Operational Analysis of Small Modular Reactor Plants Integrated into Distributed Energy Systems

Equa ion Chap e 1 Sec ion 1
T abajo Fin de G ado
en Ingenie ía de las Tecnologías Indus iales
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o
Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
Au o : Ja ie Venzalá Higue as
Tu o es: José Manuel Guisado Falan e; Rica do Chaca egui Ramí ez
Ram
Dp o. de Ingenie ía ene gé ica
Escuela Técnica Supe io de Ingenie ía
Uni e sidad de Se illa
Se illa, 2025
iii
T abajo Fin de G ado
en Ingenie ía de las Tecnologías Indus iales
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o
Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
Au o :
Ja ie Venzalá Higue as
Tu o es:
José Manuel Guisado Falan e
Rica do Chaca egui Rami ez
Dp o. de Ingenie ía Ene gé ica
Escuela Técnica Supe io de Ingenie ía
Uni e sidad de Se illa
Se illa, 2025
T abajo Fin de G ado: Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed
Ene gy Sys ems
Au o :
Ja ie Venzalá Higue as
Tu o es:
José Manuel Guisado Falan e y
Rica do Chaca egui Ramí ez
El ibunal nomb ado pa a juzga el P oyec o a iba indicado, compues o po los siguien es miemb os:
P esiden e:
Vocales:
Sec e a io:
Acue dan o o ga le la cali icación de:
Se illa, 2025
El sec e a io del T ibunal

ii
A mis abuelos
Po enseña me la palab a
“Cons ancia”
ix
Ag adecimien os
En p ime luga , me gus a ía mos a mi más since a g a i ud a mi u o José Manuel, el cual me ayudó a elegi
un abajo in de g ado aco de a mis in e eses den o de la ene gía nuclea , así como una plena disponibilidad a
lo la go de es os meses pe mi iéndome mejo a con inuamen e la calidad de es e abajo; T abaja con José
Manuel me ha pe mi ido mejo a an o pe sonal como p o esionalmen e ap endiendo múl iples azonamien os
ene gé icos así como el uso de dis in os p og amas y he amien as in o má icas de una mane a más comple a.
Es po es o, en e o os muchos mo i os, que expongo mi más since o ag adecimien o po su mane a de guia me
al igual que su a o pe sonal en el ámbi o académico que me ha pe mi ido dedica le an o iempo a es e abajo.
A mi cí culo más ce cano, an o den o como ue a de mi amilia, que me ha apoyado incondicionalmen e, a lo
la go de es os 4 años de ca e a, así como a las pe sonas que he conocido es e úl imo año, g acias po hace odo
más sencillo.
4.1 Equa ions and Conside a ions o pa -load analysis 26
4.1.1 Tu bines 26
4.1.2 Hea Exchange s 27
4.1.3 Pump 28
4.2 Analysis o pe o mance and esul s ob ained in di e en scena ios 28
4.2.1 Mass a e 28
4.2.2 Tu bine 29
4.2.3 Reac o analysis 31
4.2.4 O e all e iciency 31
5 O -design sm exe gy analysis 33
5.1 Va iable load SMR exe gy analysis 33
5.1.1 Exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine 33
5.1.2 Exe gy des uc ion high-p essu e u bine 34
5.1.3 Exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 1 35
5.1.4 Exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 2 36
5.1.5 Exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 3 37
5.1.6 Global analysis a minimum load alue 38
5.2 Ambien empe a u e exe gy analysis 39
5.3 Exe gy analysis o ope a ion p essu e 40
5.3.1 Low-p essu e u bine 40
5.3.2 High-p essu e u bine 41
5.3.3 P ehea e 1 42
5.3.4 P ehea e 2 43
5.3.5 P ehea e 3 43
5.4 Va ia ion o he modynamic pa ame e s o he s eam cycle 44
5.4.1 Inle u bine P essu e 44
5.4.2 Li e S eam Tempe a u e 46
5.5 Conclusions and discussions 48
6 SMR exe gy op imiza ion 51
6.1 Base imp o emen s 51
6.1.1 Li e S eam Tempe a u e 51
6.1.2 Low u bine ex ac ion p essu e 52
6.1.3 High u bine ex ac ion p essu e 53
6.2 Base op imiza ion 54
6.3 Complemen a y exe gy op imiza ion 55
6.4 Conclusion 57
7 Re e ences 58

x ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table 1 Coal- i ed elec ici y p oduc ion by coun y (%) 3
Table 2 Na ional p oduc ion o elec ici y om na u al gas sou ces (%) (2023) 4
Table 3 O e all ins alla ion pe o mance acco ding o he echnology used 7
Table 4 Demand co e ed by nuclea ene gy in 2022 15
xix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figu e 1 E olu ion o he p ice o elec ici y in Ge many, F ance and I aly and gas in Eu ope (€/MWh) [1] 1
Figu e 2 GWh o elec ici y gene a ion in Spain in 2023 (%) 9
Figu e 3 G ams o CO2 equi alen pe KWh p oduced acco ding o he echnology 9
Figu e 4 Pa -Load e iciency o a gas u bine in DG sys ems [43] 12
Figu e 5 Pa -load e iciency o an al e na i e combus ion engine in DG sys ems [43] 12
Figu e 6 Exe gy e iciency o a combined cycle unde pa -load ope a ion [44] 13
Figu e 7 Pe cen age o exe gy des uc ion by combined cycle equipmen 1[45] 13
Figu e 8 Pe cen age o exe gy des uc ion by equipmen Combined Cycle 2 [46] 14
Figu e 9 PWR echnology cen al scheme 16
Figu e 10 Ene gy equi alence be ween di e en aw ma e ials 18
Figu e 11 Fo ecas o annual u anium demand (Yea 2040) 18
Figu e 12 Selec ed SMR ins alla ion diag am 20
Figu e 13 Sankey's diag am o exe gy des uc ion ope a ing unde a ed design condi ions 25
Figu e 14 Va iable load e ec on pump pe o mance 28
Figu e 15 Va ia ion o mass a e wi h load a e 29
Figu e 16 Tu bine e iciency a ia ion wi h load a e 29
Figu e 17 Va ia ion speci ic wo k u bines wi h load a e 30
Figu e 18 To al wo k ou pu o he u bines s. Load a e 30
Figu e 19 Va ia ion o hea equi ed in he eac o wi h load a e 31
Figu e 20 E iciency a ia ion o he SMR nuclea powe plan unde di e en load a es. 32
Figu e 21 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o load a e 33
Figu e 22 Va ia ion pe cen age o des uc ion exe gy low-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o he load a e 34
Figu e 23 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion by high-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o he load a e 34
Figu e 24 Va ia ion pe cen age o exe gy des uc ion in high-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o he load a e
35
Figu e 25 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 1 as a unc ion o he load a e 35
Figu e 26 Pe cen age a ia ion o exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 1 as a unc ion o he load a e 36
Figu e 27 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 2 as a unc ion o he load a e 36
Figu e 28 Pe cen age a ia ion in exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 2 as a unc ion o he load a e 37
Figu e 29 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 3 as a unc ion o he load a e 37
Figu e 30 Pe cen age a ia ion o des uc ion exe gy p ehea e 3 as a unc ion o he load a e 38
Figu e 31 Sankey's diag am o exe gy des uc ion unde a ed design condi ions 38
Figu e 32 Va ia ion in pe cen age o exe gy des uc ion as a unc ion o ambien empe a u e 39
Figu e 33 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [13] 40
Figu e 34 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low u bine as a unc ion o P [14] 41
Figu e 35 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [15] 41
Figu e 36 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion high-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [10] 42
Figu e 37 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion high-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [11] 42
Figu e 38 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 1 as a unc ion o P[14] 43
Figu e 39 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 2 as a unc ion o P[13] 43
Figu e 40 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 3 as a unc ion o P[10] 44
Figu e 41 Va ia ion o wo k p oduced as a unc ion o he inle u bine p essu e 45
Figu e 42 Exe gy a ia ion des uc ion by elemen s as a unc ion o inle u bine p essu e 46
Figu e 43 Va ia ion o wo k p oduced as a unc ion o he li e s eam empe a u e 46
Figu e 44 Va ia ion o o al p oduced wo k as a unc ion o he li e s eam empe a u e 47
Figu e 45 Va ia ion in he o e all e iciency o he ins alla ion as a unc ion o he li e s eam empe a u e
47
Figu e 46 Exe gy a ia ion des uc ion by elemen s as a unc ion o li e s eam empe a u e 48
Figu e 47 Exe gy e iciencies as a unc ion o load a e 48
Figu e 48 Dis ibu ion o Exe gy o Loads o 1 and 0,6 49
Figu e 49 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion a ia ion by componen and o al wi h sys em load 49
Figu e 50 Rela ionship be ween he ac ion o cha ge, he exe gy des uc ion and he o al u bine wo k 51
Figu e 51 Rela ionship be ween li e s eam empe a u e, exe gy des uc ion and o al u bine wo k 52
Figu e 52 Rela ionship be ween P [13], he exe gy des uc ion and he o al u bine wo k 52
Figu e 53 Rela ionship be ween P [14], exe gy des uc ion and o al u bine wo k 53
Figu e 54 Rela ionship be ween P [10], he exe gy des uc ion and he o al u bine wo k 53
Figu e 55 Rela ionship be ween P [11], exe gy des uc ion and o al u bine wo k 54
Figu e 56 Analysis o exe gy imp o emen s base op imiza ion 54
Figu e 57 Analysis o imp o emen s o powe base op imiza ion 55
Figu e 58 Rela ionship be ween P [15], exe gy des uc ion and o al u bine wo k 55
Figu e 59 Analysis o exe gy imp o emen s complemen a y op imiza ion 56
Figu e 60 Analysis o imp o emen s o complemen a y powe op imiza ion 56
xxi
Glossa y
DG
Dis ibu ed gene a ion
CC
Combined cycle
Cogen
Cogene a ion
i.e.
In o he wo ds
ORC
O ganic Rankine Cycle
DLN
D y Low Nox
∝
P opo ional o
GT
Gas u bine
ICE
Al e na i e combus ion engine
PWR
P essu ized Wa e Reac o
PHWR
P essu ized Hea y-Wa e Reac o
LWGR
Ligh Wa e G aphi e Reac o
CANDU
Canada Deu e ium U anium
GCR
Gas-Cooled Reac o
IAEA
In e na ional A omic Ene gy Agency
𝑊𝑒𝑖
Speci ic wo k ou pu
𝛼𝑖
Mass a e
𝜀𝑖
E ec i eness
𝜂𝑖
𝐸𝑥𝐷𝐻𝑃𝑇
E iciency
Exe gy des uc ion high-p essu e u bine
𝐸𝑥𝐷𝐿𝑃𝑇
Exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine
𝐸𝑥𝐷𝑃𝐻1
Exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 1
𝐸𝑥𝐷𝑃𝐻2
Exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 2
𝐸𝑥𝐷𝑃𝐻3
Exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 3

1 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF POWER CYCLES
1.1 In oduc ion
Cu en ly, he elec ici y sys em is a a c i ical poin in e ms o ene gy jus ice, sus ainabili y and accessibili y
wo ldwide, he scope o mul iple ag eemen s such as he Pa is T ea y, d awn up on Decembe 12, 2015, e lec s
he impo ance o coun ies o add ess clima e change.
These policies aim o limi he empe a u e inc ease in his cen u y o a maximum o 2ºC, and in u n y o b ing
his inc ease alue close o 1.5ºC [1] .On he way o new elec ici y gene a ion sys ems, i can be seen ha hey
a e no only necessa y o easons o en i onmen al p ese a ion, bu also in he cu en si ua ion in which
Eu ope inds i sel , clea ly ma ked by a di ec dependence on ce ain ene gy p oduc ion sys ems as well as on
hei aw ma e ials; an example o his si ua ion is he escala ion in he p ice o gas, which saw an inc ease in i s
p ice due o he pandemic and which was con inued o eco d highs as a esul o he in e na ional con lic o he
wa in Uk aine.
Figu e 1 E olu ion o he p ice o elec ici y in Ge many, F ance and I aly and gas in Eu ope (€/MWh) [1]
This en ails he need o employ in ama ginal echnologies; ha is, echnologies which, due o hei p oduc ion
cha ac e is ics and exis ing ma ke ailu es, se he p ice loo as he lowes -cos o mos economically e icien
sou ces o ene gy gene a ion, some hing ha Cha es J commen ed as “These high p ices hu consume s ac oss
Eu ope when hey a e no co e ed by long- e m con ac s, and hey also p oduce e y high bene i s o
in ama ginal echnologies (i.e. hose cheape han na u al gas combined cycles), such as enewables o
nuclea , again, when hey a e no commi ed o long- e m con ac s [2].”
On he o he hand, i has been shown ha ene gy e iciency, when he e a e con lic s and g ea poli ical
Gene al o e iew o powe cycles
8
inco po a ing a ious echnologies. These include he ins alla ion o gas u bine inle ai cooling sys ems, which
inc ease ai densi y and imp o e he e iciency o he combus ion p ocess, as well as hea eco e y sys ems,
which allow was e he mal ene gy o be ha nessed o gene a e addi ional elec ici y, hus inc easing he o e all
he mal e iciency o he sys em.[24]
1.4 Compa a i e Exe gy Analysis o Powe Gene a ion Technologies
On he o he hand, al hough i is highly dependen on he elec ical powe o which he plan is designed, an
analysis o he di e ences in e ms o exe gy can p o ide he eade wi h an insigh in o he subs an ial
di e ences be ween he a ious echnologies; exe gy ep esen s he eal po en ial o a o m o ene gy o be
ans o med in o use ul wo k when in e ac ing wi h i s en i onmen . Unlike an ene gy analysis, i akes in o
accoun losses due o i e e sibili ies and allows he he modynamic e iciency o a p ocess o be e alua ed.
I we begin by analysing gas ins alla ions wi h simila powe a ings, we can see ha hey ha e o al exe gy
e iciencies o a ound 33%. This could be due o he exis ence o he combus ion chambe , o he ai - uel a io
in oduced, bo h o which ha e a signi ican e ec on exe gy e iciency.[25]
In he case o combined cycle, much highe exe gy e iciency is obse ed, wi h alues close o 46% in a 420
MW plan . This imp o emen is due o he in eg a ion o sys ems ha euse was e hea om he gas cycle o
gene a e mo e elec ici y h ough a s eam cycle, which signi ican ly educes exe gy des uc ion compa ed o
con en ional sys ems. [26]
Coal and nuclea powe plan s ha e e y simila ene gy and exe gy e iciencies, wi h alues o 36% and 37%
o coal, espec i ely, and 30% o bo h ypes o nuclea ene gy. Exe gy losses in bo h cases a e highly
in luenced by emissions and o he i e e sibili ies o he p ocess, which accoun o a ound 10% o o al
losses.[27]
Hyd oelec ic plan s wi h a capaci y o 280 MW ha e high exe gy e iciency wi h an ope a ing ange o 63-
70%. I is es ima ed ha a ound 30% o exe gy is des oyed and canno be a oided. This loss is mainly ela ed
o physical and geog aphical limi a ions, such as wa e heigh and low, which de e mine he e iciency o he
sys em.[28]
As a as sola sys ems a e conce ned, hey show low exe gy e iciency compa ed o o he echnologies. The
sola he mal collec o has only 4.4%, while he pho o ol aic sys em eaches 11.2% and he hyb id collec o
imp o es o 13.3%. These igu es e eal he la ge amoun o exe gy des uc ion, which shows ha , despi e he
ene gy po en ial o hese sou ces, he lack o echnological de elopmen and e iciency o cu en sys ems keeps
hem well below he exe gy e iciency o o he ene gy al e na i es, as seen abo e. [29]
In wind ene gy sys ems, exe gy e iciencies o a ound 40% can be achie ed a low wind speeds, and e iciencies
o 55% a high wind speeds; hese a e high e iciency alues compa ed o hei compe i o s.
Finally, in he case o biomass, among he many ypes o echnology cu en ly in use, analysis has shown ha
he chemical exe gy o algae biodiesel is simila o ha o con en ional diesel and pe ol, and wi h some
imp o emen s i could be a good op ion unlike o he ypes o biomass such as wood, ag icul u al o indus ial
biomass.[30]
1.5 O e iew o he Spanish Elec ici y Ma ke
Once he analysis o he ad an ages and disad an ages o he di e en echnologies has been made, as well as a
b ie analysis o he di e en anges o exe gy e iciencies, we will p oceed o make a gene al iew o he
si ua ion in Spain, whe e he ene gy mix is cha ac e ized by ha ing mul iple echnologies, each wi h a di e en
pe cen age and in e es . [31]

9
9
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
Figu e 2 GWh o elec ici y gene a ion in Spain in 2023 (%)
As can be seen, Spain is a coun y wi h a wide a ie y o na u al esou ces o exploi , so a change in he p ice o
a esou ce does ha e an impac , bu no as signi ican ly as i migh in o he coun ies ha do need al e na i es o
adi ional combined cycle o coal- i ed powe plan s, which ha e a majo en i onmen al impac due o hei
di ec dependence on aw ma e ials such as na u al gas o coal.
Apa om his, we can see a di ec impac on CO2 emissions, which is di ec ly p opo ional in acili ies ha
use his ype o esou ce[32]:
Figu e 3 G ams o CO2 equi alen pe KWh p oduced acco ding o he echnology
As can be seen by compa ing bo h g aphs, he ins alla ion ha p oduces he mos powe and emi s he leas CO2
in he p ocess is wind ene gy. The majo d awback is ha , in he ques o ene gy jus ice, his op ion does no
always gua an ee a ce ain amoun o ene gy o he consume , as i depends on he ex e nal condi ions o he
en i onmen in which i is loca ed.
Gene al o e iew o powe cycles
10
The e o e, one o he mos in e es ing op ions in his ega d would be nuclea ene gy, which, a e wind powe ,
bes mee s bo h condi ions. In ac , in 2014, nuclea p oduc ion in Spain p e en ed he emission o 40 million
onnes o CO2. [33]
1.6 Cu en and u u e elec ical powe dis ibu ion
Cu en ly, elec ical ene gy, as men ioned abo e, is in a cons an inc ease in demand, his added o a globalized
dis ibu ion o ene gy causes mul iple companies and sec o s o look o new ways o ob ain ene gy
au onomously and sel -su icien ly.
1.6.1 Dis ibu ed gene a ion sys ems
In his scena io, dis ibu ed gene a ion (DG) sys ems become mo e impo an , i.e. small-scale sys ems ha
can ensu e, whene e possible, he p oduc ion o ene gy om di e en poin s which, o e all, co e demand
and a he same ime a e capable o ensu ing he supply o ene gy o he a ea o sec o . The In e na ional
Council on La ge Elec ic Sys ems (CIGRE) de ines dis ibu ed gene a ion as " All gene a o s wi h a
maximum capaci y be ween 50 MW and 100 MW, connec ed o he elec ical dis ibu ion sys em, and
which a e no designed o dispa ched cen ally. The la e implies ha dis ibu ed gene a ion is no pa o
he ne wo k ope a o 's con ol", i.e. al hough he owne o hese sys ems can sell pa o he ene gy p oduced
and eed i in o he g id, i is no owned by he elec ici y company.
This ype o sys em has mul iple ad an ages in e ms o p oduc ion, bu i also has d awbacks in o he a eas. In
e ms o dis ibu ion, as Lopes J poin ed ou , "The de elopmen o DG equi es he a ailabili y o a ne wo k o
ecei e DG p oduc ion. This can be di icul i DG de elopmen occu s in emo e a eas. When sol ing his
p oblem, issues such as he loca ion o he plan s and he le el o ene gy and powe expec ed o be p oduced
can be iden i ied." [34]. Ne e heless, i is ad isable o suppo he demons a ion and comme cialisa ion o
decen alised enewable ene gy p oduc ion echnologies. This has mul iple ad an ages, such as he use o local
ene gy sou ces, g ea e secu i y o local ene gy supply and lowe ene gy ansmission losses. Such
decen alisa ion also p omo es communi y de elopmen and cohesion by acili a ing sou ces o income and
c ea ing jobs a he local le el.[35]
Acco ding o many s udies, he u u e o elec ici y gene a ion will become inc easingly decen alised, mainly
due o he inc ease in enewable ene gy sys ems such as sola and wind powe , complemen ed by he ins alla ion
o o he smalle -scale gene a ion acili ies.[36]
1.6.2 Technological p oblems o DG sys ems
Dis ibu ed elec ici y gene a ion sys ems o e signi ican ad an ages o e cen alised gene a ion sys ems and
ene gy ansmission and dis ibu ion sys ems. High p ices hu consume s ac oss Eu ope unless long- e m
con ac s a e es ablished. A he same ime, hese condi ions ha e gene a ed ex ao dina y p o i s o
in ama ginal echnologies, in o he wo ds hose wi h lowe gene a ion cos s, such as enewable sou ces and
nuclea ene gy.[37]
On he o he hand, wi h he inc ease in ene gy consump ion, he need o imp o e he capaci y o long-dis ance
ansmission lines becomes i al. To a oid his dependency, whe e long dis ances lead o nume ous ansmission
and dis ibu ion losses, i is necessa y o build mo e ene gy p oduc ion sys ems close o he ends o he ne wo k,
as well as gene a ion close o consump ion.
The capaci y o long-dis ance ansmission lines is inc easing, as is he elec ici y g id's dependence on o eign
ne wo ks. The e o e, i is necessa y o build powe plan s a he ends o he g id and in consump ion cen es.
This will educe he need o ans e la ge amoun s o ene gy o e long dis ances, dec ease ansmission and
dis ibu ion losses, s eng hen he local elec ici y g id, and imp o e he s abili y o he elec ici y sys em.[38]
I is i al o analyse he con ex and si ua ion when inc easing he exis ence o dis ibu ed gene a ion sys ems,
because a iabili y in losses and ol age inc eases h oughou he ne wo k can cause p oblems i hei
11
11
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
implemen a ion is no p ope ly analysed.[39]
E en so, implemen ing hese sys ems is no easy ask, as dis ibu ed gene a ion nega i ely a ec s he
s abili y o he elec ical sys em due o i s low ine ia caused by a iable demand and con ol. This is why
dis ibu ed gene a ion sys ems whose su pluses a e ed in o he g id can ha e a nega i e impac .
1.6.3 Uses and applica ions o DG sys ems
In ce ain global si ua ions and casuis y, dis ibu ed ene gy as a main sys em is no iable, i is es ima ed ha in
A ica app oxima ely 621 million people did no ha e access o elec ici y in 2014, his is equi alen o 70% o
he popula ion a ha ime; The si ua ion has no imp o ed and he wo ld popula ion is inc easing as well as he
need o inc ease ene gy p oduc ion. Tha is why dis ibu ed gene a ion sys ems, in he absence o po en ial
in as uc u es and ne wo ks, can be he solu ion o supply a eas ha wi hou elec ici y could no con inue o
ad ance owa ds a be e u u e.[40]
The a he la ge inc ease in dis ibu ed gene a ion obse ed in he wo ld is la gely associa ed wi h he p og ess
o low-powe gene a ion echnologies and go e nmen suppo measu es o enewable ene gy sou ces;
Dis ibu ed gene a ion enables he sus ainable de elopmen o a eas wi h low elec ici y demand, whe e
cen alized ene gy supply is oo expensi e. In Russia, he ins alled elec ical capaci y o DG sys ems has eached
37 GW and he con ibu ion o he coun y's elec ici y indus y is e y signi ican : app oxima ely 13.7%.[41]
On he o he hand, one o i s in e es s is mili a y use, as well as na ional p o ec ion. In si ua ions whe e he
ne wo k is ulne able due o he possibili y o a acks, hese sys ems play a key ole, as hey can supply elec ici y
o emo e a eas ha in some si ua ions could be le wi hou s a egic supply.
Ano he poin o in e es , om an en i onmen al pe spec i e, is ha wi h he inc ease in hese dis ibu ed
elec ici y gene a ion sys ems, i is possible o educe he use o con en ional powe plan s ha pose se ious
isks o human heal h due o hei emissions. These sys ems (DG) a e being s udied o hei po en ial use wi h
g een echnologies, which would allow o a signi ican educ ion in impac in he e en o a no able
inc ease.[42]
1.6.4 Ope a ion unde o -design condi ions o DG sys ems
One o he mos in e es ing aspec s o s udy in dis ibu ed gene a ion sys ems is he e iciency and
pe o mance o he ins alla ion when ope a ing unde non-design condi ions. In many applica ions, hese
sys ems do no ha e he capaci y o dump excess ene gy in o he g id, which equi es hem o be able o
adap o he load; his si ua ion is accen ua ed when DG sys ems a e au onomous o pa ially connec ed o
a small elec ical g id sys em; in hese scena ios, a la ge change be ween demand and p oduc ion can cause
majo ailu es, as well as signi ican ins abili y. This is due o he low elec ical ine ia o hese sys ems,
unlike cen alised elec ici y g ids, such as a na ional g id, whe e high ine ia helps o dampen equency
a ia ions and main ain sys em s abili y.
I we compa e how he e iciency o hese sys ems a ies when he load a ies, we can see how e iciency d ops
and losses inc ease a lowe load pe cen ages. On he o he hand, he sys em is capable o adap ing o demand,
which makes i mo e eliable and sa e in he si ua ions men ioned abo e.
I we analyse he si ua ion o gas u bines om di e en s udies, we can see how e iciency declines when he
load pe cen age a ies. Fu he mo e, we can see ha a e y low load pe cen ages, he slope becomes mo e
p onounced, which is why he ope a ing ange, depending on he u bine, is no comple e, i.e. he e a e alues
o which he u bine does no ope a e. I can be seen ha by using he h ee u bines, 70% can be se as he poin
om which e iciency declines mos apidly, and he e o e i may no be wo hwhile o ope a e unde lowe load
Gene al o e iew o powe cycles
12
condi ions.
Figu e 4 Pa -Load e iciency o a gas u bine in DG sys ems [43]
On he o he hand, i we analyse he e iciency o al e na i e in e nal combus ion engines, we can see ha hey
ollow he same end and ha , in gene al, i is clea a a glance ha o di e en echnologies, e iciency
dec eases as he load pe cen age dec eases.
Figu e 5 Pa -load e iciency o an al e na i e combus ion engine in DG sys ems [43]
Tha is why, when wo king wi h his ype o sys em ope a ing unde o -design condi ions, i is necessa y
o s udy he minimum ope a ing load pe cen age o each ins alla ion ha does no wo sen he machine's
pe o mance and allows o good e iciency in di e en demand scena ios.
13
13
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
1.6.5 Exe gy analysis o DG sys ems unde o -design condi ions.
I an exe gy analysis o a combined cycle is pe o med as an example, i can be obse ed ha when hese
sys ems ope a e a pa -load, ega dless o he choice o empe a u e con ol me hod, he exe gy e iciency
declines. This is due o an inc ease in he exe gy des uc ion ha is gene a ed in he di e en equipmen
ha make up he cycle. The e o e, when a ying he load pe cen age, no only he pe o mance and ea u es
mus be analysed, bu also he app op ia e e iciency pa ame e s such as exe gy e iciency.
Figu e 6 Exe gy e iciency o a combined cycle unde pa -load ope a ion [44]
Figu e 7 Pe cen age o exe gy des uc ion by combined cycle equipmen 1[45]
On he o he hand, exe gy losses in powe gene a ion acili ies using his ype o echnology can be seen o be
concen a ed mainly in combus ion equipmen o eco e y chambe s. This is consis en wi h wha has been
obse ed in mos exe gy analyses o combined cycles, whe e combus ion and ene gy ans e p ocesses
ep esen he c i ical poin s in e ms o ene gy i e e sibili ies. The exe gy analysis e eals ha he e a e
signi ican sou ces o exe gy des uc ion, especially in p ocesses whe e he e a e la ge empe a u e di e ences

Gene al o e iew o powe cycles
14
o chemical eac ions.
Figu e 8 Pe cen age o exe gy des uc ion by equipmen Combined Cycle 2 [46]
I we analyse how he e iciency o his equipmen a ies when ope a ing unde a iable load condi ions, we can
see ha he equipmen ha des oys he mos exe gy, when ope a ing a educed load le els, inc eases i s losses
conside ably, which leads o an inc ease in he pe cen age o exe gy des uc ion by his equipmen in he
ins alla ion. Equipmen such as combus ion chambe s o u bines ake on g ea e impo ance due o he
a iabili y o he he modynamic p ope ies o he lows. Tha is why, in ins alla ions ha ope a e unde a iable
loads, he exe gy aspec is e y impo an due o he conside able inc ease in losses and he dec ease in he
exe gy e iciency o indi idual equipmen , which leads o g ea e o al exe gy des uc ion.
2 NUCLEAR ENERGY
2.1 Cu en si ua ion o elec ici y gene a ion h ough he use o nuclea ene gy
Nuclea ene gy plays a undamen al ole in deca bonisa ion. In e ms o olume, nuclea ene gy is he mos
powe ul sou ce o ene gy. Renewable ene gies, such as sola , wind, hyd oelec ic, geo he mal, idal and
hyd ogen, p oduce ze o g eenhouse gas emissions compa ed o ossil uels. Howe e , he p oduc ion and use o
hese enewable ene gies has been inc easing, bu i is no enough o mee he demand o all sec o s
wo ldwide.[47]
Clean ene gy is being inco po a ed in o he ene gy sys em a an unp eceden ed a e, wi h an inc ease o mo e
han 560 gigawa s (GW) o new enewable gene a ion capaci y du ing 2023. [48] E en so, hei deploymen
emains une en, bo h in he echnologies used and be ween coun ies, he cos s o mos clean echnologies a e
esuming a downwa d end a e he inc ease expe ienced as a esul o he Co id-19 pandemic due o he
inc ease in he p ice o o he sou ces such as adi ional uels. This suppo s he g ow h o enewable ene gy
gene a ion capaci y, which will inc ease om he cu en 4,250 GW o almos 10,000 GW in 2030 acco ding o
he STEPS scena io. [48]
Despi e he exis ence o ce ain pe iods when nuclea ene gy esea ch and p oduc ion may seem close o i s end,
nuclea ene gy p oduc ion is on he ise globally. Nuclea ene gy p oduc ion wo ldwide had a capaci y o 205,
2710 and 2790 Twh in 1973, 2018 and 2019, [49] espec i ely, whe e we obse e an ene gy ha con inues o
inc ease. The IAEA's highes p ojec ion o nuclea capaci y eaches 950 GW (ne ) in 2050, a posi i e di e ence
o 2.5 imes om he ins alled nuclea capaci y in 2023. [50]
I a global o e iew is made, we can see he impac ha ce ain coun ies ha e in e ms o ene gy gene a ion
and demand co e ed, you can see [51] how he coun ies ha con ibu e he mos and de end nuclea powe
manage o co e a la ge pa o he elec ici y h ough his me hod; These coun ies, each wi h a di e en
consump ion, in e ms o powe , achie e a e y high demand co e ed, we can highligh :
Coun y
Demand co e ed (%)
Belgium
46,4%
Bulga ia
32,6%
F ance
36,7%
Hunga y
47%
Slo akia
53,1%
Uk aine
55%
Table 4 Demand co e ed by nuclea ene gy in 2022
I is wo h adding he si ua ion o coun ies such as Spain ha a e cu en ly a a midpoin due o he changes
aken by ene gy policies, in his s udy i can be seen how 20.3% o he elec ici y demand in Spain was co e ed
by nuclea , al hough cu en ly his pe cen age has been educed.
Nuclea ene gy
16
Bu how is his ene gy ob ained? Wha a e he me hods cu en ly used? , al hough his ene gy gene a ion depends
mainly on he coun y, mos coun ies a e commi ed o PWR Nuclea Powe Plan s, which ep esen 77.9% o
he eac o s cu en ly ope a ing in he wo ld [51], he es o he eac o s a e mainly olde o he PHWR o
LWGR ype, e en so i we ake a look a he echnologies wi h which he new nuclea powe plan s a e being
buil , we see ha mos coun ies a e be ing on his ype o eac o s again, 88.8% o he eac o s unde
cons uc ion a e PWR. [51]
2.2 Ope a ion o a PWR ype nuclea powe plan
Wi hou going in o he ins alla ion o his ype o plan , hey mainly ha e he ollowing agen s: [52]
• P ima y ci cui : Mainly made up o equipmen such as he P essu , he Reac o Vessel, he uel, he
con ol ods... In his pa o he acili y, he ene gy p oduced by he nuclea eac o ha p oduces s eam
is ans o med and hea ed o op imal condi ions o subsequen hea exchange.
• Seconda y ci cui : This second pa o he seconda y ci cui is eally he one ha is esponsible o he
gene a ion o elec ical ene gy, i has a block o wa e pipes ha hanks o he hea exchanged wi h he
p ima y ci cui con e s wa e back in o sa u a ed s eam, his s eam goes di ec ly o he u bine ha
hanks o an al e na o ans o ms mechanical ene gy in o elec ici y.
• Auxilia y elemen s: These a e elemen s ha do no di ec ly in luence he gene a ion o elec ici y, bu
a e key o he ins alla ion, we can highligh wo mainly:
o Te ia y ci cui : The e ia y ci cui depends mainly on he sou ce o he ex e nal medium wi h
which he hea exchange is ca ied ou , ha is, he s eam ha is used in he u bine mus be sen
again a he beginning o he seconda y ci cui and o his i mus exchange hea wi h an
ex e nal en i onmen such as he sea, a i e (including he amous cooling owe s) o he use
o equipmen such as ai condense s ha a e esponsible o eco e ing he s eam ha comes
ou o he u bine and u ns i in o liquid wa e and a he igh empe a u e. As men ioned
abo e, i mainly depends on he ype o ins alla ion we use.
o Con ainmen Building: A aul -shaped elemen usually composed o conc e e and is
esponsible o p o ec ing he eac o mainly, o he pa o he p ima y ci cui ha con ains
adioac i e elemen s, his aul p e en s, in he e en o an acciden , he emission o adia ion,
as well as p o ec ing he eac o agains ex e nal a acks.
Figu e 9 PWR echnology cen al scheme
17
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
2.3 Small modula eac o (SMR)
In all his scena io, he need a ises o ind a echnology ha co e s e e y hing men ioned abo e so a , ha is, a
clean echnology in e ms o gas emissions, a echnology ha can supply he g owing demand o elec ici y, as
well as ensu e p oduc ion in a decen alized way o ensu e p ice s abili y due o in e na ional policies ha a ec
bo h supply and ob aining o ce ain aw ma e ials. In his case, a new line o s udy a ises wi hin he ield o
Nuclea Ene gy, SMR ype eac o s, his ype o eac o s should be no ed ha hey would wo k in a
complemen a y way in a di e en ype o ma ke and scena io han hose p e iously s udied, ha is, he objec i e
and demand co e ed by hese eac o s is no ela ed o he si ua ion o adi ional la ge-scale eac o s. which, as
we ha e men ioned be o e, a e s ill being buil oday.
2.3.1 Gene al cha ac e is ics and ends
Small Modula Reac o s (SMRs) a e eac o s wi h a capaci y, due o hei smalle size, o ope a e a pa -load
and on demand, ensu ing ha hey a e a complemen a y op ion ha wo ks oge he wi h enewable ene gies,
ensu ing ha hey co e unme demand scena ios o scena ios whe e hey ha dly ha e o p o ide ene gy.
These eac o s a e unde s udy and would ha e a capaci y o abou 300 MW pe uni ; Despi e being an in e es ing
op ion, hese eac o s s ill ha e o go h ough con ols, exis ing s anda ds, eme gency es s, p o ision and
p epa a ion o he espec i e con ol ooms; In o he wo ds, he cos o capi al pe uni is lowe han ha o
cu en eac o s, bu hei compe i i eness emains o be demons a ed [53]
On he o he hand, i should be no ed ha due o hei small size and ad ances in his ype o echnology, apa
om simplici y, cons uc ion, ope a ion and a o dabili y, his ype o eac o s o e g ea e sa e y by elimina ing
mos o he main causes o acciden s, such as he la ge pipes used in he p ima y ci cui .[54]
We a e going o ini ially commen on he ypes o SMR and he mos ypical echnologies ha a e being s udied,
hese echnologies a e acco ding o he IAEA:
• Land-based and wa e -cooled SMRs: The e a e cu en ly 14 designs o g ound-based wa e -cooled
SMRs (LWRs o HWRs).
• Wa e -cooled seawa e SMRs: he e a e 6 designs o hese eac o s, which ope a e in a simila way o
he p e ious ones bu loca ed in lee s ha o e lexible deploymen op ions; he coun ies ha a e
be ing he mos on his ype o eac o s a e China, he Czech Republic and he Uni ed S a es. The i s
SMR o i s kind is owned by he Na y o he Russian Fede a ion and has been comme cially ope a ed
since May 2020 wi h a nuclea powe capaci y o 70 MW(e) and supplies hea and elec ici y o he ci y
o Pe ek in he Chuko ka egion.[55]
• Gas-cooled SMRs: Wi h a ound 14 ypes gas-cooled and eaching empe a u es abo e 750°C, he e a e
wo es eac o s ha ha e been in ope a ion o se e al yea s (one in Japan and one in China).
• Liquid me al-cooled as neu on SMRs: Abou 10 eac o designs wi h his echnology ope a e wi h
me als such as sodium, pu e lead, o eu ec ic lead-bismu h. The mos signi ican ad ances a e he
BREST-OD-300 eac o being buil in Russia and F ance, al hough we also ha e sodium-cooled
eac o s in he Uni ed S a es.
• Mol en sal SMR: Cu en ly wi h 11 designs, hese eac o s p o ide inc eased sa e y, high e iciency,
and lexible uel cycles. These eac o s a e in he design phase in coun ies such as Denma k, F ance,
he Uni ed Kingdom and he Uni ed S a es.
• SMR mic o eac o s: his ype o eac o s ope a e wi h a ious e ige an s depending on he ype and
ope a e up o a maximum o 30 MW. I s unc ion is o co e ma ke niches, emo e a eas, and disas e
a eas whe e he supply o elec ici y is complica ed. The e a e cu en ly hi een designs in de elopmen .
Wi h all his we ind a scena io o 68 ac i e designs, o which 22 a e wa e -cooled eac o s (WCRs) and 46 ha
ope a e wi h ano he coolan (N-WCRs).
De elopmen o he cycle unde a ed design condi ions
24
24
𝑊𝑒𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠[𝐾𝐽
𝐾𝑔]=𝑃5−𝑃4
(10∙𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑠)=1 (21)
As can be seen, he consump ion by he pump is minimal, which is why i will no be included in he inal
exp ession o he espec i e pe o mance calcula ion.
Once he speci ic wo k has been ob ained, we can calcula e he pe o mance o ou powe cycle, due o he g ea
di e ence ha exis s be ween he powe consumed by he pumps, we will only include he wo k o he u bine
η𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙[%]=𝑊𝑒𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑊𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∙100 (22)
η𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙[%]=33,19 (23)
Finally, as we p e iously se he o al powe a 150 MW, we will be able o ob ain he s eam low a e ha mus
ci cula e h ough ou cycle.
150∙103=𝑊𝑒𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 ∙ 𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥∙𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐 (24)
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐[−]=0,95 (25)
This esul s in a maximum low ob ained o :
𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡[𝑘𝑔
𝑠]=265,9 (26)
3.4 Exe gy analysis unde a ed design condi ions
Wi h he da a ob ained p e iously, we will p oceed o ca y ou he exe gy analysis o he ins alla ion. To
do his, he Exe gy o each cu en will be calcula ed acco ding o e e ence condi ions, aking as a base
an ambien empe a u e o 25ºC, as well as an ambien p essu e o 1 a mosphe e.
I should be no ed ha he analysis will be ca ied ou on each equipmen o he ins alla ion wi h he
excep ion o he degasse , condense and supe hea e due o he ollowing easons espec i ely:
• The capaci o is a de ice ha discha ges ene gy o he ou side o con e he esidual cu en
in o condensa e, so when wo king wi h an open loop i is no possible o quan i y how much
exe gy is des oyed and calcula ing he exe gy e iciency is no use ul.
• On he o he hand, exe gy analysis is no ca ied ou on he degasse because his equipmen
does no gene a e wo k o ans o m use ul ene gy di ec ly, bu simply ans e s hea o
emo e dissol ed gases om he wa e , as men ioned abo e. Pe o ming an exe gy analysis
would esul in an e iciency highe han 100%, because his equipmen eco e s pa o he
ene gy om he s eam used. This does no imply an inc ease in exe gy, bu a edis ibu ion
wi hin he o e all sys em.
• As o he supe hea e , his equipmen is essen ial bu i s impo ance in he sys em is no
mainly due o an ene gy in e es ; he in e es o he supe hea e lies in i s capaci y o aise he
s eam i le in o de o ensu e ha he cu en en e ing he low u bine has he lowes possible
humidi y. As i s pu pose is mo e mechanical han ene ge ic, i s analysis in he global exe gy

25
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
impac o he ins alla ion will no be s udied because i would gi e e y low exe gy e iciencies,
as well as a conside ably high des uc ion exe gy, al hough i would ce ainly be an aspec o
conside in a possible imp o emen o he ins alla ion.
Wi h hese conside a ions made and he co esponding global exe gy equa ion:
𝐸[𝐾𝐽
𝐾𝑔]=𝐸𝑓+𝐸𝑞+𝐸𝑝+𝐸𝑐 (27)
This can be simpli ied by elimina ing he po en ial and kine ic e ms, as well as he e m co esponding
o a possible chemical eac ion o ans o ma ion, which does no occu in any equipmen , lea ing a inal
equa ion o be applied in each s eam:
𝐸𝑖[𝐾𝐽
𝐾𝑔]=𝐸𝑓= (𝑚
𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡)∙((𝐻𝑖−ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑓)−𝑇0∙(𝑆𝑖−𝑠𝑟𝑒𝑓))(28)
Whe e he exe gy can be ob ained in speci ic e ms hanks o ha ing de ined all he en halpy and exe gy
condi ions in he p e ious ene gy analysis, as men ioned abo e, he s a ing condi ions will
be: 𝑇0[𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛]=298,15 (29)
𝑃0[𝑏𝑎𝑟]=1,01325 (30)
Fi s , he co esponding exe gy balance will be ca ied ou o each equipmen , whe e he alue o he
exe gy des uc ion will be ob ained, om which he exe gy e iciency o each componen will be
calcula ed: ∑𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑛
𝑖=1 =∑𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑛
𝑖=1 +𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑑+𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 (31)
𝜂𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑖[%]=(1−(𝐸𝑑𝑖)
(∑𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑛
𝑖=1 )∙100 (32)
Wi h his i is possible o ex ac he impac o each piece o equipmen , in e ms o pe cen age o exe gy:
Figu e 13 Sankey's diag am o exe gy des uc ion ope a ing unde a ed design condi ions
Whe e i can be seen ha he downs eam u bine is esponsible, in e ms o exe gy des uc ion, o
almos hal o he ins alla ion; he speci ic exe gy des uc ion i he load we e 100% akes a alue o 79.14
KJ/kg.
4 ANALYSIS OF THE CYCLE UNDER VARIABLE
LOAD OPERATION
Once he analysis o he cycle has been comple ed, ob aining bo h he wo k and he equi ed e iciencies, i is
impo an o emembe ha he selec ed ins alla ion, an SMR, was chosen o i s in e es and capaci y o ope a e
a di e en load le els. The e o e, based on he esul s ob ained in he p e ious sec ions, i is essen ial o analyse
how he beha iou o he cycle a ies when he load pe cen age is modi ied.
4.1 Equa ions and Conside a ions o pa -load analysis
To ca y ou he co esponding analysis, i will be necessa y o de ine a se ies o a iables and equa ions, which
allow modi ying he pa ame e s o he base case, so i will begin by se ing a maximum low, and hen a a iable
called "Load " will be de ined ha will be used o ob ain he eal low wi h which i is ope a ing, i will ake
alues be ween 0.6 and 1, one being he ope a ing si ua ion in which i ope a es a maximum load.
Load [−]=mdo
mdo max (33)
𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝑘𝑔
𝑠]=265,9 (34)
Once de ined, hese wo a iables will be analysed as o how he a iable load a ec s he main equipmen , i.e.
u bines and hea exchange s:
4.1.1 Tu bines
Wi h ega d o Tu bines, using he Flügel equa ions [67], i is possible o analyse how he e iciency a ies
acco ding o he pe cen age o wo k a which i is ope a ed; hese equa ions a e iden ical o each u bine, he
low ha en e s he co esponding p ocess will simply a y.
When he e ec i eness has changed, he new en halpy o he u bine ex ac ions will be calcula ed
conside ing ha he en opy is conse ed in he p ocess as be o e, bu including he new e iciency; he
o a ion speeds will be conside ed cons an as well as he comp ession a io, i.e. he e ec o he change
in low a e will be s udied conside ing ha he es o he a iables ha ha e an in luence do no change.
Wi h all his, he ollowing equa ions will be added:
𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑖[−]=1 (𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) (35)
𝐺𝑒𝑖[𝑘𝑔
𝑠]=𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑∗𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡∙(1−∑𝛼i
𝑛
𝑖=1 )(36)
𝐺?𝑒𝑖[−]= 𝐺𝑒𝑖
(𝐺𝑒0𝑖)(37)
𝐺𝑒0𝑖[𝑘𝑔
𝑠]=𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡∙(1−∑𝛼i
𝑛
𝑖=1 )(38)
𝜂𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑖[−]=𝜂𝑒𝑖
𝜂𝑒0 (39)
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Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
𝜂𝑒0[−]=0,9 (40)
𝜂𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑖[−]= (1 − 𝑡4∙(1−𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑖)2)∙(𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑖
𝐺?𝑒𝑖 ) ∙ (2 − 𝑛𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑖
𝐺?𝑒𝑖 )(41)
𝑡4[−]=0,3 (42)
Finally, i is possible o ob ain he eal e iciency depending on he load, which can be included as in he
p e ious sec ions: 𝜂𝑒𝑖[−]=𝐻𝑖−𝐻𝑗
𝐻𝑖−𝐻𝑆𝑗 (43)
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑛,𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖[𝐾𝐽
𝐾𝑔]=𝐻𝑖−𝐻𝑗 (44)
4.1.2 Hea Exchange s
On he o he hand, i will be necessa y o calcula e how he e ec i eness o he hea exchange s
a ies, as well as hei sizing and hei impac on he sys em. Fo his pu pose, he co esponding
calcula ion equa ions [68] will be used; ob ained om simila wo ks whe e he ope a ion o hese
is analysed in pa -load ope a ions; he equa ions will be de ined o wo gene ic cu en s, ‘i’ being
he phase change cu en and ‘j’ he cu en o be hea ed, wi h empe a u es l and k espec i ely.
𝜀 [−]=𝑄
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 (45)
𝑄[𝐾𝑊]=𝐶𝑝𝑗∙𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑗 ∙ (𝑇[𝑘+1]−𝑇[𝑘]) (46)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥[𝐾𝑊]=𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛∙(𝑇[𝑙]−𝑇[𝑘]) (47)
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛=min((𝐶𝑝𝑗∙𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑗);(𝐶𝑝𝑖∙𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑖) ) (48)
𝑈[𝐾𝑊]=5 (49)
𝑅=0 {𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒}(50)
𝑁𝑇𝑈=𝑈∙𝐴
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (51)
𝜀[−]=1−𝑒(−𝑁𝑇𝑈) (52)
Finally, he e ec i eness ob ained in each equipmen is included in he equa ions co esponding o he
calcula ion o alphan , whe e i is concluded ha he main impac ha esides in he a iable load, as a
as exchange s a e conce ned, is he lexibili y as a as mass a e a e conce ned, ha is o say, depending
on he load pe cen age, hese alues will a y acco ding o he needs o he cycle.
𝜀1∙(𝛼1∙(𝐻[9]−𝐻[8]))=(1−𝛼1−𝛼2−𝛼3)∙(𝐻[11]−𝐻[12]) (53)
𝜀2∙(𝛼2∙(𝐻[10]−𝐻[17]))=(1∙(𝐻[6]−𝐻[5]))(54)
𝜀3∙(𝛼4∙(𝐻[13]−𝐻[18]))=(1−𝛼1−𝛼2−𝛼3)∙(𝐻[3]−𝐻[2]) (55)
𝜀4∙(𝛼5∙(𝐻[14]−𝐻[19]))=(1−𝛼1−𝛼2−𝛼3)∙(𝐻[2]−𝐻[1]) (56)
𝜀5∙(𝛼3∙𝐻[11]+𝛼1∙𝐻[9]+𝛼2∙𝐻[17]+(1−𝛼1−𝛼2−𝛼3)∙𝐻[3])=1∙𝐻[4](57)
Analysis o he cycle unde a iable load ope a ion
28
28
4.1.3 Pump
Wi h ega d o he beha iou o he pump unde pa -load condi ions, i is obse ed ha as he pe cen age
o load dec eases, so does i s e iciency, which implies a sligh inc ease in ene gy consump ion. Howe e ,
his consump ion con inues o be insigni ican in he o e all balance o he sys em. To es ima e he
e iciency unde hese condi ions, an adjus ed polynomial o pumps ope a ing wi h simila low a es and
p essu es unde educed loads has been calcula ed, which allows an accu a e app oxima ion o he eal
beha iou unde di e en ope a ing condi ions.
Figu e 14 Va iable load e ec on pump pe o mance
4.2 Analysis o pe o mance and esul s ob ained in di e en scena ios
Once he cycle has been de ined in i s en i e y, i will be necessa y o ca y ou simula ions o be able o see he
esponse o he plan in he di e en scena ios when he load is a ied. Thanks o he modelling p og amme
i sel , EES, i is possible o ob ain nume ical esul s by a ying he load pe cen age in a e y simple way, as
men ioned abo e, his pe cen age has a ange be ween 0.6 and 1.
4.2.1 Mass a e
The impac ha a load a ia ion has on he ins alla ion a ec s no only he equipmen i sel , some alues such
as mass a e o luid p ope ies a y acco ding o he pe cen age o load ha is used.
I an analysis o he espec i e mass a e is ca ied ou , i is possible o see how a some poin s o he ins alla ion,
such as he ex ac ion ha goes o he degasse (𝛼3) o he ex ac ion co esponding o he bypass o ehea ing
(𝛼1), hey unde go signi ican changes, e en hough hey ha e opposi e endencies; I can be seen ha he lowe
he pe cen age o load, he lowe he low o s eam di e ed o he supe hea e , while in he ex ac ion o he
degasse , he lowe he pe cen age o load, he highe he mass a e, his could be due o he need o imp o e he
condi ions o en y o he eac o , which, when wo king a a lowe pe cen age o load, he he modynamic
condi ions o he condensa e en e ing a e lowe .
On he o he hand, he mass a e associa ed wi h he u bine ex ac ions ha e e y simila alues o each o he .
The h ee ex ac ions dec ease sligh ly as he minimum load app oaches; howe e , i s ange o a ia ion is e y
29
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
small.
Figu e 15 Va ia ion o mass a e wi h load a e
4.2.2 Tu bine
Wi h he abo e equa ions, a subs an ial a ia ion in he e iciency o he u bines can be o eseen, as well as a
no able a ia ion in he wo k p o ided by he u bines. The e iciency o he u bines is he same o all he
u bines, due o he ac ha , by a ying wi h he pe cen age o load, hey all unde go he same changes in hei
ope a ion.
Looking i s a e iciency:
Figu e 16 Tu bine e iciency a ia ion wi h load a e
I is possible o obse e how he e iciency o he u bine ollows a cu e ha is accen ua ed in he alues close
o he minimum load s ipula ed, his e iciency indica es as could be expec ed ha a dec ease in he load in
addi ion o leading o changes in he wo k, causes a dec ease in he e iciency, since he u bines chosen a e
designed, as well as he ins alla ion, o wo k unde condi ions o maximum powe ; This dec ease in e iciency
gi es ise o changes in he he modynamic p ope ies o he cu en s ha , on passing h ough each ex ac ion,
unde go no able changes. This a ia ion is e i ied using Flügel's equa ions (35-44), whe e e iciency dec eases
as load a ies.

Analysis o he cycle unde a iable load ope a ion
30
30
These changes, o example, a e e lec ed in p ope ies such as en halpy ha a ec he wo k ob ained:
Figu e 17 Va ia ion speci ic wo k u bines wi h load a e
As can be seen, he mos impo an ex ac ions, in e ms o wo k p oduced, su e g ea e changes gene a ed by
he load, as in he case o he las ex ac ion o he low u bine, o he i s ex ac ion o he high u bine, which
su e changes o a ound 150 KW/Kg when we a y he load; he es o he ex ac ions, as hey ha e less impac
on he wo k p oduced, do no su e such no able changes. Undoub edly, he a ia ion o he he modynamic
p ope ies o he luid causes an impo an change in he pe o mance o he u bines. Whe e, as he e iciency
and he modynamic p ope ies o he lows ha e changed, he speci ic wo k o each low dec eases, as can be
seen in equa ion (6).
In e ms o absolu e wo k, combining he ex ac ions wi h he espec i e u bines, he e olu ion o he powe
p oduced ollows a simila e olu ion as a unc ion o he load, whe e i can be obse ed ha a educed load
alues he wo k p oduced by he u bines app oaches and hey s a o ha e a simila powe p oduc ion.
Figu e 18 To al wo k ou pu o he u bines s. Load a e
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Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
4.2.3 Reac o analysis
The en halpy o he uel and p oduc o he eac o a e ixed, which is why when he load a ies he condi ions
and p ope ies o he cycle change o adap o he needs o he eac o , o his eason, he speci ic wo k, unlike
equipmen such as u bines, does no a y because hey do no su e changes in he speci ic en halpies o inpu
and ou pu , so as you can see he hea ha is necessa y o p o ide he eac o a ies linea ly wi h he pe cen age
o load. This makes sense in ela ion o wha we saw ea lie in equa ion (7), whe e we obse ed ha he en halpy
jump emains cons an and he e o e he o al hea o he eac o depends linea ly on he s eam load a e.
Figu e 19 Va ia ion o hea equi ed in he eac o wi h load a e
4.2.4 O e all e iciency
Wi h ega d o he o e all e iciency o he ins alla ion, his eaches i s maximum alue a
nominal load condi ions. I is possible o highligh how, om alues close o 80% load, he slope
o he e iciency cu e begins o inc ease signi ican ly, wi h an accele a ion in he loss o
e iciency being obse ed. This end becomes mo e p onounced a a ound 60% load, a which
poin he e iciency d ops conside ably o app oxima ely hal i s ini ial alue. This beha iou
con i ms he ini ial hypo hesis o a sa e ope a ing ange be ween 0.6 and 1.0 o he nominal load,
as ope a ing below his ange would imply ma ked e iciency losses.
Analysis o he cycle unde a iable load ope a ion
32
32
Figu e 20 E iciency a ia ion o he SMR nuclea powe plan unde di e en load a es.
5 OFF-DESIGN SMR EXERGY ANALYSIS
Once he s udy o he unc ioning o he equipmen ope a ing a pa -load and how his a ec s hei espec i e
ope a ing anges, as well as hei pe o mance, he nex s ep will be an exe gy analysis bo h globally and by
elemen s o he ins alla ion.
5.1 Va iable load SMR exe gy analysis
As has been analyzed and demons a ed in he p e ious poin s, wo king a di e en load alues signi ican ly
a ec s he he modynamic condi ions o he cu en s, as well as he yields and e iciencies o ce ain equipmen
ha cause no able changes in he exe gy s udy. Tha is why we will p oceed o commen on he di e en
scena ios and hei e ec s:
5.1.1 Exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine
The low-p essu e u bine o he ins alla ion is made up o h ee ex ac ions, among which we ind he
esidual ex ac ion whe e he e is he jump wi h he g ea es en halpy di e ence; he e o e, when he load
a ies, he exe gy inc eases conside ably, which is why he equipmen , in e ms o exe gy, is no able o
wo k co ec ly, penalising conside ably bo h he wo k and he exe gy des uc ion, i is he elemen o he
ins alla ion ha su e s mos om hese a ia ions.
Figu e 21 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o load a e
As can be seen, when wo king close o he minimum load alue, he speci ic exe gy is accen ua ed; he g aph
indica es ha despi e he inc ease o he exe gy alues when wo king a low load alues, i s exe gy pe o mance
wo ks in an accep able way in a ange o [0.8-1], once his ange is passed, he losses inc ease and can a ec in
a e y nega i e way he global losses.
In conjunc ion wi h his idea, i can be seen ha in he pe cen age o o al exe gy des uc ion, he con ibu ion o
O -design sm exe gy analysis
40
40
5.3 Exe gy analysis o ope a ion p essu e
Nex , an analysis o he pe o mance o he exe gy des uc ion will be ca ied ou as a unc ion o he p essu e
o he u bine ex ac ions, allowing us o iden i y hei pe o mance and ope a ion by a ying hei alues. The e
a e i e ex ac ion p essu es, wo in he high u bine and h ee in he low u bine, which will unde go signi ican
changes when a ying hese p essu e alues; on he o he hand, he ex ac ions ha a e subsequen ly used in he
p ehea ing also a ec he hea exchange s, which is why hey will be analysed as a unc ion o he co esponding
ex ac ion p essu e.
5.3.1 Low-p essu e u bine
The i s elemen o he ins alla ion o be analysed is he low-p essu e u bine. This equipmen , as men ioned
abo e, has h ee ex ac ions and is he elemen ha p oduces he mos wo k, which is why he alue o he
co esponding p essu es mus be op imised whene e possible, seeking a balance be ween he wo k p oduced
and bo h he ene gy and exe gy e iciency o he componen s.
I we analyse he i s ex ac ion, which had he alue o he co esponding p essu e a 3.5 ba , we can see ha
i he p essu e alue is a ied, he speci ic exe gy des uc ion does no unde go majo changes, as we men ioned,
his is due o he ac ha he i s ex ac ion in ol es a smalle en halpic jump, some hing ha also happens in
he high p essu e u bine, which is why in choosing he app op ia e alue o he p essu e o he low p essu e
u bine, he exe gy aspec akes on a seconda y ole due o i s small a ia ion.
Figu e 33 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [13]
On he o he hand, i can be seen ha he second ex ac ion ep oduces an analogous si ua ion, whe e a a ia ion
in he p oduc p essu e does no no ably a ec he exe gy des uc ion, so ha , like he i s ex ac ion, he choice

41
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
o his alue does no in ol e an exe gy imp o emen , as i s in luence is educed.
Figu e 34 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low u bine as a unc ion o P [14]
Finally, i can be seen how, in he esidual ex ac ion, he alue chosen o he p oduc p essu e plays a
undamen al ole in he o al amoun o exe gy des uc ion in he low p essu e u bine. I can be obse ed ha
he highe he alue o P[15], he exe gy des uc ion dec eases conside ably, which is why in he choice o he
esidual ex ac ion p essu e, a lowe p essu e conside ably imp o es he losses o he equipmen , which implies
a be e o e all exe gy e iciency and lowe losses, while he wo k p oduced will be lowe .
Figu e 35 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion low-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [15]
5.3.2 High-p essu e u bine
As o he high-p essu e u bine, he wo p essu es ha a ec i s ope a ion a e he p essu e o he i s ex ac ion
(P[10]) which is la e used in he p ehea e p io o he eac o , and he p essu e o he second ex ac ion (P[11]),
which will la e be used in he low-le el u bine.
I he i s ex ac ion is analyzed, i can be obse ed ha despi e signi ican ly a ying he p essu e, in a ange o
4 ba s, he des uc ion exe gy ha dly a ies, which is why when seeing his e ec , i can be concluded ha by
no ha ing a signi ican impac on he exe gy, i could be possible o educe he p essu e o he ex ac ion o
ob ain mo e wo k; The alue o his p essu e is in u n limi ed by he s eam i e , which i i dec eases
conside ably can a ec he ope a ion o p ehea e 3 ha would imply losses, so he alue would ha e o be
op imized so ha i was he minimum possible compa ible wi h he es o he cycle
O -design sm exe gy analysis
42
42
Figu e 36 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion high-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [10]
On he o he hand, i an analogous analysis o he des uc ion exe gy is ca ied ou as a unc ion o he p essu e
o he second ex ac ion, i can be seen ha when imposing he p essu e in a smalle ange, he exe gy des uc ion
a ies in a mo e accen ua ed way, his is due o he g ea e en halpic jump exis ing in he second ex ac ion. I is
impo an o add how he alue o p essu e 11 is limi ed by he maximum p essu e allowed by he cycle, since
i i we e o inc ease i could ake alues e y simila o he p e ious ex ac ion, educing he wo k p o ided and
wi h i he pe o mance o he u bine.
Figu e 37 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion high-p essu e u bine as a unc ion o P [11]
5.3.3 P ehea e 1
On he o he hand, i can be seen how p ehea e 1, which is he i s o con ibu e hea o he condensa e
s eam, is clea ly in luenced by he exe gy losses gene a ed by he choice o p essu e [14], he g aph shows
how a low p essu es o he co esponding ex ac ion he exe gy des uc ion dec eases conside ably, despi e
his, he lowe he p essu e, he lowe he ene gy con ibu ed o he s eam o be p ehea ed and his can lead
o global mal unc ions as he e is no e ec i e exchange; Fo his eason, i is necessa y o each a balance
be ween he minimum losses wi hou a ec ing he e iciency o he cycle, which can be educed by a bad
p ehea ing.
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Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
.
Figu e 38 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 1 as a unc ion o P[14]
5.3.4 P ehea e 2
I a simila analysis is ca ied ou o he second p ehea e , in which he ex ac ion p essu e o low-p essu e [13],
akes an impo an alue in he a ia ion o he des uc ion exe gy o p ehea e 2, i is he second equipmen in
he p ehea ing chain and is he elemen p io o he degasse ; I you look a he g aph, you can analyze an
e olu ion simila o ha seen in p ehea e 1.
Figu e 39 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 2 as a unc ion o P[13]
Despi e his obse a ion, he unc ion ha ollows he g aph is p ac ically linea , as well as lowe alues o
exe gy des uc ion, so ha , al hough wo king a low p essu es could dec ease he alue o he exe gy
des uc ion, i s weigh in pe cen age e ms o exe gy des uc ion o he ins alla ion is lowe han o he
elemen s.
5.3.5 P ehea e 3
Finally, p ehea e 3 also has a linea unc ion, as does p ehea e 2; he uni o be s udied is he p ehea e be o e
O -design sm exe gy analysis
44
44
he eac o and he ex ac ion p essu e ha a ec s i s ope a ion is P [10]; as we can see, despi e being g ea e
han ha o p ehea e 2 in ene gy e ms, i is lowe han ha o p ehea e 1, despi e he e being a wide ange in
he apou p essu e.
Figu e 40 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion p ehea e 3 as a unc ion o P[10]
5.4 Va ia ion o he modynamic pa ame e s o he s eam cycle
The ope a ion o he cycle is de ined by ce ain pa ame e s which can be modi ied in he sea ch o an
op imisa ion o possible imp o emen o he he modynamic cycle; hese pa ame e s ha e been selec ed in he
base case on he basis o o he wo ks and o he ins alla ions wi h ypical pa ame e s; ne e heless, i is ad isable
o analyse, wi hin a cohe en wo king ange, how hese pa ame e s a ec he he modynamic cycle as well as
he ins alla ion om an exe gy poin o iew.
5.4.1 Inle u bine P essu e
The a ia ion o his pa ame e will be se by he sa e y ange discussed o he co ec ope a ion o SMR
eac o s, which is speci ically (13.96-17.06) ba [61], Fi s , be o e analyzing he exe gy impac i has on he
equipmen , as well as on he ins alla ion, an o e iew o how undamen al ope a ing pa ame e s a y will be
made.
I he wo k p oduced by he u bines is analyzed, i can be seen ha he low-p essu e u bine, which gene a es
mos o he wo k, does no unde go g ea changes when he inle u bine p essu e is a ied, i can be seen how
he end is dec easing bu in a educed in e al. On he o he hand, he wo k p oduced by he high u bine is
mo e in luenced by he p essu e chosen, whe e i can be seen how i has a dec easing endency o highe alues
o apo p essu e, despi e his, he a ia ion in bo h speci ic wo ks is small. Tha is why a lowe li e apou
p essu e would be o in e es in he choice since i implies a g ea e speci ic wo k p oduced.
45
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
Figu e 41 Va ia ion o wo k p oduced as a unc ion o he inle u bine p essu e
On he o he hand, i he o e all e iciency is analysed, i can be seen ha in gene al e ms i does no ha e a
signi ican impac due o he ac ha be ween he minimum and maximum alue o inle u bine p essu e, an
inc ease o 0.20% in e iciency is achie ed. I should be added ha his imp o emen in e iciency is also due o
a g ea e wo k p oduced, which ein o ces he idea commen ed p e iously, ha a lowe ope a ing p essu e in
he eac o leads o mul iple imp o emen s in e ms o ope a ion.
Figu e 42 Va ia ion o o e all plan e iciency as a unc ion o he inle u bine p essu e
I we now analyse he exe gy impac i has, we can see ha i s impac is again e y small. I is wo h no ing ha
he high-p essu e u bine des oys mo e exe gy a lowe inle u bine p essu e, and he e o e has a wo se exe gy
e iciency, while he low-p essu e u bine emains p ac ically cons an . Finally, i we analyse he exe gies
des uc ion by he exchange s, we can see ha hey ha dly su e any exe gy a ia ion, so hey a e no equipmen

O -design sm exe gy analysis
46
46
ha a e a ec ed by changes in he eac o s eam p essu e.
Figu e 42 Exe gy a ia ion des uc ion by elemen s as a unc ion o inle u bine p essu e
5.4.2 Li e S eam Tempe a u e
As p e iously men ioned wi h he li e apo p essu e, he empe a u e selec ed o he base case was jus i ied
by selec ing he highes possible wi hin he co esponding sa e y in e al, which is (511.2-624.8) Kel in, which
is why i will be analyzed i s how his choice o empe a u e in luences he gene al pe o mance and hen i s
exe gy analysis. In his way, a global s udy can be ca ied ou , aking in o accoun all he aspec s ha a e a ec ed.
In he i s place, i we analyze he wo k p oduced by he ins alla ion acco ding o he empe a u e o li e s eam,
we obse e ha he e is a alue, o which he high-p essu e u bine p oduces a g ea e powe , on he o he hand,
i he si ua ion o he low-p essu e u bine is analyzed, i is possible o obse e how i has a dec easing end
wi h he inc ease in empe a u e.
Figu e 43 Va ia ion o wo k p oduced as a unc ion o he li e s eam empe a u e
Fo his eason, i is necessa y o make a new g aph in which he impac o he li e s eam empe a u e on he
o al wo k p oduced can be co ec ly analyzed; This g aph shows how he maximum wo k p oduced is p oduced
47
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
wi h a li e s eam empe a u e alue o 571.5 Kel in, om his empe a u e he wo k p oduced is conside ably
educed, showing a possible op imiza ion o he ins alla ion wi h which mo e wo k could be ob ained.
Figu e 44 Va ia ion o o al p oduced wo k as a unc ion o he li e s eam empe a u e
On he o he hand, i can be obse ed ha as he empe a u e inc eases om 500 kel in, he e iciency also
inc eases, eaching a maximum alue o a ound 33.3 % a a ound 600 kel in; a e his poin , i can be obse ed
ha he e iciency dec eases due o he dec ease in he wo k p oduced as well as he possible inc ease in losses.
Figu e 45 Va ia ion in he o e all e iciency o he ins alla ion as a unc ion o he li e s eam empe a u e
Finally, i can be obse ed how he des uc ion exe gy o he u bines ollows an e olu ion simila o he wo k
p oduced in hem, whe e he g ea e he wo k, he g ea e he exe gy losses, on he o he hand, i is obse ed ha
he highe he empe a u e o li e s eam, he losses co esponding o p ehea e 1, dec ease, unlike p ehea e s 2
and 3 whose exe gy emains cons an
O -design sm exe gy analysis
48
48
Figu e 46 Exe gy a ia ion des uc ion by elemen s as a unc ion o li e s eam empe a u e
5.5 Conclusions and discussions
This sec ion p esen s he conclusions o he exe gy analysis ca ied ou unde wo di e en ope a ing condi ions:
a pa -load (0.6) and a ull load (1). The compa ison be ween hese wo scena ios s udied in he p e ious
sec ions allows us o e alua e he impac ha he load a ia ion has on he exe gy pe o mance o he sys em.
Figu e 47 Exe gy e iciencies as a unc ion o load a e
A compa ison is made o he exe gy e iciency o each elemen s udied, i can be seen how he low-p essu e
u bine, which, as we ha e seen abo e, is he equipmen ha des oys he mos exe gy, despi e ha ing an
accep able e iciency o 93% unde design condi ions, when ope a ing a minimum load alues, i s e iciency
d ops o 68%. I is he elemen o he ins alla ion ha des oys he mos exe gy, and such a ma ked a ia ion in
i s e iciency is mainly due o he ac ha , as i wo ks wi h s eam a lowe p essu e and empe a u e condi ions,
i is pa icula ly sensi i e o he educ ion in s eam low unde pa -load condi ions, which p oduces a less
e icien expansion and a ela i e inc ease in i e e sible losses. In addi ion, as i mo es away om he op imal
49
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
design poin , he u ilisa ion o he p essu e d op is limi ed, which signi ican ly educes he use ul wo k i can
gene a e and hus i s exe gy e iciency.
On he o he hand, he high p essu e u bine ollows a simila g aph bu wi h a lowe slope when i s a s o
decay, his is due o he ac ha as i gene a es less wo k hese losses a e less accen ua ed, in spi e o his he
g aph is simila due o he ac ha he men ioned losses a e caused by he same easons, less e icien
expansions, as well as s eam cu en s ope a ing in wo se condi ions and empe a u es; All his causes he
e iciency o go om 96% o 83.3%, a mino a ia ion bu in any case no able.
I we analyse he exe gy pe o mance o he exchange s, hei pe o mance dec eases bu ollows a smoo he
e olu ion, a ying in he o de o 7% in p ehea e 1, due o being he p ehea e ha ope a es wi h condensa e
wa e a lowe empe a u es and he p ehea e whe e he empe a u e jump is g ea e be ween he wo s eams,
his e ec inc eases a pa -load whe e he condensa e ou le empe a u e is lowe and he e is a g ea e exe gy
des uc ion. On he o he hand, p ehea e 2 and p ehea e 3 su e simila losses o a ound 4% and 2%
espec i ely, an e olu ion ha could be p edic ed by looking a he e ec on he alues o exe gy des uc ion in
he p e ious sec ions.
I he Sankey diag ams o he di e en si ua ions a e compa ed again and simul aneously, i can be seen how
he exe gy losses a e mainly concen a ed in he u bines, i.e. i can be seen how ope a ing unde o -design
condi ions causes a mo e accen ua ed loss in hese elemen s, which a e he ones ha ha e he g ea es o e all
weigh in he ins alla ion.
Figu e 48 Dis ibu ion o Exe gy o Loads o 1 and 0,6
Below, i he ollowing wo g aphs a e analyzed, i can be seen how his pe cen age impac o exe gy by
equipmen akes alue in each componen , as well as in he o e all ins alla ion
Figu e 49 Speci ic exe gy des uc ion a ia ion by componen and o al wi h sys em load
SMR exe gy op imiza ion
56
56
I can be seen how a lowe ex ac ion p essu e allows he ins alla ion o inc ease i s en halpy jump and he e o e,
as he ex ac ion p oduces mo e wo k, he powe o he ins alla ion inc eases conside ably. On he o he hand,
a a lowe ex ac ion p essu e, he losses inc ease conside ably, causing a wo se pe o mance om he ene gy
poin o iew and dec easing he e iciency o he equipmen .
This is why, i we analyse he e olu ion o he g aph, in his wo k we ha e op ed o an op imisa ion a an
in e media e poin , i.e. he ex ac ion p essu e will be se a 0.4 ba , in such a way ha he losses a e educed so
as no o each he mos un a ou able si ua ion; his decision is based on inding a si ua ion o equilib ium
be ween bo h e ec s. In any case, his s udy shows how, depending on he use and he chosen c i e ia, one e ec
o he o he can be chosen.
Once his imp o emen has been implemen ed, he changes p oduced in he cycle can be obse ed:
Figu e 59 Analysis o exe gy imp o emen s complemen a y op imiza ion
Whe e losses ha e been educed by 22.36% ope a ing unde a ed design condi ions, as well as an imp o emen
o 21.16% ope a ing a minimum load alues, conside ably g ea e imp o emen s wi h espec o he base case
analysed p e iously.
Figu e 60 Analysis o imp o emen s o complemen a y powe op imiza ion
I we analyse he e ec o he exe gy op imisa ion on he pe o mance o he u bines, we can see ha o he
a ed design condi ions, he wo kload dec eases by 10.13%, while ope a ing unde minimum load condi ions we
can see ha he wo kload has dec eased by 9.94%, in bo h si ua ions he pe o mance o he sys em has
dec eased, bu in a mo e gen le way wi h espec o he exe gy imp o emen , whe e imp o emen pe cen ages
o mo e han double a e eached.

57
Ope a ional Analysis o Small Modula Reac o Plan s In eg a ed in o Dis ibu ed Ene gy Sys ems
On he o he hand, he e iciency has dec eased due o a loss o powe ; i his op imisa ion is ca ied ou , he
e iciency in a ed design condi ions dec eases o a alue o 29.14%, which is why he decision o implemen
his possible imp o emen lies in he in e es o one imp o emen o he o he .
6.4 Conclusion
As has been demons a ed, he designed ins alla ion mee s he speci ied equi emen s. This sys em is capable o
educing he en i onmen al impac —speci ically in e ms o g eenhouse gas emissions—associa ed wi h
con en ional powe gene a ion me hods such as coal o na u al gas. Fu he mo e, i ensu es a cons an and s able
powe ou pu , gua an eeing elec ici y supply in a eas whe e access o he g id is limi ed o non-exis en .
Addi ionally, i o e s signi ican adap abili y by being able o ope a e unde a ying load condi ions.
Al hough i is a Small Modula Reac o (SMR), i s o e all pe o mance is compa able o ha o a la ge-scale
nuclea powe plan . This highligh s he e ec i eness o he selec ed cycle in e ms o e iciency when compa ed
wi h o he ins alla ions u ilizing simila echnologies. Rega ding he powe ou pu , bo h unde he ini ial
condi ions and in he wo p oposed op imiza ions, he cycle is capable o deli e ing he equi ed and design-
speci ied powe . Mo eo e , i can adap o di e en load pe cen ages, allowing he ins alla ion o ope a e
e icien ly a a ious le els o demand. As a inal conside a ion on his aspec , i would be ad isable o conduc
a mo e de ailed s udy o de e mine he op imal minimum load a which he ins alla ion should ope a e, since
pe o mance d ops signi ican ly a load alues a ound 0.6.
F om an exe gy s andpoin , i has been obse ed ha a lowe load alues, he exe gy e iciency dec eases while
he exe gy des uc ion in each componen inc eases. This e eals ha , despi e being a p omising sys em due o
i s ope a ional e sa ili y, he pe o mance in e ms o exe gy deg ades a educed loads, leading o a lowe ne
ene gy bene i .
Mo eo e , his ins alla ion alls wi hin he ca ego y o dis ibu ed gene a ion, which ep esen s a clea ad an age
o e adi ional cen alized sys ems. Being close o he poin o consump ion educes ansmission losses and
enhances o e all e iciency. In a con ex o g owing ene gy demand—d i en by inc easing indus ial ac i i y—
such solu ions become inc easingly necessa y and a ac i e o deploymen . I s abili y o adap o di e en load
le els and ease o in eg a ion in o local g ids, ope a ing in a complemen a y manne , enables no only he
co e age o cu en demand bu also an e icien esponse o po en ial changes in consume beha io and socie al
needs.
In conclusion, SMR echnology ep esen s a ealis ic, e icien , and sus ainable al e na i e o con en ional powe
gene a ion models. I s capabili y o be in eg a ed in o hyb id and decen alized sys ems enhances ene gy secu i y
and acili a es he ansi ion owa d a cleane ene gy model. I has been shown ha his pa icula ins alla ion
demons a es ha SMRs can ma ch he pe o mance o la ge nuclea powe plan s while main aining high
ope a ional lexibili y. The abili y o ope a e unde a ying loads wi hou se e ely comp omising o e all
e iciency makes hem a key op ion o conside , especially gi en he inc easing a iabili y in ene gy demand.
As ene gy and en i onmen al policies e ol e, con inued esea ch in o pe o mance a pa -load and in eg a ion
wi h enewable sou ces will be essen ial, con i ming hei ole in he u u e ene gy mix.
Re e ences
58
58
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