Academic Edi o s: Nediljka
Vukoje ic Med ido ic,
Ladisla V salo i´c and Emeka
Emmanuel Oguzie
Recei ed: 30 Decembe 2024
Re ised: 18 Feb ua y 2025
Accep ed: 21 Feb ua y 2025
Published: 25 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Pas o -Fe nández, A.;
Lama-Ruiz, J.-R.; O e o-Ma eo, M.;
Na áez, A.C.; Ramí ez-Peña, M.;
Alzola, A.S. Ai Quali y Assessmen
Du ing he Ini ial Implemen a ion Phase
o a T a ic-Res ic ed Zone in an U ban
A ea: A Case S udy Based on NO2
Le els in Se ille, Spain. P ocesses 2025,
13, 645. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
p 13030645
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
Ai Quali y Assessmen Du ing he Ini ial Implemen a ion Phase
o a T a ic-Res ic ed Zone in an U ban A ea: A Case S udy
Based on NO2Le els in Se ille, Spain
And és Pas o -Fe nández 1,* , Juan-Ramón Lama-Ruiz 2, Manuel O e o-Ma eo 1, Albe o Ce ezo Na áez 1,
Magdalena Ramí ez-Peña 1and Albe o Sanchez Alzola 3
1Mechanical Enginee ing and Indus ial Design Depa men , School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Cadiz,
A d. Uni e sidad de Cádiz 10, 11519 Pue o Real, Spain
2Design Enginee ing Depa men , High Poly echnic School, Uni e si y o Se ille, Vi gen de Á ica 7,
41011 Se ille, Spain
3S a is ics Depa men , School o Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Cadiz, A d. Uni e sidad de Cádiz 10,
11519 Pue o Real, Spain
*Co espondence: and [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : T a ic- ela ed ai pollu ion signi ican ly a ec s ai quali y. Many ci ies ha e
in oduced low emission zones (LEZs) o es ic u ban anspo . Ni ogen dioxide (NO
2
)
is a dange ous pollu an associa ed wi h ad e se heal h e ec s, such as espi a o y diseases,
cance , and dea h. This esea ch aimed o e alua e he impac o implemen ing an LEZ
du ing an in o ma i e pe iod in which no ines we e imposed on ehicles. The me hodology
consis ed o se e al phases. Fi s ly, he legal le els o gua an ee compliance wi h ai quali y
s anda ds o he Di ec i e 2008/50/EC we e s udied. Secondly, his s udy analyzed he
empe a u e and wind speed pa e ns o he ci y unde in es iga ion. Finally, an in-dep h
s a is ical s udy e alua ed he impac o he LEZ a each ai quali y moni o ing s a ion
h oughou he municipali y. The case s udy ocused on Se ille, Spain, using da a om
2022, 2023, and he i s qua e o 2024, he la e co esponding o he epo ing pe iod
wi hou ines. The esul s e eal a wide dispe sion and pe iodici y in NO2concen a ions
a he moni o ing s a ions. Se ille complied wi h NO
2
ai quali y egula ions be o e he
implemen a ion o he LEZ, wi h simila seasonal pa e ns obse ed. A low o e all impac
was obse ed in he i s h ee mon hs a e implemen a ion. This me hodology can be
used uni e sally.
Keywo ds: ai quali y (AQ); low emission zone (LEZ); NO
2
; sus ainable ci ies; u ban anspo
1. In oduc ion
LEZs [
1
] a e designa ed a eas in ci ies whe e access o ce ain pollu ing ehicles is
es ic ed o de e ed o imp o e ai quali y, educing a ic- ela ed emissions and he
associa ed heal h impac s [2].
The global p oblem o ai pollu ion, oge he wi h he ema kable co ela ion be ween
di e en pa hologies and en i onmen al ac o s, is eme ging as a c i ical issue [
3
]. The
Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion (WHO) epo s ha in 2019, ai pollu ion in u ban a eas was
esponsible o app oxima ely 4.2 million p ema u e dea hs wo ldwide. In 2024 [
4
], almos
he whole wo ld’s popula ion (99%) was exposed o le els o ai pollu ion ha pu hem a
inc eased isk o diseases such as hea disease, s oke, and ch onic obs uc i e pulmona y
disease, among many o he s.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/p 13030645
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 2 o 21
U ban a ic p oduces pollu an s ha wo sen ai quali y (AQ). Se e al au ho s [
5
,
6
]
con i m he di ec link be ween he exposu e o ci izens o ni ogen oxides (NO
x
), especially
NO
2
, and he incidence o espi a o y diseases such as as hma, pneumonia, cance , Pa kinson’s,
and Alzheime ’s disease in olde people [
7
]. This si ua ion highligh s he u gency o add essing
ai pollu ion asaglobalpublicheal himpe a i eand o mula ing e ec i epolicies ands a egies
o mi iga e i s ad e se e ec s on popula ion heal h [8].
Se e al s udies ha e analyzed he e ec s o a ic educ ion [
9
,
10
], including NO
2
emissions, du ing COVID-19 con inemen . Ai quali y imp o emen s caused by LEZs ha e
a o able esul s. Klaube e al. a i m ha child en exposed o cleane ai in he womb and
in hei i s yea o li e equi e less medica ion o a leas i e yea s [
11
]. Mo eno e al.’s
esea ch shows ha inc easing he pe ime e s o LEZs, speci ically in Pa is, can p e en
nume ous dea hs and high a es o as hma [
12
]. The o e all imp o emen in AQ [
13
] and
educ ion in a ic- ela ed illnesses in ci ies has been demons a ed [14,15].
The implemen a ion o LEZs has social and economic impac s [
16
]. Imp o ed ai
quali y educes mo ali y a es and lowe s heal hca e cos s [
12
]. Meanwhile, he implemen-
a ion o an LEZ gene a es g ea e social inequali ies om he poin o iew o he pu chase
o non-pollu ing ehicles. Ci izens wi h lowe incomes ha e g ea e di icul ies han hose
wi h highe incomes [17].
En i onmen al sus ainabili y and clima e change ha e become global p io i ies, en-
cou aging go e nmen s, o ganiza ions, and ci il socie y o seek inno a i e and e ec i e
solu ions. In his con ex , he Eu opean Union has adop ed ambi ious di ec i es [
18
–
21
]
o p omo e a educ ion in g eenhouse gas emissions and he imp o emen o ai quali y.
These di ec i es ocus on implemen ing policies and s a egies ha align local e o s wi h
he objec i es o he 2030 Agenda [22].
The Eu opean egula ions ha e been ansposed in o Spanish law. The p inciples
o en i onmen al p o ec ion ou lined in Regula ion 2018/1999 o he Eu opean Pa lia-
men [
23
], alongside he Na ional In eg a ed Ene gy and Clima e Plan 2021–2030 [
24
] and
he Deca boniza ion S a egy un il 2050 [
25
], o m he ounda ion o he Clima e Change
and Ene gy T ansi ion Law 7/2021 [
26
]. This law unde pins he es ablishmen o a ic
egula ions aimed a imp o ing ai quali y. Wi hin his amewo k, Royal Dec ee 1052/2022
has been enac ed o egula e LEZs in Spain [27].
Royal Dec ee 1052/2022, which egula es LEZs, manda es hei implemen a ion in
island e i o ies and municipali ies wi h a popula ion o o e 50,000 inhabi an s o imp o e
AQ. Da a om he Spanish Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e [
28
] indica e ha as o 1 Janua y
2023, he e we e 139 ci ies wi h popula ions abo e his h eshold. Howe e , by 31 Janua y
2024, only 13 ci ies [29] had implemen ed LEZs.
As NO
2
is one o he pollu an s associa ed wi h a ic [
6
,
30
], emissions we e in es-
iga ed in he ollowing h ee scena ios: yea s 2022 and 2023, be o e he ull ope a ion o
LEZs, and he i s h ee mon hs o 2024, when LEZs had been implemen ed bu wi hou
penal ies (1 Janua y–31 Ma ch 2024). These a e cu en and ini ial da a ega ding he
implemen a ion o LEZs, which is a limi a ion o his esea ch.
The esea ch me hodology aimed o p o ide a comp ehensi e analysis o he de elop-
men and impac o he implemen a ion o LEZs du ing he in o ma ion pe iod wi hou
ines. The me hodology was di ided in o h ee main pa s. The i s sec ion add essed he
p ima y aim by analyzing compliance wi h he legal le els o NO
2
pollu ion in he ci y.
The second sec ion ocused on he analysis o seasonal pa e ns o empe a u e and wind
speed. The las sec ion, ela ed o he seconda y aim, assessed he e ec i eness o LEZs
in educing NO
2
emissions. This me hodology consis ed o pe o ming a compa a i e
s a is ical analysis, which se ed as a e e ence o assess he e ec i eness o he measu es
adop ed be o e he beginning o he LEZ en o cemen pe iod.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 3 o 21
The a e age spa ial dis ibu ion o NO
2
in he Ibe ian Peninsula indica es ha he
ci ies wi h he highes concen a ions he eo a e Mad id and Ba celona, ollowed by o he
impo an ci ies, al hough wi h lowe concen a ions. These include Valencia, Se ille,
G anada, Bilbao, and Gijón [31].
Se ille (Andalusia, Spain) was used as a case s udy. I co esponds o he ou h la ges
municipali y in Spain, which has ecen ly implemen ed an LEZ in he ‘Sma Ci y-Se illa’ p ojec .
A e his in oduc ion, his esea ch will be de eloped wi h a bibliog aphical e iew
ela ed o he pollu an NO
2
and i s legal limi s and p e ious expe iences o LEZs in Eu ope
and Spain, ollowed by he ma e ials and me hods used o he analysis, he applica ion o
he case o he ci y o Se ille, he p esen a ion o he esul s and discussion, and, inally, he
conclusions and u u e lines o esea ch.
2. Backg ound
This sec ion p esen s some o he expe iences in Eu ope o using LEZs o educe
pollu an le els and imp o e u ban ai quali y, ocusing on NO
2
as one o he pollu an s
esponsible o di e en ypes o diseases. Nex , he exposu e limi s o he pollu an NO
2
in Spain, which a e he same as in Eu ope, a e p esen ed. Then, some examples o Spanish
ci ies ha ha e implemen ed LEZs a e examined. Finally, Se ille is p esen ed as a case
s udy, as he au ho s a e no awa e o any esea ch on he LEZ in he ci y, which has been
in ope a ion since 1s Janua y 2024.
2.1. The Pollu an NO2
The pollu an NO
2
is ela ed o u ban a ic. NO
2
causes espi a o y diseases
such as as hma and espi a o y symp oms [
32
], cance [
32
–
35
], and e en ca dio ascula
dea h [
36
–
38
]. Ca dio ascula disease (CVD) is he leading cause o dea h globally. Ac-
co ding o he WHO, CVD was esponsible o mo e han 30% o global dea hs in 2018 [
39
].
Being awa e o his p oblem, he Eu opean Union has ac i ely legisla ed di ec i es o con-
ol he le els o his pollu an , speci ically in Di ec i e 2008/50/EC [
21
], which es ablishes
he limi alues o NO
2
. Mo eo e , in Spain, his Di ec i e has been ansposed in o Law
34/2007 [
40
] and a Royal Dec ee [
41
], which implemen s i in he ield o ai quali y. I
es ablishes h ee ypes o h eshold alues o NO
2
: he hou ly limi alue (HLV), he
annual limi alue (ALV), and he wa ning h eshold alue (WTV).
2.2. LEZs in Eu ope
LEZs ha e been in oduced in se e al Eu opean ci ies o imp o e ai quali y (AQ)
by educing pollu an s ha a ec heal h and a e ela ed o u ban a ic pollu an s. These
pollu an s include PM2.5, PM10, NO
x
, O
3
, and SO
2
[
41
–
43
]. These zones es ic o p e en
access o highly pollu ing ehicles. In addi ion o he access ules o he municipali y, which
gene ally allow access o esiden s li ing wi hin he LEZ, o he c i e ia ela ing o ehicle
pollu ion a e conside ed based on he Eu o 1–7 access ules [44–47].
Cu en ly, mo e han 300 Eu opean municipali ies ha e implemen ed LEZs ha es ic
a ic in ce ain a eas, wi h a no able p esence mainly in I aly [
48
] and Ge many [
49
]. I aly
leads wi h 170 ci ies applying hese zones, ollowed by Ge many wi h 78, he UK wi h 17,
he Ne he lands wi h 14, and F ance wi h 8. The LEZs and ze o-emission ehicle zones
(ZVCEs) in Eu ope can be ound on he websi e o Sadle Consul an s Eu ope GmbH [
29
].
P e ious s udies in Eu opean ci ies ha e shown he e ec s o implemen ing LEZs.
A s udy on NO
2
exposu e among child en aged 8–9 yea s in Cen al London ound ha
al hough he e we e small imp o emen s in ai quali y wi h he LEZ, he e we e im-
p o emen s in child en’s heal h [
29
]. O he s udies in Ge man ci ies, including S u ga ,
Hambu g, Be lin, and Cologne, ha e analyzed he impac o LEZs in ela ion o a ic e-
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 4 o 21
s ic ions [
32
]. Ai quali y has been imp o ed, mainly shown in he educ ion in ci cula o y
diseases and ch onic lowe espi a o y diseases.
The websi e U ban Access Regula ions in Eu ope o Sadle Consul an s Eu ope [
29
]
p o ides basic in o ma ion on he es ic ions o each coun y and ci y, delinea ing
he LEZs.
2.3. LEZs in Spain
In Spain, he e is manda o y legisla ion [
27
] o LEZs, and hei implemen a ion has
been obliga o y om 1s Janua y 2023.
Many ci ies ha e no complied wi h his obliga ion and do no ha e an ac i e LEZ.
Conside ing ci ies wi h mo e han 50,000 inhabi an s, acco ding o he O icial Census o 1
Janua y 2023, only 12 o he possible 143 ci ies had ac i e LEZs on 1 Janua y 2024 [
29
]. This
ep esen s 8.63% o he possible ci ies.
Se e al s udies ha e ocused on la ge ci ies, such as Mad id and Ba celona. Fo
ins ance, s udies ha e analyzed he e ec i eness o ai pollu ion educ ion [
50
] and he
educ ion in NO
2
in Mad id Cen al [
51
]. The le el o public accep ance in Mad id Cen al
has also been analyzed using c i e ia ela ed o socioeconomic condi ions, demog aphics,
pe sonal a i udes, a el- ela ed a iables, and mobili y in he LEZ [
52
]. Meanwhile,
he CALIOPE u ban model [
46
] has been used o s udy he e ec s o Ba celona’s LEZ
implemen ed in 2017. Like Mad id Cen al, he public accep ance o he LEZ has been
analyzed [
53
]. O he au ho s ha e epo ed ha NO
2
is he pollu an ha is mos educed
a he s ee le el in Ba celona because o he educ ion in u ban a ic [43].
No esea ch on LEZs has been conduc ed in Se ille, despi e i being he ou h la ges
municipali y in Spain, wi h 684,164 inhabi an s as o 1 Janua y 2024 [28].
2.4. Se ille Case S udy: ‘Ca uja No e’ and ‘Ca uja Su ’ LEZs
Se ille is a ci y loca ed in sou he n Spain (Andalusia) and has a Medi e anean clima e
wi h ho , d y summe s and mild, we win e s. Summe empe a u es o en exceed 35
◦
C
(95
◦
F), while win e empe a u es ange om 10
◦
C o 20
◦
C (50
◦
F o 68
◦
F). Mos ain all
occu s be ween Oc obe and Ap il, wi h he ci y enjoying o e 2900 h o sunshine annually.
Acco ding o he Spanish S a e Me eo ological Agency, i has he ollowing geog aphical
loca ion: an al i ude o 11 m, a la i ude o 37
◦
23
′
10
′′
N, and a longi ude o 5
◦
59
′
33
′′
W [
43
].
Se ille has an a ea o 142.44 Km2[54].
Acco ding o he U ban Mobili y Plan (UMP) [
54
], Se ille Ci y Council has LEZs called
‘Ca uja No e’ and ‘Ca uja Su ’. The UMP is he o icial documen se ing ou , among
o he aspec s, he numbe and size o LEZs. In he case o Se ille, he wo LEZs ha e been
es ablished as pe manen LEZs. Figu e 1shows he layou o he wo LEZs.
These LEZs a e pa o he eCi y-Se illa P ojec [55], which aims o de elop a science
and echnology pa k ha p omo es he sus ainable de elopmen o he ci y o Se ille in line
wi h he Sus ainable De elopmen Goals o he 2030 Agenda [
22
]. These LEZs a e in he
pe iphe ic zone o Se ille on he wo ld exposi ion ‘Expo 92’ si e, and a e o app oxima ely
200 hec a es in size. Business, comme cial, and uni e si y ac i i ies a e ca ied ou . The
main es ic ion is he p ohibi ion o combus ion oad a ic, mainly pa icula ca s, wi h
access on wo king days om 07:00 o 19:00.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 5 o 21
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 21
(a) (b)
Figu e 1. (a) LEZ “Ca uja No e”; (b) LEZ “Ca uja Su ”.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
The ma e ials used in his esea ch co espond o measu emen s ob ained om con ol
and moni o ing s a ions in Spain. This ne wo k is pa o he Eu opean Ai Quali y Ne wo k.
Speci ically, da a on NO
2
concen a ions we e ob ained om s a ions in he municipali y o
Se ille. The da abase was ob ained om open sou ces ha depend on he Regional Go e n-
men o Andalusia, which is esponsible o ai quali y moni o ing h oughou Andalusia.
The me hodology used in his esea ch consis ed o a double da abase analysis. I in-
cluded 185,142,358 da a co esponding o he concen a ions o he pollu an NO
2
a he 7 ex-
is ing s a ions in Se ille du ing he s udy pe iod. The da abase is a ailable in he Supplemen-
a y Ma e ials. Fi s ly, he limi alues o he NO
2
pollu an o Se ille and hei compliance
we e assessed acco ding o he maximum alues indica ed in he Di ec i e 2008/50/EC. All
alues ob ained a he s a ions we e used o his.
Secondly, he e ec s o he LEZs in Se ille we e analyzed. Fo his pu pose, a compa -
a i e s udy o he beha io o he concen a ions a he 7 a ic s a ions indica ed in Table 1
was ca ied ou . The analysis was pe o med mon hly du ing he wo king days when a ic
caused he highes NO
2
concen a ions in 2022, 2023 (be o e he LEZs s a ed ope a ing),
and he i s qua e o 2024, co esponding o he in o ma ion pe iod o he LEZs be o e
hey we e ully ope a ional. This compa ison was made indi idually o each moni o ing
s a ion and wi h he o e all da a o he ci y.
Table 1. Ai quali y affic s a ion measu emen s in he ci y o Se ille.
Name Minis y Code Jun a Code UTM X UTMY
Be mejales 41,091,018 SEIA0021 236,052 4,137,567
Cen o 41,091,019 SEIA0022 235,144 4,142,140
P incipes 41,091,016 SEIA0004 233,970 4,140,951
Ranilla 41,091,010 SEIA0003 238,079 4,141,800
San Je ónimo 41,091,017 SEIA0012 236,378 4,146,868
San a Cla a 41
,
091
,
015 SEIA0007 238
,
724 4
,
143129
To neo 41,091,009 SEIA0002 342,95 4,140951
Table 1 shows he name, minis y code, jun a code, and UTM coo dina es o he affic
s a ions ha measu e a ious pollu an s in Se ille, including NO
2
, he pollu an unde
esea ch.
Figu e 1. (a) LEZ “Ca uja No e”; (b) LEZ “Ca uja Su ”.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
The ma e ials used in his esea ch co espond o measu emen s ob ained om con ol
and moni o ing s a ions in Spain. This ne wo k is pa o he Eu opean Ai Quali y
Ne wo k. Speci ically, da a on NO
2
concen a ions we e ob ained om s a ions in he
municipali y o Se ille. The da abase was ob ained om open sou ces ha depend on
he Regional Go e nmen o Andalusia, which is esponsible o ai quali y moni o ing
h oughou Andalusia.
The me hodology used in his esea ch consis ed o a double da abase analysis. I
included 185,142,358 da a co esponding o he concen a ions o he pollu an NO
2
a
he 7 exis ing s a ions in Se ille du ing he s udy pe iod. The da abase is a ailable in he
Supplemen a y Ma e ials. Fi s ly, he limi alues o he NO
2
pollu an o Se ille and hei
compliance we e assessed acco ding o he maximum alues indica ed in he Di ec i e
2008/50/EC. All alues ob ained a he s a ions we e used o his.
Secondly, he e ec s o he LEZs in Se ille we e analyzed. Fo his pu pose, a com-
pa a i e s udy o he beha io o he concen a ions a he 7 a ic s a ions indica ed in
Table 1was ca ied ou . The analysis was pe o med mon hly du ing he wo king days
when a ic caused he highes NO
2
concen a ions in 2022, 2023 (be o e he LEZs s a ed
ope a ing), and he i s qua e o 2024, co esponding o he in o ma ion pe iod o he
LEZs be o e hey we e ully ope a ional. This compa ison was made indi idually o each
moni o ing s a ion and wi h he o e all da a o he ci y.
Table 1. Ai quali y a ic s a ion measu emen s in he ci y o Se ille.
Name Minis y Code Jun a Code UTM X UTMY
Be mejales 41,091,018 SEIA0021 236,052 4,137,567
Cen o 41,091,019 SEIA0022 235,144 4,142,140
P incipes 41,091,016 SEIA0004 233,970 4,140,951
Ranilla 41,091,010 SEIA0003 238,079 4,141,800
San Je ónimo 41,091,017 SEIA0012 236,378 4,146,868
San a Cla a 41,091,015 SEIA0007 238,724 4,143,129
To neo 41,091,009 SEIA0002 34,295 4,140,951
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 6 o 21
Table 1shows he name, minis y code, jun a code, and UTM coo dina es o he
a ic s a ions ha measu e a ious pollu an s in Se ille, including NO
2
, he pollu an
unde esea ch.
3.1. S udy Pe iod
The LEZs we e implemen ed in Se ille in Janua y 2024. This esea ch co e ed 2022,
2023, and he i s h ee mon hs o 2024, om 1 Janua y o 30 Ma ch. Du ing hese i s
h ee mon hs o 2024, he LEZs we e in ope a ion in an in o ma i e pe iod and wi hou
any ines.
3.2. AQ Measu ing S a ions
Acco ding o he Eu opean En i onmen al Agency, ‘The index called ai quali y is
calcula ed hou ly o mo e han 3500 ai quali y moni o ing s a ions ac oss Eu ope, using a
combina ion o up- o-da e da a epo ed by EEA membe coun ies’. The upda ed IAQ da a
collec ed a Eu opean Ne wo k s a ions a e a ailable on he Eu opean Ne wo k websi e [
18
].
Rega ding he in as uc u e needed o moni o and con ol he LEZs, in addi ion o
he app op ia e signage in each coun y, which, in he case o Spain, is de ined by Royal
Dec ee 1052/2022 [
27
], such ac ions imp o e AQ [
56
–
59
]. The Spanish AQ Obse a ion
Ne wo k [
60
] p o ides his o ical and eal- ime da a om mo e han 600 ixed s a ions o
moni o ing ai quali y.
The Ai Moni o ing Ne wo k o he Regional Go e nmen o Andalusia p o ides
o icial AQ da a. I consis s o mo e han 90 ai quali y moni o ing s a ions in he 8
p o inces o Andalusia [
61
]. The AQ in each o he main municipali ies is known om
his ne wo k. This sec ion p o ides he Keyhole Ma kup Language ile o loca e any o he
s a ions in he Andalusian ne wo k [62].
Rega ding his case s udy, ‘To neo’ S a ion is loca ed nex o he LEZs. This s a ion
moni o s he main a ic- ela ed pollu an s: PM2.5, PM10, NO
2
, SO
2
, and O
3
. Figu e 2
shows he opog aphic posi ioning o he se en measu ing a ic s a ions in he ci y
o Se ille.
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 21
3.1. S udy Pe iod
The LEZs we e implemen ed in Se ille in Janua y 2024. This esea ch co e ed 2022, 2023,
and he i s h ee mon hs o 2024, om 1 Janua y o 30 Ma ch. Du ing hese i s h ee mon hs
o 2024, he LEZs we e in ope a ion in an in o ma i e pe iod and wi hou any ines.
3.2. AQ Measu ing S a ions
Acco ding o he Eu opean En i onmen al Agency, ‘The index called ai quali y is calcu-
la ed hou ly o mo e han 3500 ai quali y moni o ing s a ions ac oss Eu ope, using a combi-
na ion o up- o-da e da a epo ed by EEA membe coun ies’. The upda ed IAQ da a col-
lec ed a Eu opean Ne wo k s a ions a e a ailable on he Eu opean Ne wo k websi e [18].
Rega ding he in as uc u e needed o moni o and con ol he LEZs, in addi ion o he
app op ia e signage in each coun y, which, in he case o Spain, is de ined by Royal Dec ee
1052/2022 [27], such ac ions imp o e AQ [56–59]. The Spanish AQ Obse a ion Ne wo k [60]
p o ides his o ical and eal- ime da a om mo e han 600 ixed s a ions o moni o ing
ai quali y.
The Ai Moni o ing Ne wo k o he Regional Go e nmen o Andalusia p o ides o i-
cial AQ da a. I consis s o mo e han 90 ai quali y moni o ing s a ions in he 8 p o inces o
Andalusia [61]. The AQ in each o he main municipali ies is known om his ne wo k. This
sec ion p o ides he Keyhole Ma kup Language ile o loca e any o he s a ions in he
Andalusian ne wo k [62].
Rega ding his case s udy, ‘To neo’ S a ion is loca ed nex o he LEZs. This s a ion mon-
i o s he main a ic- ela ed pollu an s: PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, and O3. Figu e 2 shows he
opog aphic posi ioning o he se en measu ing affic s a ions in he ci y o Se ille.
Figu e 2. Loca ion o ai quali y affic s a ion measu emen s in he ci y o Se ille.
3.3. S a is ical Me hodology
Fi s , a s a is ical desc ip i e s udy was ca ied ou o analyze compliance wi h he leg-
isla ion on annual, hou ly, and ale h esholds in he municipali y o Se ille. Then, we
checked i he da a ollowed a no mal dis ibu ion using he Shapi o–Wilk no mali y es o
ca y ou he s a is ical s udy o NO2 concen a ions [63]. The da a collec ed showed a s ong
asymme y o he igh , wi h a highe concen a ion o low NO2 le els compa ed wi h he
high obse a ions o punc ual peaks in he measu emen s.
An ANOVA could no be pe o med o check whe he he means we e he same o di -
e en due o he lack o da a no mali y; hence, he median pa ame e was used o compa e
he concen a ions in he di e en mon hs. This compa ison enabled us o gene a e a e e ence
amewo k be o e he es ablishmen o he LEZs. The da a eco ded on weekdays we e
Figu e 2. Loca ion o ai quali y a ic s a ion measu emen s in he ci y o Se ille.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 7 o 21
3.3. S a is ical Me hodology
Fi s , a s a is ical desc ip i e s udy was ca ied ou o analyze compliance wi h he
legisla ion on annual, hou ly, and ale h esholds in he municipali y o Se ille. Then, we
checked i he da a ollowed a no mal dis ibu ion using he Shapi o–Wilk no mali y es
o ca y ou he s a is ical s udy o NO
2
concen a ions [
63
]. The da a collec ed showed a
s ong asymme y o he igh , wi h a highe concen a ion o low NO
2
le els compa ed
wi h he high obse a ions o punc ual peaks in he measu emen s.
An ANOVA could no be pe o med o check whe he he means we e he same
o di e en due o he lack o da a no mali y; hence, he median pa ame e was used
o compa e he concen a ions in he di e en mon hs. This compa ison enabled us o
gene a e a e e ence amewo k be o e he es ablishmen o he LEZs. The da a eco ded
on weekdays we e selec ed o a oid dis o ions caused by holidays when oad a ic is
lowe . As such, he di e en mon hs could be compa ed unde equal condi ions.
3.4. Me eo ological Condi ions
Me eo ological condi ions a e an impo an ac o o conside when e alua ing LEZs.
Some au ho s ha e in es iga ed he in luence o wind and empe a u e, in es iga ing
empo al pa e ns and hei e ec on NO
2
in ci ies. S udies showed ha highe NO
2
concen a ions a e gene ally associa ed wi h weake wind speeds [64].
NO
2
concen a ions a e highe on ho e days (>32
◦
C) han on milde days
(26
◦
C–32
◦
C) and dec ease a mode a e empe a u es [
65
]. Howe e , NO
2
concen a-
ions inc ease wi h inc easing empe a u e a a 1000 hPa le el [66].
Se e al au ho s ha e ound a s ong co ela ion be ween sa elli e-de i ed NO
2
da a
and g ound-based measu emen s [
65
,
67
,
68
]. They used he T oposphe ic Moni o ing
Ins umen (TROPOMI) on boa d he Sen inel-5 P ecu so Sa elli e (Sen inel-5P), bo h
de eloped and buil by he Eu opean Space Agency.
In ou esea ch, hese sa elli e da a we e used o obse e annual ends in me eo o-
logical condi ions. Tempe a u e and wind speed we e measu ed wi h high co ela ion ia
esul s compa ed wi h ERAS-5 da a [
69
]. Da a o he yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024 we e ob-
ained om he ERA5-Land Daily Agg ega ed da abase [
70
] and p ocessed ia he di e en
sc ip s in he Google Ea h Engine Code Edi o (GEEGE) o e alua e he empe a u e [
69
]
and wind pa e ns.
Tempe a u e da a we e ob ained om he ERA5-Land Daily Agg ega ed–ECMWF
Clima e Reanalysis da abase, which is openly a ailable ia he Google Ea h Engine.
These da a come om a clima e Reanalysis ha combines se e al da a sou ces, includ-
ing sa elli es, wea he s a ions, and nume ical wea he models. The da a co espond o
he “ empe a u e_2m” band, which is he ai empe a u e a 2 m abo e he su ace o
land, sea, o inland wa e . The empe a u e a 2 m was calcula ed ia in e pola ion be-
ween he lowes model le el and he su ace, conside ing he a mosphe ic condi ions.
The same da abase was also used o wind speed, o which he combina ion o he
bands “u_componen _o _wind_10m” and “ _componen _o _wind_10m” was used. The
Ja aSc ip V8 p og amming o ob ain he empe a u e and wind speed da a can be ound in
Supplemen a y Ma e ials Files S1 and S2.
The limi a ion o ou esea ch is ha we did no apply o he wea he condi ions. We
used he wo mos in luen ial wea he condi ions in he ci y.
3.5. So wa e Tools
The GEECE was used o p ocess sa elli e images, as ca ied ou by C. Mo illa e al. [
68
].
This pla o m allows access o a wide ca alog o sa elli e da a ia Ja a Sc ip p og amming.
These da a a e open sou ce o esea ch.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 8 o 21
The SPSS 29.0.0.0 and S a g aphics Cen u ion 19 so wa e we e used o he s a is ical
analysis. Bo h so wa e p og ams allow o in o ma ion p ocessing o de e mine he
s a is ical beha io .
4. Resul s and Discussion
4.1. Legal Th eshold Analysis
This sec ion includes he HLV (hou ly le el alue), ALV (annual le el alue), and WTV
(wa ning h eshold alue), which we e obse ed a he measu emen s a ions in he ci y
o Se ille o e i y egula o y compliance. Table 2includes he obse ed and compliance
measu es o hese legal alues in
µ
g/m
3
o he ci y o Se ille. The maximum hou ly alue
o he ex eme concen a ion le el o he pollu an in each mon h was eco ded o e i y
compliance wi h he HLV. The 200
µ
g/m
3
h eshold was no exceeded in any o he yea s
o his esea ch. The alue o he maximum daily concen a ion o 3 consecu i e hou s in
he con ol zone was eco ded o e i y compliance wi h he WTV. In he case o Spain, he
maximum was 400 µg/m3.
Table 2. Obse ed and compliance alues o HLV, ALV, and WTV in
µ
g/m
3
o he ci y o Se ille.
Legal alues a e in pa en heses.
Yea HLV ALV WTV
2022 135 (200) 19.43 (40) 135 (400)
2023 161 (200) 19.45 (40) 161 (400)
2024 105 (200) - 105 (400)
The a e age NO
2
concen a ion alues we e calcula ed in he yea s 2022 and 2023.
None o hem exceeded he h eshold o 40
µ
g/m
3
. The yea 2024 was no conside ed
because o he sho ime pe iod (3 mon hs). In ela ion o he WTV, he alue p esen ed in
Table 2co esponds o he maximum concen a ion le el obse ed in he yea .
The ci y o Se ille complies wi h RD 1052/2022, which egula es low emission
zones [
26
], since none o he obse ed alues exceeded he h esholds es ablished o
his egula ion. This aspec is impo an o he compliance o he u u e LEZs in Se ille
because ollowing he scien i ic e idence and implemen ing low emission zones has no
been a p io i y, despi e being manda o y as pe he Eu opean egula ion [20].
4.2. Me eo ological Condi ions Du ing he S udy Resea ch
The pa e ns co esponding o wo me eo ological a iables, empe a u e and wind
speed, will be analyzed in he ollowing sec ions. This esea ch was ca ied ou o he
pe iod o s udy s a ed.
4.2.1. Tempe a u e Pa e ns
Acco ding o he da a gleaned om he ERA5-Land Daily Agg ega ed–ECMWF Cli-
ma e Reanalysis, ob ained ia cus om p og amming in he Google Ea h Engine, Figu e 3
e eals a cha ac e is ic pa e n o he ci y. In Win e (Janua y–Ma ch), all h ee cu es
began a ela i ely low alues (app oxima ely 5–10
◦
C) wi hou dipping in o ex eme
empe a u es. Tempe a u es g adually inc eased in sp ing (Ap il–May), eaching app oxi-
ma ely 20–25
◦
C. The h ee se ies ollowed simila luc ua ions du ing his in e al. The
highes alues o he yea occu ed in summe (June–Augus ), o en exceeding 30
◦
C. This
was he wa mes pe iod, in line wi h he ci y’s cha ac e is ic ho summe s. Tempe a u es
d opped no iceably in au umn (Sep embe –No embe ), se ling a app oxima ely 20
◦
C
o below as he season p og essed. The cu es ell below 15
◦
C in he ansi ion o win e
(Decembe ) a he end o he pe iod, ma king he close o he annual cycle.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 9 o 21
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 21
Figu e 3. Tempe a u e du ing he s udy pe iod.
Tempe a u e a ia ions emained ema kably simila ac oss 2022, 2023, and he i s
qua e o 2024, bo h a hei highes and lowes poin s. This ea i ms Se ille’s ypical cli-
ma e: sco ching summe s, mild sp ings and au umns, and a cool win e ha ne e becomes
oo ex eme.
Focusing on he i s -qua e da a o 2022, 2023, and 2024, as shown in Figu e 4, a sligh
upwa d end in empe a u es was obse ed as he weeks p og essed owa d la e Ma ch,
indica ing he ansi ion om win e o sp ing. All h ee se ies showed mild win e con-
di ions, wi h a ew isola ed peaks.
Figu e 4. Tempe a u e assessmen in he i s qua e o he yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024.
In summa y, he h ee se ies indica ed a ela i ely mild win e (no ex emes), wi h a
g adual inc ease in empe a u e owa d he end o Ma ch. The e we e some mino diffe -
ences in he in ensi y and equency o he peaks, bu none sugges ed a ma kedly diffe en
pa e n om he o he s. The e o e, i can be concluded ha he o e all beha io emained
b oadly simila o e he h ee yea s.
4.2.2. Wind Speed Pa e ns
Compa ing he ull yea s 2022 and 2023 and he i s qua e o 2024, as depic ed in Figu e
5, he esul s o 2022 show a ange om 0 o almos 7 m/s, wi h some s ong peaks in he i s
hal o he pe iod (days ~6 and ~50) and a e y no iceable maximum owa d he end (day
~350). In 2023, ela i ely spaced ups and downs we e obse ed, wi h peaks a app oxima ely
5-6 m/s (e.g., nea day 70 and a ound day 265). The i s hal did no show such ex eme alues
Figu e 3. Tempe a u e du ing he s udy pe iod.
Tempe a u e a ia ions emained ema kably simila ac oss 2022, 2023, and he i s
qua e o 2024, bo h a hei highes and lowes poin s. This ea i ms Se ille’s ypical
clima e: sco ching summe s, mild sp ings and au umns, and a cool win e ha ne e
becomes oo ex eme.
Focusing on he i s -qua e da a o 2022, 2023, and 2024, as shown in Figu e 4, a
sligh upwa d end in empe a u es was obse ed as he weeks p og essed owa d la e
Ma ch, indica ing he ansi ion om win e o sp ing. All h ee se ies showed mild win e
condi ions, wi h a ew isola ed peaks.
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 21
Figu e 3. Tempe a u e du ing he s udy pe iod.
Tempe a u e a ia ions emained ema kably simila ac oss 2022, 2023, and he i s
qua e o 2024, bo h a hei highes and lowes poin s. This ea i ms Se ille’s ypical cli-
ma e: sco ching summe s, mild sp ings and au umns, and a cool win e ha ne e becomes
oo ex eme.
Focusing on he i s -qua e da a o 2022, 2023, and 2024, as shown in Figu e 4, a sligh
upwa d end in empe a u es was obse ed as he weeks p og essed owa d la e Ma ch,
indica ing he ansi ion om win e o sp ing. All h ee se ies showed mild win e con-
di ions, wi h a ew isola ed peaks.
Figu e 4. Tempe a u e assessmen in he i s qua e o he yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024.
In summa y, he h ee se ies indica ed a ela i ely mild win e (no ex emes), wi h a
g adual inc ease in empe a u e owa d he end o Ma ch. The e we e some mino diffe -
ences in he in ensi y and equency o he peaks, bu none sugges ed a ma kedly diffe en
pa e n om he o he s. The e o e, i can be concluded ha he o e all beha io emained
b oadly simila o e he h ee yea s.
4.2.2. Wind Speed Pa e ns
Compa ing he ull yea s 2022 and 2023 and he i s qua e o 2024, as depic ed in Figu e
5, he esul s o 2022 show a ange om 0 o almos 7 m/s, wi h some s ong peaks in he i s
hal o he pe iod (days ~6 and ~50) and a e y no iceable maximum owa d he end (day
~350). In 2023, ela i ely spaced ups and downs we e obse ed, wi h peaks a app oxima ely
5-6 m/s (e.g., nea day 70 and a ound day 265). The i s hal did no show such ex eme alues
Figu e 4. Tempe a u e assessmen in he i s qua e o he yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 16 o 21
On he con a y, in Ap il, Sep embe , No embe , and Decembe , no s a ions epo ed a
dec ease in le els, and qui e a ew mon hs showed an inc ease wi h s a is ical signi icance.
Sep embe and Decembe 2023, whe e mos s a ions epo ed an inc ease in NO
2
le els,
also showed s a is ically signi ican di e ences.
The e o e, a beha io wi h a downwa d end in le els was de ec ed in he i s mon hs
o 2023 in ela ion o hei coun e pa s in 2022. In addi ion, an inc ease in he las mon hs
o 2023 was de ec ed.
Likewise, a ime se ies o he median pollu an concen a ion was ca ied ou o e i y
he end in he le els a each s a ion. The NO
2
medians egis e ed a all he s a ions o
he ci y o Se ille in each mon h (2022, 2023, and 2024) a e a ached in Figu e 9. Annual
pe iodici y was especially obse ed in P íncipe, San a Cla a, Be mejales, and Cen o S a-
ions. NO
2
le els we e highe in To neo (app oxima ely 25–35
µ
g/m
3
), while he Cen o
and San a Cla a S a ions showed lowe alues (app oxima ely 10–20 µg/m3).
P ocesses 2025, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 o 21
June 2 0 3 1
July 6 4 0 0
Augus 1 1 4 3
Sep embe 0 0 6 4
Oc obe 6 3 0 0
No embe 0 0 6 2
Decembe 1 0 4 4
On he con a y, in Ap il, Sep embe , No embe , and Decembe , no s a ions epo ed
a dec ease in le els, and qui e a ew mon hs showed an inc ease wi h s a is ical signi icance.
Sep embe and Decembe 2023, whe e mos s a ions epo ed an inc ease in NO
2
le els, also
showed s a is ically signi ican di e ences.
The e o e, a beha io wi h a downwa d end in le els was de ec ed in he i s mon hs
o 2023 in ela ion o hei coun e pa s in 2022. In addi ion, an inc ease in he las mon hs
o 2023 was de ec ed.
Likewise, a ime se ies o he median pollu an concen a ion was ca ied ou o e -
i y he end in he le els a each s a ion. The NO
2
medians egis e ed a all he s a ions o
he ci y o Se ille in each mon h (2022, 2023, and 2024) a e a ached in Figu e 9. Annual pe io-
dici y was especially obse ed in P íncipe, San a Cla a, Be mejales, and Cen o S a ions. NO
2
le els we e highe in To neo (app oxima ely 25–35 µg/m
3
), while he Cen o and San a Cla a
S a ions showed lowe alues (app oxima ely 10–20 µg/m
3
).
Figu e 9. NO
2
medians egis e ed a all he s a ions in each mon h o yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024 in
µg/m
3
.
Figu e 9. NO
2
medians egis e ed a all he s a ions in each mon h o yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024
in µg/m3.
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 17 o 21
Obse ing he ime se ies, a signi ican dec ease was no shown in he yea s o his
s udy, which ea i ms wha was indica ed in Table 6. The i s h ee mon hs o 2024 (dashed
line) co espond o he LEZ epo ing pe iod. Compa ing his pe iod wi h he p e ious
mon hs o 2022 and 2023, no a o able impac was de ec ed in any s a ion, e en in he
closes o he LEZs—To neo S a ion.
San Je ónimo S a ion was excluded om his analysis, as i did no ha e ep esen a i e
da a on NO2concen a ions.
4.6. S a is ical Analysis o Assessing Medians o Fi s Qua e s o Yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024
Finally, we compa ed he medians o he i s 3 mon hs using he K uskal–Wallis es
o iden i y signi ican di e ences and ob ain a be e unde s anding o he dis ibu ion
dynamics o he pollu an le els in he s udy pe iod. The esul s a e displayed in Table 7.
Table 7. Median alues o NO
2
and K uskal–Wallis es s a is ics and p- alues o compa e he medians
o he i s qua e o he yea .
Name Median KW Tes
S a is ic p-Value
2022 2023 2024
Be mejales 21.86 18.00 21.00 32.84 <0.01
Cen o 18.00 10.00 15.00 286.81 <0.01
P incipes 26.00 20.58 19.00 152.11 <0.01
Ranilla 25.00 24.00 22.32 11.72 <0.01
San a Cla a 17.00 15.00 15.00 46.44 <0.01
To neo 30.00 25.00 24.00 101.94 <0.01
In gene al, we obse ed di e ences in all he s a ions unde s udy, wi h di e en
beha io s in ela ion o he median alue. Fi s , we obse ed a educ ion in he median
NO
2
alues in each qua e a he P íncipes, Ranilla, and To neo S a ions. Fu he mo e,
hese di e ences we e s a is ically signi ican (p- alue < 0.01). In he case o San a Cla a
S a ion, he dec ease in he pollu an le el was only obse ed in he i s qua e s o 2022
and 2023; he median was s able in 2024. This di e ence om he i s wo yea s was also
s a is ically signi ican .
In he case o To neo S a ion, which is he closes o he low emission zone, he
es ic ion o access o he zone may ha e posi i ely in luenced he le els o pollu an s
associa ed wi h u ban a ic eco ded a he s a ion. This educ ion only a ec ed he
compa ison o he i s qua e s o 2022, 2023, and 2024, in line wi h he conclusions
o [
50
,
65
], who also de ec ed a educ ion in Mad id Cen al. Howe e , he educ ion
obse ed in ou s udy did no ex end o he es o he mon hs o he yea , demons a ing a
high he e ogenei y, wi h inc eases and dec eases, in he NO2le els.
Fu he esea ch o e a longe pe iod o ime, wi h an ex ended pe iod o ines
included, will be necessa y o e i y whe he he e ec i eness o he in oduc ion o he
LEZs is main ained and inc eases o e ime.
5. Conclusions
Based on he analysis o he esul s, he mos ele an conclusions ob ained in his
esea ch a e de ailed as ollows:
•
In 2022, 2023, and he i s h ee mon hs o 2024, none o he s a ions exceeded
he annual, daily, o ale h esholds se by law, which a e 200
µ
g/m
3
in one hou ,
40
µ
g/m
3
on a e age o e he yea , and 400
µ
g/m
3
o h ee consecu i e hou s in he
municipali y o Se ille;
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 18 o 21
•
Rega ding he beha io s o wind speed and empe a u e, simila pa e ns we e ob-
se ed in he yea s 2022, 2023, and 2024, as well as in he i s qua e s o hese yea s;
•
Pe iodici ies we e obse ed, which coincided wi h he summe holiday pe iods. The
NO
2
concen a ions we e 26% lowe in he summe mon hs (a e age: 16.3 compa ed
wi h 22.1);
•
Compa ing he yea s 2022 and 2023, be o e he implemen a ion o he LEZs Ca uja
No e and Ca uja Su , highe median alues we e obse ed in No embe and De-
cembe 2023 (g ea e han 15
µ
g/m
3
a all s a ions) and Janua y and Feb ua y 2022
( eaching peaks o up o 30 µg/m3);
•
Compa ing he mon hs in 2022 and 2023, no s a is ically signi ican educ ions in he
NO
2
pollu an concen a ion we e obse ed a he moni o ing s a ions in he ci y o
Se ille. An inc ease was de ec ed in se e al mon hs;
•
The abo e da a o he h ee mon hs o 2024 show ha he e was no impac on he
educ ion in NO
2
pollu an le els in he ci y o Se ille du ing he in o ma ion phase o
he p e ious LEZs;
•
The e o e, o da e, he Ca uja No e and Ca uja Su LEZs do no appea o ha e
imp o ed NO
2
concen a ions a all ai quali y moni o ing s a ions in he ci y o Se ille
du ing he epo ing pe iod;
•
This me hod was applied in he ini ial pe iod o ope a ion o he LEZs in Se ille.
Ne e heless, i is uni e sal, allowing his s udy o be ca ied ou in any ci y wi h ai
quali y measu emen s a ions.
Fu u e esea che s should analyze he impac o LEZs in ela ion o he concen a ions
o NO2and o he u ban pollu an s, such as O3and PM10.
Supplemen a y Ma e ials: The ollowing suppo ing in o ma ion can be downloaded a : h ps:
//www.mdpi.com/a icle/10.3390/p 13030645/s1. Supplemen a y File S1: Sc ip o sa elli e em-
pe a u e da a, Supplemen a y File S2: Sc ip o sa elli e wind speed da a, and Supplemen a y File
S3: NO2da a o he yea s 2022, 2023, and he i s qua e o 2024.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, A.P.-F. and A.C.N.; me hodology, A.P.-F., A.S.A. and J.-
R.L.-R.; so wa e, A.P.-F., A.S.A. and M.R.-P.; alida ion, A.P.-F., A.S.A. and M.O.-M.; o mal analysis,
A.P.-F., A.S.A. and A.C.N.; in es iga ion, A.P.-F., A.S.A., J.-R.L.-R. and M.R.-P.; esou ces, A.P.-F.,
M.O.-M. and M.R.-P.; da a cu a ion, A.P.-F., A.S.A. and J.-R.L.-R.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion,
A.P.-F., J.-R.L.-R. and A.S.A.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.P.-F., A.C.N. and M.R.-P.; isualiza ion,
A.P.-F., M.O.-M. and M.R.-P.; supe ision, A.P.-F. and A.S.A.; p ojec adminis a ion, A.P.-F. and
A.S.A.; unding acquisi ion, A.P.-F., A.C.N., J.-R.L.-R., M.O.-M. and M.R.-P. All au ho s ha e ead and
ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable a Jun a de Andalucía.
A ailable online: h ps://ws041.jun adeandalucia.es/pen aho/api/ epos/:public:Calidad_Ai e:
Calidad_Ai e.wcd /gene a edCon en (accessed on 18 July 2024), and Google Ea h Engine Da a.
A ailable online: h ps://de elope s.google.com/ea h-engine/da ase s/ca alog/ECMWF_ERA5
_LAND_DAILY_AGGR (accessed on 22 Feb ua y 2025).
Acknowledgmen s: All au ho s acknowledge he help ecei ed by he esea ch g oups ESTIO
FQM243, TEP-022, and TEP-955 om he PAIDI. All au ho s acknowledge Google Ea h Engine o
ee access o da abases.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e ha he e a e no con lic s o in e es ega ding he publica-
ion o his pape .
P ocesses 2025,13, 645 19 o 21
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