
1.3. Policies and Regula o y F amewo ks
In ecen yea s, he e has been a signi ican push owa ds policies ha p omo e
sus ainabili y and he bioeconomy in ood p oduc ion, bo h globally and locally. These
policies aim o ans o m ood sys ems owa ds mo e sus ainable models, minimizing
en i onmen al impac s, p omo ing he e icien use o na u al esou ces, and encou aging
he ci cula economy and he de elopmen o bio echnologies [11].
The Uni ed Na ions has se 17 SDGs, which include speci ic a ge s o ans o ming
ood sys ems owa ds sus ainabili y. O pa icula no e a e a ge s ela ed o ze o hunge
(SDG 2), esponsible p oduc ion and consump ion (SDG 12), and clima e ac ion (SDG 13),
which p omo e he bioeconomy and educing was e in ood p oduc ion. On he o he
hand, he Food and Ag icul u e O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions (FAO) p omo es a
sus ainable bioeconomy model in he ood sec o h ough i s S a egic F amewo k, which
ocuses on imp o ing esou ce e iciency, educing was e, and u ilizing ag icul u al and
ood by-p oduc s. Finally, he Uni ed Na ions F amewo k Con en ion on Clima e Change
(UNFCCC), h ough ini ia i es such as he Pa is Ag eemen , p omo es emission educ ions
in he ag icul u al sec o and he ansi ion o sus ainable p ac ices, including incen i es
o low-emission and clima e- esilien ag icul u al sys ems.
In ligh o he a o emen ioned global challenges, his e iew is d i en by h ee p ima y
mo i a ions. Fi s ly, he escala ing impe a i e o ensu e ood secu i y o a p og essi ely
expanding global popula ion unde sco es he necessi y o iden i y sus ainable and scal-
able biological esou ces. Secondly, he e is moun ing en i onmen al p essu e o educe
he ecological oo p in o con en ional ood sys ems, pa icula ly li es ock p oduc ion,
which necessi a es a ansi ion o al e na i e, low-impac p o ein sou ces. Thi dly, ecen
policy de elopmen s and in e na ional sus ainabili y amewo ks, including he Uni ed
Na ions Sus ainable De elopmen Goals, ha e inc easingly emphasized he impo ance
o he bioeconomy in achie ing sys emic e o m. In esponse o hese d i e s, he p esen
e iew ocuses on eme ging g een ( e es ial) and blue (aqua ic) biological esou ces and
hei ole in os e ing esilien , ci cula , and low-ca bon ood sys ems aligned wi h global
sus ainabili y objec i es.
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 4 o 19
The objec i e o his e iew is o comp ehensi ely examine eme ging ends in he
sus ainable use o biological esou ces wi hin he con ex o he g een and blue bioeconomy
as hey ela e o ood p oduc ion. Special emphasis is placed on no el ood sou ces
such as plan -based p o eins, edible insec s, algal bioac i es, and mic obial e men a ion
p oduc s, as well as on inno a i e app oaches o alo izing ag icul u al esidues. The
e iew also aims o explo e how hese s a egies align wi h global sus ainabili y amewo ks
(pa icula ly he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals) and con ibu e o enhancing ood secu i y,
minimizing en i onmen al impac , and p omo ing ci cula economy p inciples in he ag i-
ood sec o .
2. Me hodology
The p esen na a i e e iew was designed o p o ide a sys ema ic ye in eg a i e
app aisal o eme ging biological esou ces o a g een-and-blue bioeconomy. Ini ially,
he au ho s es ablished he scope o he inqui y by delinea ing h ee e idence domains
(en i onmen al pe o mance, nu i ional quali y, and echno-economic easibili y) and
subsequen ly cons ained he in es iga ion o p ima y and g ay li e a u e published om
Janua y 2015 o Ma ch 2025, a pe iod ha coincided wi h a ma ked accele a ion in he
de elopmen o bio-based inno a ions. A comp ehensi e sea ch s a egy was implemen ed
in Web o Science, Scopus, and PubMed, complemen ed by a ge ed e ie al o policy
pape s om FAO, EU Di ec o a e-Gene al RTD, and OECD da abases, and o pa en and
ma ke epo s ia Google Schola and Espacene . Sea ch s ings a e o be composed o
Boolean ope a o s, wi h co e concep s (e.g., bioeconomy OR ci cula economy) o be linked
wi h esou ce-speci ic e ms (plan p o eins, edible insec s, mic o-/mac o-algae, single-
cell p o ein). Duplica es we e emo ed in EndNo e, and i les/abs ac s we e sc eened
independen ly by wo e iewe s agains h ee inclusion c i e ia: The p ima y ocus o he
esea ch should be on ood o eed applica ions. In addi ion, he p o ision o a leas one
quan i a i e en i onmen al, nu i ional, o economic indica o is essen ial. Finally, he
esea ch mus be suppo ed by a pee - e iewed sou ce o one ha is publicly e i iable. Due
o he na a i e o ma and he e ogenei y o he indica o s, i was no possible o conduc
a o mal isk-o -bias sco ing o me a-analysis. This lea es he indings ulne able o
publica ion bias and selec i e epo ing. Res ic ing he sea ch o English-language s udies
published be ween 2015 and 2025 may ha e excluded ea lie o non-English s udies.
3. G een Bioeconomy Resou ces
G een non-con en ional bioeconomy esou ces, pa icula ly plan -based and insec -
based al e na i es, a e gaining conside able a en ion due o hei po en ial o add ess
global sus ainabili y challenges.
3.1. Plan -Based Resou ces
In he g een bioeconomy, plan -based esou ces play a pi o al ole in he shi o-
wa ds sus ainable and en i onmen ally iendly ood p oduc ion sys ems. Plan -de i ed
p o eins and oils a e ecei ing g owing a en ion no only as nu i ional componen s bu
also due o hei bioac i e p ope ies, which o e signi ican heal h bene i s. Wi h inc eas-
ing global conce ns o e ood secu i y, en i onmen al sus ainabili y, and human heal h,
plan -based esou ces a e iewed as an essen ial ool in add essing hese in e connec ed
challenges [12–14].
Plan -based esou ces a e inhe en ly enewable and exhibi a conside ably lowe
en i onmen al impac compa ed o animal-de i ed p oduc s. They demand signi ican ly
less wa e , land, and ene gy, while also gene a ing ewe g eenhouse gas emissions [
12
,
13
].
Legume c ops possess signi ican po en ial o conse a ion ag icul u e, se ing e ec i ely
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 5 o 19
as bo h ac i e g owing c ops and c op esidues [
15
]. Fo ins ance, legumes signi ican ly
con ibu e o soil e ili y h ough a symbio ic in e ac ion wi h hizobia, mic oo ganisms
ha con e a mosphe ic ni ogen in o a biologically a ailable o m ia biological ni ogen
ixa ion (BNF). This mechanism enhances soil ni ogen con en , bene i ing bo h he hos
plan and su ounding c ops, while concu en ly dec easing eliance on syn he ic ni ogen
e ilize s, hus p omo ing mo e sus ainable ag icul u al p ac ices. They con ibu e high-
quali y o ganic ma e o he soil [
16
], enhancing nu ien ci cula ion and imp o ing wa e
e en ion [
17
]. Fu he mo e, hese plan c ops can be g own in a wide ange o clima es,
ensu ing he di e si ica ion o ood p oduc ion sys ems and enhancing ood secu i y [
18
].
The shi owa d plan -based die s, combined wi h he bioeconomy’s ocus on sus ainabili y,
is d i ing inno a ions in he ways plan s a e u ilized o human consump ion [19–21].
As men ioned ea lie , he en i onmen al oo p in o plan -based esou ces is consid-
e ably smalle compa ed o animal-based p oduc s. A 2020 s udy by Poo e and Nemecek
demons a ed ha shi ing om animal-based o plan -based p o eins in he Uni ed S a es
could educe indi idual ood- ela ed g eenhouse gas emissions by up o 73% [
13
]. This
is la gely because plan cul i a ion equi es ewe esou ces and leads o educed de-
o es a ion and land deg ada ion [
12
,
13
]. Fo ins ance, p oducing 1 kg o bee equi es
app oxima ely 15,000 li e s o wa e , whe eas 1 kg o len ils only equi es abou 1200 li -
e s [
22
]. In ac , i akes 2 o 15 kg o plan oods o p oduce jus 1 kg o mea , highligh ing
he g ea e e iciency o g ain-based die s [23].
Plan -based p o eins and oils a e o en lowe in sa u a ed a s and choles e ol com-
pa ed o animal-based al e na i es, making hem mo e sui able o main aining ca dio-
ascula heal h [
24
]. Mo eo e , plan s a e being in es iga ed no only o hei nu i i e
alue and mac onu ien con en , such as p o eins, ca bohyd a es, and a s, bu also o
hei bioac i e compounds, which ha e demons a ed po en ial in p omo ing heal h and
p e en ing diseases wi h an ioxidan , an i-in lamma o y, and an imic obial p ope ies [
14
].
The g owing awa eness o he nega i e heal h e ec s o ed and p ocessed mea , along
wi h conce ns abou he en i onmen al impac o animal p oduc s, is d i ing he shi
owa d sus ainable plan -based die s wi h educed animal p oduc consump ion [
20
,
25
].
Plan -based p o eins and oils a e being inco po a ed in o a a ie y o ood p oduc s, om
mea subs i u es and dai y al e na i es o snacks and nu i ional supplemen s [
23
]. To
da e, a ious applica ions o pea p o ein wi hin he ood indus y ha e been ho oughly
esea ched. These include i s use in encapsula ing bioac i e ing edien s, c ea ing edible
ilms, p oducing ex uded p oduc s, and subs i u ing o ce eal lou s [
26
]. Plan -based
mea al e na i es, such as hose made om soy, pea p o ein, o whea glu en (sei an), ha e
gained signi ican ac ion in he ma ke [
19
,
20
,
25
,
26
]. The plan -based mea al e na i es
global ma ke is p ojec ed o inc ease om USD 1.6 billion in 2019 o USD 3.5 billion by
2026 [25].
Func ional oods a e oods ha o e po en ial heal h bene i s beyond basic nu i ion,
con ibu ing o o e all well-being and po en ially educing he isk o ce ain diseases.
Due o he p e iously men ioned heal h bene i s, plan -based ing edien s wi h bioac i e
p ope ies a e inc easingly being inco po a ed in o unc ional oods ha a e designed o
p o ide heal h ad an ages beyond basic nu i ion [
27
,
28
]. Examples o such bene i s include
plan oils like laxseed oil and hemp oil, which a e ich in omega-3 a y acids ha suppo
hea heal h and cogni i e unc ion [
29
,
30
]. Addi ionally, plan -de i ed polyphenols, such
as hose ound in g een ea, a e being in eg a ed in o oods and be e ages o hei po en
an ioxidan and an i-in lamma o y p ope ies and hei e ec s agains cance and o he
diseases such as diabe es and neu ological and ca dio ascula diseases [31].
Wi hin he ood sec o , plan -based esou ces align wi h he goals o he bioeconomy
by o e ing a means o p oducing nu i ious, a o dable, and eco- iendly oods [
12
,
13
,
22
].
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 6 o 19
Fu he mo e, he de elopmen o plan -based p oduc s encou ages inno a ion in ag icul-
u e and ood echnology, d i ing he c ea ion o new supply chains and business models
ha suppo local economies and educe dependency on impo ed commodi ies [
20
,
21
,
25
].
Howe e , while shi ing o plan -based ag icul u e is o en linked o land conse a ion,
his assumes op imal land con e sion p ac ices and o e looks egional a ia ions in soil
e ili y, c op sui abili y, and socio-poli ical cons ain s [
32
]. In ce ain con ex s, li es ock
p oduc ion may s ill o e ad an ages in e ms o li elihoods, cul u al signi icance, o he
use o ma ginal lands unsui able o c ops. In addi ion, he e is limi ed longi udinal and
egion-speci ic da a on he long- e m e ec s o la ge-scale die a y shi s on ag icul u al
biodi e si y, ood sys em esilience, and u al economies. Second, mo e in e -disciplina y
esea ch is needed o assess how eme ging plan -based inno a ions in e ac wi h social
equi y and ood so e eign y amewo ks [33].
3.2. Insec -Based Resou ces
The concep o sus ainabili y is gaining inc easing impo ance on a global scale. Conse-
quen ly, i is impe a i e o iden i y al e na i e ood sou ces o eplace adi ional ing edien s
ha a e less sus ainable. One po en ial op ion could be o u ilize p o eins, lipids, and ibe s
de i ed om edible insec s as ood componen s, se ing as subs i u es o exis ing ones [
34
].
The p ac ice o consuming insec s as a egula die a y componen has been documen ed
in nume ous egions ac oss he globe o millennia [
35
]. This phenomenon is e e ed o
as en omophagy. As an Huis e al. (2013) [
35
] demons a e, he ollowing insec s a e o
in e es in his s udy: bee les, ca e pilla s, bees, wasps, an s, g asshoppe s, locus s, c icke s,
cicadas, lea and plan hoppe s, scale insec s and ue bugs, e mi es, d agon lies, and
lies [36].
Insec s can p o ide many bene i s o human heal h as hey ha e a high nu i ional
alue. In his sense, insec s a e ich in p o ein, heal hy a s, calcium, i on, and zinc [
35
].
Howe e , he esul ing nu i ional p o ile o insec s depends on he species, de elopmen
s age, die , and p ocessing [
36
]. The e a e some ad an ages associa ed wi h he use o
insec s as no el ood. Insec a ming is p esen ed as a sus ainable al e na i e o adi ional
li es ock o mee he g owing demand o p o ein p oduc s in he ma ke and eme ging
nu i ional needs [
37
]. Mo eo e , he e is an en i onmen al e ec ha he consump ion o
insec s can ha e. In e ms o ood p oduc ion, insec s lead o lowe emissions o g eenhouse
gases o ammonia han adi ional a m animals; hey do no equi e ex ensi e land o hei
p oduc ion, insec s a e mo e e icien in con e ing eed o p o ein as hey a e cold-blooded
animals, and hey can be ed wi h o ganic was e [
35
]. The e o e, insec s a e p esen ed as
a e y good candida e o he u u e o sus ainable ood p oduc ion [
38
,
39
]. The insec s
mos commonly a med o ood and eed a e he yellow mealwo m (Teneb io moli o L.),
he house c icke (Ache a domes icus L.), he black soldie ly (He me ia illucens L.), and he
common house ly (Musca domes ica L.) [40].
Insec s a e no only used as di ec aw ma e ials in he ood indus y, bu hey also
ha e he po en ial o p oduce a wide ange o high- alue p oduc s. One o he mos no able
p oduc s is honey, which is p oduced by bees, wi h an es ima ed annual p oduc ion o
1.2 million ons. Ano he signi ican p oduc is ca mine, a ed dye de i ed om scale insec s
ha is widely used in colo ing ood, ex iles, and pha maceu icals [
35
]. On a global le el,
he mos consumed insec s, 31%, a e bee les (Coleop e a). They a e ollowed by ca e pilla s
(Lepidop e a), a 18%; bees, wasps, and an s (Hymenop e a), a 14%; g asshoppe s, locus s,
and c icke s (O hop e a), a 13%; and cicadas, lea hoppe s, plan hoppe s, and scale insec s
(Hemip e a), a 10%. Fo he ood indus y, mealwo ms, which a e he la ae o he
mealwo m bee le (Teneb io moli o ), a e one o he a o i e applican s [
41
]. In addi ion,
Teneb io moli o ,Ache a domes icus, and Locus a mig a o ia a e e y e sa ile insec s, as
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 7 o 19
hey can be used as complemen s o edibles such as po a oes, legumes, ce eal-based
p oduc s, pas a-based p oduc s, soups, nu s, oilseeds and chickpeas, mea analogues, and
be e ages [42].
While he use o insec s as a ood sou ce has been p ac iced o cen u ies, insec s
a e seen as a ela i ely new culina y end in many Wes e n coun ies. As a esul , one
impo an ac o o conside when inco po a ing insec s o hei de i a i es in o ood
p oduc ion is he applicable egula o y amewo k [
43
]. One po en ial solu ion in ol es
ex ac ing p o eins and lipids om insec s o use as ing edien s in ood p oduc s [
34
].
Al hough edible insec s a e o en p oposed as a po en ial al e na i e ood sou ce, i is c ucial
o ecognize he associa ed alle gy isks. Edible insec s can igge alle gic eac ions ha
could a ec humans as hey con ain some p o eins ha a e con empla ed as alle gens, such
as a ginine kinase,
α
-amylase, and opomyosin [
44
]. Ano he impo an conside a ion
is he possibili y o c oss- eac i i y be ween alle gens ound in di e en insec species
as well as he p esence o chi in in he exoskele ons o some insec s [
45
,
46
]. Chi in may
pose nu i ional challenges and can impac p o ein diges ibili y, al hough some enzymes
in he human gas oin es inal ac ha e been shown o diges chi in [
47
,
48
]. Howe e ,
app op ia e echniques o p epa ing ood can dec ease he chance o c oss- eac i i y and
alle gy isks in ood ha con ains insec s. Me hods like hea ea men and enzyma ic
b eakdown a e examples o hese echniques [49].
When conside ing insec s as a new sou ce o ood, i is impo an o unde s and
and comply wi h he ele an legal guidelines and egula ions [
44
]. Fo his eason, he
p oduc ion and ma ke ing o insec s as a ood sou ce in Eu ope is egula ed by EU Reg
2015/2283 [
50
]. Howe e , he legal classi ica ion o insec s emains ambiguous, o en
luc ua ing be ween being conside ed li es ock, pes s, o indus ial inpu s, which a ec s
how hey a e egula ed, subsidized, and in eg a ed in o na ional bioeconomy s a egies.
Despi e hei g owing impo ance, insec s exis in a legal g ay a ea. Mos ju isdic ions lack
comp ehensi e egula ions add essing hei a ming, p ocessing, wel a e, and ade. In
many cases, ood and eed sa e y laws a e no well-adap ed o insec p oduc s, app o al
p ocesses a e slow, and wel a e conside a ions a e nea ly absen [
51
]. Addi ionally, he use
o insec s in en i onmen al se ices o bio echnology aises ques ions abou biodi e si y,
in asi e species, and in ellec ual p ope y, which equi e legal o e sigh . To suppo a
sus ainable bioeconomy, legal sys ems mus p o ide clea de ini ions, c ea e insec -speci ic
s anda ds, and ensu e egula o y consis ency ac oss sec o s and bo de s.
Fu he mo e, while many s udies ou insec a ming as en i onmen ally bene icial,
he en i onmen al impac o la ge-scale insec a ming is s ill no ully unde s ood. Key
ques ions emain a ound ene gy use in clima e-con olled ea ing en i onmen s, he long-
e m ecological e ec s o di e ing o ganic was e o insec eed, and he ca bon oo p in
o p ocessing insec s in o consume - eady p oduc s. The e is also ambigui y a ound
consume accep ance. Cul u al p e e ences and psychological a e sions ( he “yuck ac o ”)
in Wes e n socie ies p esen signi ican ba ie s o he mains eam adop ion o edible
insec s [
35
]. Despi e echnological ad ancemen s in in eg a ing insec -based ing edien s
in o amilia ood o ms, shi ing consume pe cep ions emains a challenge—one ha is
o en unde emphasized in echnical o en i onmen al assessmen s.
In summa y, while he e is widesp ead consensus abou he po en ial o insec s as
sus ainable and nu i ious ood sou ces, he ield mus add ess se e al con adic ions and
gaps ela ed o nu i ional a iabili y, consume beha io , sa e y and scalabili y.
4. Blue Bioeconomy Resou ces
The blue bioeconomy ep esen s an inno a i e and sus ainable app oach o ha nessing
ma ine and aqua ic biological esou ces wi h signi ican po en ial o add ess global ood
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 8 o 19
secu i y challenges. In ecen yea s, conside able a en ion has been ocused on explo ing
he di e se applica ions o ma ine o ganisms, d i en by hei ich biodi e si y and unique
biochemical p ope ies. This sec ion o he e iew highligh s eme ging ends and ecen
ad ancemen s in wo c i ical a eas o he blue bioeconomy: algae and ma ine collagen.
Algal-De i ed Resou ces
Algae a e eme ging as a p omising al e na i e p o ein sou ce due o hei high nu i-
ional alue, apid g ow h a e, and minimal en i onmen al oo p in . Bo h mic oalgae
(such as Spi ulina and Chlo ella) and mac oalgae (seaweeds) con ain signi ican amoun s
o p o ein, essen ial amino acids, i amins, and an ioxidan s. Unlike adi ional c ops,
algae can be cul i a ed on non-a able land using saline o was ewa e , making hem
highly sus ainable. Thei e sa ili y in ood applica ions— om supplemen s o mea
al e na i es—posi ions algae as a key playe in he u u e o sus ainable nu i ion.
Ma ine algae, encompassing bo h mic oalgae and mac oalgae, ep esen a he e o-
geneous g oup o pho osyn he ic o ganisms ha a e no axonomically uni ied bu a e
unc ionally c i ical o aqua ic ecosys ems and he global ca bon cycle. These o ganisms
educe a mosphe ic CO
2
h ough oxygenic pho osyn hesis—p edominan ly ia chlo ophyll
a—con ibu ing o nea ly 50% o global pho osyn he ic ac i i y [52].
F om a bio echnological pe spec i e, bo h g oups o algae o e dis inc ad an ages
and limi a ions ha a e c i ical o alo iza ion pa hways in he blue economy. Mic oalgae
a e cha ac e ized by high g ow h a es, me abolic plas ici y (au o ophic, mixo ophic, o
he e o ophic modes), and he abili y o be cul i a ed unde con olled condi ions (e.g.,
pho obio eac o s), making hem ideal o la ge-scale indus ial use. They a e widely ex-
ploi ed o he p oduc ion o high- alue compounds such as p o eins, lipids, ca o enoids,
polyunsa u a ed a y acids, and an ioxidan s, wi h applica ions in nu aceu icals, pha ma-
ceu icals, cosme ics, aquacul u e, and was ewa e ea men [53]. Meanwhile, mac oalgae
play a key ecological ole in coas al ecosys em s abili y, p ima y p oduc i i y, and habi a
p o ision. They a e adi ionally used in ood, ag icul u e, and hyd ocolloids (e.g., aga ,
algina es, ca ageenan) and a e gaining momen um o bio uel, bioplas ic, and bioac i e
compound p oduc ion. Howe e , mac oalgal biomass—especially in he o m o ma ine
mac oalgal was e (MMW) om blooms like Sa gassum—can also pose en i onmen al
isks, including GHG emissions and disease ec o p oli e a ion. The alo iza ion o algal
biomass, pa icula ly om was e s eams, suppo s a ci cula bioeconomy by con e ing
low- alue o p oblema ic esidues in o aluable biop oduc s, hough echnical and eco-
nomic challenges emain in op imizing scalabili y, biomass consis ency, and ex ac ion
e iciency. Thus, unde s anding he physiological, ecological, and bio echnological di -
e ences be ween mic o- and mac oalgae is essen ial o le e aging hei ull po en ial in
sus ainable ma ine esou ce exploi a ion [54].
Algal p o eins de i ed om mic oalgae such as Spi ulina,Chlo ella, and Nannochlo opsis
ha e a ac ed inc easing a en ion as sus ainable and nu i ious al e na i es o adi ional
animal-based p o eins. These mic oalgal p o eins a e ich in essen ial amino acids, such as
leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine, alongside aluable mic onu ien s like i amins and
mine als, making hem sui able o human nu i ion, pha maceu ical applica ions, and
indus ial o mula ions. No ably, species like Spi ulina pla ensis and Chlo ella ulga is
con ain app oxima ely 51–58% p o ein by d y weigh , wi h high concen a ions o essen ial
amino acids such as leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine [
55
]. Nannochlo opsis species,
including N. ocula a and N. gadi ana, also demons a e no able p o ein con en , wi h alues
anging om 35% o 71% o d y ma e . These mic oalgae a e pa icula ly ich in glu amic
acid and aspa ic acid, con ibu ing o hei umami la o p o ile [
56
–
58
]. Chlo ella s ands
ou no only o i s high p o ein con en bu also o i s e sa ili y in cul i a ion, pa icula ly
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 9 o 19
in was ewa e ea men sys ems, hus p o iding an en i onmen ally esponsible and
economically iable app oach o ood secu i y and sus ainabili y [
59
]. The amino acid
p o ile o algal p o eins is compa able o ha o adi ional plan p o eins, making hem an
appealing choice o a ious applica ions.
Beyond hei nu i ional alue, algal p o eins a e gaining a en ion o hei bioac i e
p ope ies, which a e pa icula ly ele an in he pha maceu ical sec o . Bioac i e pep ides
de i ed om hese p o eins ha e shown po en ial an imic obial, an i-in lamma o y, and
an ioxidan ac i i ies, making hem iable candida es o nu aceu icals and d ug deli e y
sys ems [
60
]. These bioac i e pep ides can also be u ilized in he de elopmen o sup-
plemen s aimed a suppo ing immune unc ion, educing in lamma ion, and comba ing
oxida i e s ess. Fu he mo e, algal p o eins can se e as ca ie s o excipien s in d ug
deli e y o mula ions, he eby imp o ing he bioa ailabili y o ac i e compounds.
A key aspec o algal p o ein u iliza ion is i s diges ibili y, which a ies depending on
he species and p ocessing me hods used. Diges ibili y is a c i ical ac o in luencing he
bioa ailabili y o hese p o eins, and se e al s udies ha e explo ed his aspec . Fo ins ance,
esea ch shows ha he c ude p o ein diges ibili y o Nannochlo opsis is abou 54% in non-
cell-dis up ed o ms, while Chlo ella can each up o 84% diges ibili y when cell dis up ion
echniques a e employed [
61
]. This a ia ion highligh s he impo ance o p ocessing
echniques o imp o e he diges ibili y and abso p ion o algal p o eins. Addi ionally,
cell-wall dis up ion is necessa y o enhance he elease o in acellula p o eins and o he
bioac i e compounds, ensu ing ha he p o eins a e bioa ailable in human consump ion.
The comme cial u iliza ion o algal p o eins, howe e , aces se e al challenges. P o-
duc ion cos s emain high due o he need o specialized cul i a ion sys ems, such as
pho obio eac o s, and e icien p o ein ex ac ion echniques. Fu he mo e, he a iabili y
in p o ein con en among di e en species and cul i a ion condi ions adds complexi y o
la ge-scale p oduc ion. Despi e hese challenges, algal p o ein p oduc ion o e s signi ican
en i onmen al ad an ages o e adi ional animal a ming, including a lowe ca bon oo -
p in and he po en ial o ca bon seques a ion du ing cul i a ion. Fu he mo e, he use
o was e s eams o algal cul i a ion, as demons a ed wi h Chlo ella, can con ibu e o a
ci cula economy by ecycling nu ien s and minimizing was e [62].
Algal oils, especially hose de i ed om ma ine mic oalgae, a e aluable sou ces
o long-chain polyunsa u a ed a y acids (LC-PUFAs), p ima ily omega-3 a y acids
such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapen aenoic acid (EPA). These a y acids
a e essen ial o human heal h, playing c ucial oles in ca dio ascula p o ec ion, neu al
de elopmen , isual acui y, and he modula ion o in lamma o y esponses [
63
]. Among
algae, mic oalgae a e he p edominan p oduce s o hese oils, whe eas mac oalgae end
o ha e a lowe o al lipid con en and a di e en a y acid composi ion, wi h ewe
LC-PUFAs and mo e s uc u al lipids [64].
Algal lipids a e composed o a ious a y acid ypes, including sa u a ed a y acids
(SFAs), monounsa u a ed a y acids (MUFAs), and polyunsa u a ed a y acids (PUFAs),
which can be u he classi ied in o omega-3 (e.g., DHA, EPA), omega-6 (e.g., linoleic acid),
and omega-9 (e.g., oleic acid) amilies. Omega-3 a y acids, pa icula ly docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA), a e o signi ican in e es due o hei an i-in lamma o y, neu op o ec i e, and
ca dio ascula bene i s. Algal species such as Rugulop e yx okamu ae ha e demons a ed
high omega-3 con en , wi h DHA le els compa able o o exceeding hose ound in adi-
ional ish oils [
65
]. The dis ibu ion o hese a y acids wi hin lipid classes— iacylglyce ols
(TAGs), phospholipids, and glycolipids—a ec s hei nu i ional and unc ional p ope ies.
DHA, o ins ance, is o en concen a ed a he sn-2 posi ion in TAGs, which enhances i s
diges ibili y and abso p ion in he human gu [63].
Appl. Sci. 2025,15, 6555 16 o 19
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