Towards an ideal model of education for critical citizenship. An analysis of the Spanish curricular change in Social Sciences

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Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion, 2025; 60:e70010
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/ejed.70010
Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Towa ds an Ideal Model o Educa ion o C i ical
Ci izenship. An Analysis o he Spanish Cu icula Change
in Social Sciences
ElisaNa a o- Medina1 | E.WayneRoss2 | NoeliaPé ez- Rod íguez1 | NicolásDe- Alba- Fe nández1
1Facul y o Educa ion Sciences, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain | 2Facul y o Educa ion, Uni e si y o B i ish Columbia, Vancou e , B i ish Columbia,
Canada
Co espondence: Elisa Na a o- Medina (ena a [email protected])
Recei ed: 26 Ap il 2024 | Re ised: 8 Janua y 2025 | Accep ed: 14 Janua y 2025
Funding: This wo k was suppo ed by Own Resea ch and T ans e Plan. Uni e si y o Se ille (VIPPIT- 2021- EBRV).
Keywo ds: ci izenship educa ion| cu iculum| ICCS| p ima y educa ion| seconda y educa ion
ABSTRACT
In his s udy, we analysed he p esence o ci izenship educa ion in he new Spanish social sciences cu iculum, ocusing on bo h
he p ima y and seconda y educa ion s ages. The ele ance o he s udy s ems om he need o adap o a new eali y, in which
i is c ucial o de elop in child en and young people he skills o unde s and, in e p e and make c i ical decisions. Conside ing
he model ou lined as ideal, and being awa e o he di icul y in ol ed in achie ing i , we ook as a e e ence a possible model o
analyse he Spanish cu iculum, he ICCS s udy amewo k. The esea ch p esen ed is based on a e iew o policy documen s
and analyses he cu icula o compulso y educa ion s ages h ough a con en analysis echnique. The esul s show ha in he
Spanish cu iculum, unde he logic o he ICCS amewo k, cogni i e skills and ci izen con en a e mo e p e alen han hose
based on a i udes and engagemen . This issue p omp s us o e lec on he u u e changes ha should be made o app oach he
model we conside ele an .
1 | In oduc ion. Wha Should he Social Sciences
Cu iculum Be Like in O de o Fo m A C i ical
Ci izen y?
Schools in gene al and social science cu iculum in pa icula
play a c ucial ole in he socialisa ion o young people in o con-
empo a y socie y. And while educa ion o socialisa ion in o
he dominan cul u e is widely accep ed as app op ia e, i he
aim o educa ion is o c ea e c i ical ci izens wha is equi ed is
a cu iculum o ‘coun e - socialisa ion’, ha is, educa ion agains
unc i ical accep ance o he s a us quo (Chacko2015; Ochoa-
Becke and Engle2007; Hu sh and Ross2000; Ross2017). Being
a c i ical ci izen equi es mo e han iden i ying social p og ams
and aking amelio a i e ac ions o imp o e socie y. C i ical ci -
izenship demands a ques ioning disposi ion and cons an in-
e oga ion o he amilia and unchallenged assump ions and
p ac ices ha s uc u e ou expe iences and he meanings we
make o hem. Being c i ical is abou examining wha is consid-
e ed sel - e iden and challenging he injus ices o he s a us quo.
Ci izenship educa ion ha s i es o c i ical ans o ma ion
o —as opposed o ep oduc ion o —socie y demands we sc u-
inise he undamen al epis emological assump ions unde gi d-
ing he cu iculum as well as ou assump ions abou he na u e
o lea ning. Epis emologically, educa ion o c i ical ci izenship
emphasises ha knowledge and meaning a e c ea ed om he
in e play o subjec and objec — ha is, knowledge and mean-
ings a e socially cons uc ed. Ra he han app oaching knowl-
edge acquisi ion as a deduc i e, gene alisable and alue- ee
p ocess, social cons uc ionism unde s ands knowledge acquisi-
ion as induc i e, alue- laden and con ex ually unique and ha
in e p e a ions o eali y a e cul u ally de i ed and his o ically
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is
p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
2 o 14 Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion, 2025
si ua ed. In addi ion, educa ion o c i ical ci izenship aims
o be emancipa o y and pa icipa o y, ha is, i ocuses on
powe ela ions and c i iques assump ions and is e e e ol ing
(C o y1998).
I ollows ha educa ion o c i ical ci izenship mus :
• p o ide s uden s oppo uni ies o examine; c i icise; and e-
wo k on adi ions, exis ing social p ac ices and modes o
p oblem sol ing.
• challenge he injus ices o he s a us quo.
• esis knowledge ha is gene a ed by and suppo i e o soci-
e y's eli es; oo ed in logical posi i ism; and consis en wi h
social ep oduc ion and he eplica ion o a socie y ha is
classis , sexis and acis .
Wha his kind o educa ion looks like in p ac ice is speci ic o
indi idual class oom se ings and s uden s, bu i includes, o
example, ed essing he needs o he disad an aged, s eng hen-
ing human igh s and s imula ing en i onmen al imp o emen s.
Pedagogically, a cu iculum o c i ical ci izenship o ien ed away
om lec u e and in o ma ion ansmission and owa ds such
p ocesses as e lec i e hinking and he dialogical me hod so-
ciocul u al c i icism, ex ual analysis, decons uc ion, p oblem
sol ing, c i ical hinking and social ac ion (Ross2017).
C i ical ci izenship educa ion concei ed in hese e ms has a
long his o y, al hough i has ne e been popula ly adop ed in
schools. In he Uni ed S a es, Geo ge C. Coun s ad oca ed ha
schools should be he cen e o educa ing s uden o build a new
social o de (Coun s1932; Hu sh and Ross2000). Mo e ecen ly,
c i ical pedagogy, buil on he ounda ion o Paolo F ei e's(1970)
wo k and p ac ice, has p o ided a amewo k o c i ical ci izen-
ship educa ion. And a ious c i ical and adical cu icula and
pedagogical amewo ks o social science and his o y cu ic-
ula ha e been p esen ed by Me chan , Shea and Au(2022) and
Ross(2024).
As Ross(2018) poin s ou , c i ical pedagogy did no e ol e om
a single philosophical sou ce and i s co e aims and me hods a e
ound in he wo k o Paulo F ei e. The co e idea o c i ical ped-
agogy is o submi ecei ed unde s andings o c i ical analysis
wi h he aim o inc easing human knowledge and eedom.
O e all, a cu iculum o c i ical ci izenship aims o cul i a e
c i ical hinking, con ex ual unde s anding and a deepe awa e-
ness o social eali ies and in e connec edness, empowe ing
s uden s o engage wi h he wo ld in a meaning ul and ans-
o ma i e way. To achie e his objec i e, he a ious elemen s
o he cu iculum should inco po a e di e en issues as cen al
componen s.
Habi s o c i ical hinking o his c i ical eading and w i ing
skills. The cu iculum should os e habi s o hough ha go
beyond su ace meaning and challenge dominan na a i es,
my hs and ecei ed wisdom. Fo example, c i ical ci izens assess
social, poli ical and economic s uc u es o see beyond su ace
cause. To his end, i is impo an o emphasise he de elopmen
o skills in eading, w i ing and speaking c i ically, suppo ing
s uden s o analyse ex s, e en s and discou se in dep h.
An in e disciplina y app oach o cu iculum o c i ical ci i-
zenship should d aw on mul iple disciplines and pe spec i es
o p o ide a mo e in e connec ed unde s anding o he wo ld,
emphasising on hidden ac s and unseen connec ions, challeng-
ing s uden s o look beyond he ob ious and del e deepe in o
unde s anding a ious phenomena.
Con ex ual unde s anding om a dialec ical hinking pe spec-
i e. S uden s should be encou aged o unde s and he deep
meaning, oo causes, social con ex , ideology and pe sonal
consequences o a ious phenomena, including ac ions, e en s,
objec s, p ocesses, o ganisa ions, expe iences, ex s, subjec
ma e , policies, mass media and discou se. Dialec ical hinking
should suppo s uden s o analyse he wo ld in e ms o in e -
connec ions, conside ing he ies among exis ing elemen s, hei
his o ical p econdi ions and u u e possibili ies.
The cu iculum should encou age s uden s o engage wi h so-
cial issues and p oblems, aiming o unde s and and esol e
hem a hei oo s (Pé ez- Rod íguez, Alba- Fe nández, and
N a a o - M e d i n a  2021). Including he capaci y o ques ion, de-
ba e and change es ablished s uc u es and sys ems ha ep o-
duce pa e ns o injus ice o e ime h ough pa icipa ion in
social mo emen s and o he ad ocacy ac i i ies (Wes heime
and Kahne2004). The cu iculum should include con en based
on social engagemen and ac i ism ha examines his o ies o
esis ance o social, poli ical and economic injus ice so ha s u-
den s can know and unde s and democ a ic social mo emen s
and how o e ec sys emic change. F om hese his o ies o e-
sis ance, s uden s should be able o unde s and: (a) cen ali y
o c i ical analyses o powe in mo emen s o social jus ice; (b)
b a e y and isks in ol ed in esis ing social injus ice in public
and isible ways; (b) he ole o allies, accomplices and solida i y
in building b oad- based and e ec i e mo emen s o social jus-
ice and how social connec ions help o mi iga e isks o social
jus ice ac i ism; (c) ha o ganising p o es s and demons a ions
a e aluable and wo hwhile o m o lea ning and cu iculum
i sel ; (d) how schools and he cu iculum can play a ole in bo h
opp ession and libe a ion and eimage he ole schools play in
b oade educa ional change; (e) he impo ance o connec ion
o b oade social mo emen s and unde s and how hei own
s uggles o jus ice and libe a ion a e pa o a b oade , his o ic
adi ions o igh ing o social, poli ical and economic jus ice
(Au2021, 2024). This would help s uden s o de elop disposi-
ions necessa y o engage communi y in heal hy unc ioning
democ acy spanning indi idual and collec i e ealms; an app e-
cia ion o he alue o ‘o he ness’; an abili y o hold ension in
li e- gi ing ways; a sense o pe sonal oice and agency; a capaci y
o c ea e communi y (Palme 2011).
2 | The ICCS Assessmen F amewo k as a Possible
S a egy o Cu icula Change Towa ds he Ideal
Model o C i ical Ci izenship
The cu iculum p oposals we ha e pu o wa d o he de el-
opmen o c i ical ci izenship in he ield o social sciences a e,
om ou pe spec i e, an ideal model owa ds which e e y ed-
uca ional sys em should s i e. Howe e , social changes, and
consequen ly educa ional changes, a e o en no swi , espe-
cially when p oposing he ans o ma ion o a deeply oo ed
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social sys em. None heless, despi e ecognising he need o
mo e owa ds an ideal model, we a e awa e o he exis ence o
possible models ha , wi h imp o emen s, could help us achie e
he ideal model o c i ical ci izenship (Jo is and Agi dag2019;
McCowan2009).
In his ega d, he inco po a ion o c i ical ci izenship educa-
ion in o he cu iculum in ol es, among o he hings, consid-
e ing he s udies conduc ed by he In e na ional Associa ion
o he E alua ion o Educa ional Achie emen (IEA) since
1971 (To ney, Oppenheim, and Fa nen 1975) up o he yea
2022, wi h di e en edi ions—1999, 2009, 2016 and 2022—
(Amadeo e al.2002; Schulz e al.2010, 2017, 2023). The goal
o he In e na ional Ci ic and Ci izenship young people ha e
ega ding ci ic and ci izenship educa ion and, he e o e, hei
pe o mance as ci izens. I s ul ima e pu pose is o p o ide, o
pa icipa ing coun ies, an empi ical s udy ha assis s hem in
enhancing hei public policies and p ac ices in he ield o ci ic
educa ion, e en o e ing end da a o hose coun ies ha ha e
pa icipa ed in mul iple edi ions.
The la es epo , ICCS 2022 (Schulz e al.2023), is concei ed
as a p oduc o he changes ha concep s o ci ic and ci izen-
ship educa ion ha e been unde going in ecen yea s, especially
linked o ideas ela ed o globalisa ion, sus ainabili y, mig a ion,
he new wo ld o de o iden i ies. I also add esses he inc eas-
ing impo ance o digi al echnologies o ci ic engagemen and
new o ms o social ac i ism. Alongside hese hemes, and om
a mo e poli ical pe spec i e, he ocus is placed on c ises in dem-
oc a ic poli ical sys ems, ma ked by no able signs o ins abili y
and he eme gence o new poli ical mo emen s, in esponse
o some o he issues aised (Eu opean Commission 2016;
Eu os a 2018).
The s udy sample comp ises 14- yea - old s uden s, in comple e
class g oups; eache s deli e ing classes o he selec ed s uden s;
managemen pe sonnel om pa icipa ing educa ional ins i u-
ions; and expe s om pa icipa ing na ional cen es ega d-
ing he s uc u e o educa ional sys ems, hei s a us and hei
cu iculum.
The esea ch ques ions o ICCS 2022 a e ocused on measu -
ing s uden s' ci ic knowledge, hei willingness o pa icipa e
and hei a i udes owa ds ci ic issues. Among he se o sub-
ques ions in he s udy, RQ1.b. is pa icula ly ele an o he e-
sea ch p esen ed. Fo mula ed as: ‘Wha cu icula app oaches
do pa icipa ing coun ies employ o ci ic and ci izenship
educa ion?’ (Schulz e al.2023, p. 18), i aims o analyse he
di e en ypes o ci ic and ci izenship educa ion implemen ed
in he pa icipa ing coun ies. Al hough analysing he esul s
o ICCS is no he ocus o his wo k, he p esence o a spe-
ci ic ques ion ega ding cu iculum issues highligh s ha , o
pa icipa ing coun ies, he e is a commi men o ake in o ac-
coun he esul s o ICCS o e hink ci izenship educa ion in
hei cu icula.
The assessmen amewo k o ICCS 2022 is based on he con-
cep ual model o CIVED 1999 (Amadeo e al.2002), de eloped
h ough wo amewo ks (Schulz e al.2023). Howe e , in he
2022 edi ion compa ed o he p e ious ICCS amewo ks o
2009 and 2016, he concep ual model appea s in wo sepa a e
amewo ks, o simpli y he s uc u e: ci ic knowledge ame-
wo k and ci ic a i udes and engagemen amewo k. This dual
logic s ems om he unde s anding ha he acquisi ion o ci ic
and ci izenship knowledge is insepa able om he de elopmen
o a i udes and disposi ions o pa icipa ion in socie y, and
ice e sa.
The ci ic knowledge amewo k analyses aspec s ela ed o s u-
den s' ci ic knowledge ega ding ci izen con en and cogni i e
p ocesses. I is di ided in o wo dimensions: con en domain
and cogni i e domain. Each domain is u he subdi ided in o
subdomains. The con en domain includes ou sub- dimensions,
which e alua e di e en ypes o knowledge ( ac ual, p oce-
du al, concep ual and me acogni i e). These sub- dimensions in
he ICCS 2022 edi ion include mo e explici e e ences o con-
en associa ed wi h global ci izenship educa ion and educa ion
o sus ainable de elopmen (Schulz e al.2023).
The cogni i e domain is based on he hie a chy o cogni i e p o-
cesses by Ande son and K a hwohl(2001) and is subdi ided in o
wo sub- dimensions: knowing and easoning and applying.
On he o he hand, he e is he amewo k o ci ic a i udes and
engagemen , which aims o desc ibe a ec i e- beha iou al con-
s uc s. This amewo k is di ided in o wo dimensions: he a -
i udes dimension and he engagemen dimension. The a i udes
dimension includes judgemen s ega ding ideas, people, objec s,
ac s o si ua ions and comp ises h ee sub- dimensions, co e-
sponding o h ee o he ou desc ibed in he con en domain.
Rega ding he engagemen dimension, i is linked o s uden s'
expec a ions o ci ic pa icipa ion and is s uc u ed a ound
h ee sub- dimensions, which ela e o aspec s simila o hose
included in he con en domain.
Based on he abo e, his s udy aims o analyse he co espon-
dence o he ICCS amewo k wi h he new Spanish cu iculum
(O ganic Law2020). Speci ically, as de ailed below, i examines
he subjec s ela ed o social sciences in p ima y and seconda y
educa ion s ages, as he a ea o ci izenship educa ion has adi-
ionally been associa ed wi h his ield o knowledge (Gómez-
Rod íguez and Ga cía- Ruiz2019; Myoun and Liou2022). The
decision o add ess bo h educa ional s ages is based on he cu -
icula o ganisa ion o he Spanish educa ion sys em. In he p i-
ma y and seconda y educa ion s ages, ci izenship educa ion is a
manda o y componen .
3 | Me hod
The esea ch epo ed in his a icle uses a quali a i e de-
sign based on documen a y analysis (Okoko, Tunison, and
Walke  2023). I s ele ance s ems om he la es cu icula
change app o ed by he Go e nmen o Spain, which has e-
sul ed in he app o al o O ganic Law 3/2020, o Decembe 29,
amending O ganic Law 2/2006, o May 3, on Educa ion (known
by i s ac onym, LOMLOE). I is p ima ily based on a shi in
ocus ega ding he ole o minimum and compulso y educa ion
o he whole o he Spanish S a e. I s a s om he p emise o
p o iding s uden s wi h a comp ehensi e educa ion ha ocuses
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4 o 14 Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion, 2025
on he de elopmen o compe encies enabling hem o unde -
s and and engage wi h he wo ld hey li e in. This is explici ly
s a ed in he p o ile o ou comes ha s uden s a e expec ed o
ha e de eloped by he end o compulso y educa ion s ages.
The cu iculum p oposal is de eloped in he de ini ion o eigh
key compe encies ha each cu iculum a ea o subjec mus
con ibu e o. Fo each cu iculum a ea o subjec , a se ies o
speci ic compe encies a e p oposed, which a e achie ed h ough
he de elopmen o a sequence o lea ning si ua ions whe e s u-
den s a e equi ed o apply hese compe encies. The e o e, he
lea ning si ua ions include speci ica ions o speci ic compe en-
cies, e alua ion c i e ia and basic knowledge (Figu e 1). The
ou pu p o ile encompasses all he key compe encies ha s u-
den s a e expec ed o ha e de eloped upon comple ing he edu-
ca ional s age. The e o e, all he cu icula elemen s desc ibed
in Figu e1 mus con ibu e o he achie emen o his p o ile.
Conside ing he a o emen ioned cu icula change, his s udy
analyses o wha ex en he law inco po a es he de elopmen
o ci ic and ci izenship compe encies among s uden s. To do so,
we s a om he p oposed ICCS amewo k, conside ing i p o-
ides a possible model o he de elopmen o his ield.
The gene al p oblem add essed by he esea ch is:
P.1. Wha is he co espondence o ICCS domains in he social
sciences subjec s co e ed in he LOMLOE?
This is speci ied in o wo speci ic p oblems:
P1.1. Which domains co espond wi h he ICCS amewo k in
he gene al and speci ic subjec s o social sciences in p ima y
educa ion?
P1.2. Which domains co espond wi h he ICCS amewo k in
he gene al and speci ic subjec s o social sciences in seconda y
educa ion?
3.1 | Sample
Gi en he dis ibu ion o compe encies in educa ion ma e s be-
ween he Spanish s a e and he au onomous communi ies, e-
ga ding he basic con en s o minimum educa ion, he Minis y
o Educa ion is esponsible o de e mining 40%–50% o hese
knowledge a eas.
In his s udy, we analyse he wo Royal Dec ees o minimum ed-
uca ion, p oposed by he Minis y o Educa ion and Voca ional
T aining o P ima y and Seconda y Educa ion s ages (Table1).
Speci ically, we del e in o he a eas and subjec s ela ed o social
sciences. Some subjec s a e conside ed gene ic because hey ad-
d ess ci izenship educa ion in a c oss- cu icula manne . O he s
a e speci ic, as hey ocus cen ally on he issue o ci izenship
educa ion. En i onmen al, na u al, social, and cul u al knowl-
edge and educa ion in alues, ci ic and e hical (gene ic and
FIGURE 1 | Cu icula amewo k o he LOMLOE.
TABLE 1 | Sample.
Documen Type A eas/subjec s
Cu icula elemen s
o be analysed
Royal Dec ee 157/2022, o Ma ch 1,
es ablishing he o ganisa ion and minimum
eachings o p ima y educa ion
Gene ic En i onmen al, na u al, social
and cul u al knowledge
1. Speci ic compe encies
2. E alua ion c i e ia
3. Basic knowledge
Speci ic Educa ion in alues,
ci ic and e hical
Royal Dec ee 217/2022, o Ma ch 29,
es ablishing he o ganisa ion and minimum
eachings o seconda y educa ion
Gene ic Geog aphy and his o y
Speci ic Educa ion in alues,
ci ic and e hical
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
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speci ic a eas o p ima y educa ion s age, espec i ely), and
geog aphy and his o y and educa ion in alues, ci ic and e hi-
cal (gene ic and speci ic subjec s o seconda y educa ion s age,
espec i ely) (Table1). The e o e, he sampling selec ion is in-
en ional (He nández2021), conside ing ha he social sciences
a ea, due o i s own idiosync asy, is esponsible o ci izenship
educa ion, as men ioned ea lie .
Wi hin he cu icula de elopmen o each o he a eas/sub-
jec s, we analyse he h ee exis ing cu icula elemen s: speci ic
compe encies, e alua ion c i e ia and basic knowledge, as hese
cons i u e he didac ic iangle ha o ms he basis o eaching
and lea ning p ocesses in class ooms (Biggs2014). Addi ionally,
he cu iculum elemen s a e p esen ed in his o de because he
Spanish cu iculum o ganises hem his way.
3.2 | Analysis P ocedu e
Fo he analysis, as de ailed abo e, he knowledge amewo k
and he ci ic a i udes and engagemen amewo k o ICCS
(Schulz e al.2023) ha e been aken as e e ence. As we ha e
poin ed ou abo e, and aking in o accoun ICCS esea ch ques-
ion RQ1.b. (Schulz e al.2023), i seems easonable o pa ic-
ipa ing coun ies, including Spain, o conside his amewo k
when d a ing hei educa ional legisla ion in his a ea.
Based on he a o emen ioned p emise, his s udy allows e i ying
o wha ex en he dimensions p esen in his amewo k, which
assess s uden s' ci ic and ci izenship compe encies, a e aken
in o accoun in educa ional public policies, in his case in he o -
icial Spanish cu iculum. Conside ing his issue, he p oposed
e alua ion amewo k o he ICCS s udy will be used as he ana-
ly ical amewo k in he p esen ed esea ch (Table2).
The analysis p ocedu e was conduc ed in h ee phases. In he
i s phase, a ex ual analysis o he documen s was ca ied ou
o con i m he easibili y o using he ICCS amewo k. Fo his
pu pose, he cu icula we e analysed using all dimensions.
In he second phase, a membe o he esea ch eam loca ed ex-
plici e e ences o he ICCS amewo ks in a ious pa s o he
cu iculum, o he a eas/subjec s ela ed o he eaching o so-
cial sciences in p ima y and seconda y educa ion s ages. This
esul ed in a o al o 449 e e ences.
In he hi d phase o he analysis, iangula ion was conduc ed
by he esea ch eam, modi ying a o al o 34 e e ences o wo
main easons: changes in ca ego ies ela ed o dimensions and
sub- dimensions (22 changes) and assignmen o new ci a ions
(12). This esul ed in a o al o 483 e e ences.
In e ms o eliabili y, his ep esen ed an in e obse e ag ee-
men a e be ween phases 2 and 3 o 99%, wi h a kappa index o
0.48; hus, he analysis achie ed an adequa e le el o ag eemen
(Ab ai a2001).
4 | Resul s
The esul s o he s udy (P1) show ha he ICCS dimensions
ha a e mos p e alen in he social sciences cu iculum o he
LOMLOE a e he cogni i e domain, ollowed by he con en do-
main, a i udes and engagemen , espec i ely (Table3). The e o e,
he cu iculum, o e all, places mo e emphasis on add essing
ci ic and ci izenship educa ion h ough cogni i e and con en
dimensions han h ough a i udes and engagemen dimensions.
In his ega d, be o e del ing in o he wo in es iga ed sub-
p oblems (P1.1. and P1.2.), i is necessa y o men ion ha he
ICCS dimensions do no appea simul aneously in all elemen s
o he Spanish cu iculum. Thus, as will be p esen ed below,
men ions ela ed o cogni i e, a i udes and engagemen do-
mains appea in speci ic compe encies and e alua ion c i e ia,
TABLE 2 | F amewo ks and dimensions o ICCS o cu icula analysis.
F amewo ks Dimension Sub- dimension
Ci ic knowledge amewo k Con en domains Ci ic ins i u ions and sys ems
Ci ic p inciples
Ci ic pa icipa ion
Ci ic oles and iden i ies
Cogni i e domains Knowing
Reasoning and applying
Ci ic a i udes and engagemen
amewo k
A i udes A i udes owa ds ci ic p inciples
A i udes owa ds ci ic issues and ins i u ions
A i udes owa ds ci ic oles and iden i ies
Engagemen Expe iences wi h engagemen
Disposi ions owa ds engagemen
Expec ed u u e engagemen
Sou ce: Schulz e al.(2023).
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6 o 14 Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion, 2025
while in basic knowledge, only elemen s belonging o he con-
en domain a e e e enced. This occu s bo h in p ima y educa-
ion and seconda y educa ion s ages.
Rega ding he p ima y educa ion s age (P1.1.), we obse e ha
he e is a p edominance o he cogni i e domain in bo h speci ic
compe encies and e alua ion c i e ia, bo h in he gene ic and
speci ic a eas (Table4). On he o he hand, we obse e a simi-
la co espondence o he dimension ela ed o a i udes in bo h
speci ic compe encies and e alua ion c i e ia. I is no ewo hy
ha he dimension ela ed o engagemen appea s in he gene ic
a ea as a speci ic compe ency o be de eloped, bu i is sca cely
conside ed in he e alua ion c i e ia.
As we del e in o speci ic compe encies, we obse e ha wi hin
he cogni i e domain, bo h in he gene ic subjec a ea and in he
speci ic subjec a ea (Figu e2), mo e emphasis is placed on he
sub- dimension ela ed o easoning and applica ion skills han
on knowledge. In no case a e hey de eloped in an in eg a ed
and he e o e balanced manne .
The easoning and applica ion skills a e mo e no able in he
gene ic a ea han in he speci ic one and, among o he is-
sues, aim o s uden s o es ablish ela ionships be ween
TABLE 4 | ICCS dimensions in cu iculum elemen s: p ima y educa ion.
S age P ima y educa ion
Cu iculum
elemen s Speci ic compe ences E alua ion c i e ia Basic knowledge
A eas/dimensions Gene ic F = 49 Speci ic F = 22 Gene ic F = 48 Speci ic F = 15 Gene ic F = 53 Speci ic F = 21
Con en domains 61.2% 59.1% 66.7% 66.7%
Cogni i e domains 100.0% 100.0%
A i udes 22.4% 31.8% 29.2% 20.0%
Engagemen 16.3% 9.1% 4.2% 13.3%
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
FIGURE 2 | Co espondence o ICCS dimensions in speci ic compe encies o p ima y educa ion.
TABLE 3 | Co espondence o ICCS dimensions in he social
sciences cu iculum.
Dimensions Social sciences cu iculum
Con en domains 45.1%
Cogni i e domains 34.3%
A i udes 14.4%
Engagemen 6.1%
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
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7 o 14
he di e en elemen s o sys ems o he social and cul u al
en i onmen in a meaning ul way:
The e o e, his compe ency aims o s uden s no only
o know he di e en elemen s o he su ounding
en i onmen igo ously and sys ema ically bu also o
es ablish ela ionships be ween hem (Royal Dec ee
157/2022a, p. 29).
Rega ding he dimension ela ed o a i udes, he mos p omi-
nen sub- dimension is he one ela ed o a i udes owa ds ci ic
p inciples compa ed o he o he wo sub- dimensions. I is mo e
p esen in he speci ic a ea o p ima y educa ion han in he ge-
ne ic one. I e e s o he need o de elop a i udes in s uden s
such as espec o ci ic no ms in a ou o social jus ice and
democ a ic beha iou s:
Recognizing he ichness ha coexis ence b ings, as
well as he need o es ablish and espec e hical and ci ic
no ms ha exclude all ypes o a bi a iness, injus ice,
disc imina ion, and iolence and p omo e democ a ic,
suppo i e, inclusi e, espec ul, peace ul, and non-
sexis beha io , implies an adequa e de elopmen
o in e ac ion p ac ices, mu ual ecogni ion, and
educa ion in alues, which gene a e a meaning ul
unde s anding o he impo ance o e hical and ci ic
no ms based on he ecogni ion o ou own social
na u e (Royal Dec ee 157/2022a, p. 64).
Finally, in he leas conside ed dimension, namely he
one linked o engagemen , in he case o he gene ic a ea,
men ions a e made o all h ee sub- dimensions, whe eas in
he speci ic a ea, only he sub- dimension ela ed o engage-
men expe iences appea s. They e e o he need o s uden s
o pa icipa e c i ically in he school en i onmen and in he
communi y:
A democ a ic socie y demands an engaged and
c i ical ci izenship ha ac i ely pa icipa es in he
school en i onmen and in o he ac i i ies ha
in luence he well- being o he communi y (Royal
Dec ee 157/2022a, p. 31).
Rega ding he assessmen c i e ia, we obse e a simila end o
ha p esen ed ega ding he speci ic compe encies (Figu e3).
In he dimension ela ed o he cogni i e domain, in he speci ic
a ea, he assessmen c i e ia emphasise e alua ing easoning
and applica ion skills linked o he c i ical analysis o eali y and
i s social p oblems:
To con ibu e o gene a ing a espec ul, non- sexis
coexis ence, commi ed o achie ing e ec i e
equali y and sha ed esponsibili y, and o e adica ing
gende - based iolence, based on he knowledge and
c i ical analysis o he long- s anding si ua ion o
inequali y be ween women and men (Royal Dec ee
157/2022a, p. 65).
The dimension ela ed o a i udes s ands ou again, as i is ex-
clusi ely linked o he sub- dimension o a i udes owa ds ci ic
p inciples. This dimension has mo e co espondence in he as-
sessmen c i e ia o he gene ic a ea, e e ing o he e alua ion
FIGURE 3 | Co espondence o ICCS dimensions in he e alua ion c i e ia o p ima y educa ion.
14653435, 2025, 1, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ejed.70010 by Spanish Coch ane Na ional P o ision (Minis e io de Sanidad), Wiley Online Lib a y on [27/06/2025]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
8 o 14 Eu opean Jou nal o Educa ion, 2025
o a i udes such as he app ecia ion o di e si y, social cohesion
and espec o o he cul u es:
Analyzing he geog aphical, his o ical, and cul u al
p ocesses ha ha e shaped p esen - day socie y,
aluing e hno- cul u al o a ec i e- sexual di e si y
and social cohesion, and demons a ing empa hy and
espec o o he cul u es and gende equali y (Royal
Dec ee 157/2022a, p. 40).
The dimension ela ed o engagemen is again he leas p esen .
In his case, bo h he gene ic and speci ic a eas o social sciences
only e e o e alua ion c i e ia ela ed o engagemen expe i-
ences, especially in he speci ic a ea. These, among o he hings,
e e o he need o e alua e he s uden s' c i ical and ac i e com-
mi men o alues such as solida i y, espec o mino i ies and
o he iden i ies.
Re lec ing on and assuming an ac i e and c i ical
commi men o alues ela ed o solida i y and espec
o mino i ies and e hnocul u al and gende iden i ies,
analyzing om an e hical pe spec i e issues ela ed
o inequali y and po e y, mul icul u alism, human
di e si y, and mig a o y phenomena (Royal Dec ee
157/2022a, p. 65).
On he o he hand, he basic knowledge o p ima y educa ion, as
men ioned ea lie , is exclusi ely linked o he dimension ela ed
o he domain o con en (Figu e4). In he gene ic a ea, e e -
ence is made o knowledge ela ed o ci ic p inciples and ci ic
oles and iden i ies espec i ely, wi h allusions o:
Social inequali y and access o esou ces (Royal
Dec ee 157/2022a, p. 37).
O al sou ces and collec i e memo y. Local his o y
and amily biog aphy; women and men as subjec s o
his o y (Royal Dec ee 157/2022a, p. 34).
In he case o he speci ic a ea, in addi ion o he p e ious sub-
dimensions, knowledge o ci ic ins i u ions and sys ems is consid-
e ed, wi h basic knowledge ela ed o he unc ioning o he S a e:
The con ibu ion o he S a e and i s ins i u ions o
peace, secu i y, and in e na ional coope a ion. The
comp ehensi e secu i y o ci izens (Royal Dec ee
157/2022a, p. 66).
In bo h a eas, he e is a lack o co espondence o he sub-
dimension ela ed o ci ic pa icipa ion. The ew e e ences
made a e ega ding:
FIGURE 4 | Co espondence o ICCS dimensions in he basic knowledge o p ima y educa ion.
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9 o 14
Social and ci ic pa icipa ion (Royal Dec ee
157/2022a, p. 42).
Democ a ic decision- making (Royal Dec ee
157/2022a, p. 66).
On he o he hand, ega ding seconda y educa ion (P1.2.), he
esul s show ha he cogni i e domain once again appea s
p ominen ly compa ed o he o he dimensions (Table5). This
is mo e no iceable in he speci ic compe encies and e alua ion
c i e ia o he gene ic subjec . Addi ionally, he e alua ion c i-
e ia o he gene ic subjec sca cely assess dimensions ela ed o
a i udes and engagemen .
Deepening in o he dimension ela ed o he cogni i e domain
in he speci ic compe ences (Figu e5), we obse e how he sub-
dimension linked o easoning and applica ion has a g ea e
co espondence han he one ela ed o knowledge. In he case
o he gene ic subjec , i is mo e no iceable and e e s, among
o he s, o issues ela ed o he sea ch, selec ion and c i ical ea -
men o in o ma ion:
Sea ch, selec , p ocess, and o ganize in o ma ion
on ele an opics om he p esen and he pas ,
c i ically using his o ical and geog aphical sou ces o
acqui e knowledge, de elop, and exp ess con en in
a ious o ma s (Royal Dec ee 217/2022b, p. 97).
TABLE 5 | ICCS domains in cu icula elemen s: seconda y educa ion.
S age Seconda y educa ion
Cu iculum
elemen s Speci ic compe ences E alua ion c i e ia Basic knowledge
Subjec s/dimensions Gene ic F = 70 Speci ic F = 27 Gene ic F = 73 Speci ic F = 20 Gene ic F = 74 Speci ic F = 27
Con en domains 71,4% 66,6% 86,3% 70,0%
Cogni i e domains 100,0% 100,0%
A i udes 20,1% 22,2% 10,9% 20,0%
Engagemen 8,5% 11,1% 2,7% 10,0%
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
FIGURE 5 | Co espondence o ICCS dimensions in he speci ic compe ences o seconda y educa ion.
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