Ci a ion: Huamán-Mamani, F.A.;
Palomino-Ñaupa, C.K.; O a Cue as,
M.d.M.; Medina-Ca asco, S.
Fab ica ion and Mechanical
E alua ion o Eco-F iendly
Geopolyme ic Mo a s De i ed om
Ignimb i e and Demoli ion Was e
om he Cons uc ion Indus y in
Pe u. Geosciences 2024,14, 80.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/geosciences14030080
Academic Edi o s: Jesus
Ma inez-F ias, Mohamed Shahin
and JoséIgnacio Al a ez
Recei ed: 13 No embe 2023
Re ised: 13 Ma ch 2024
Accep ed: 14 Ma ch 2024
Published: 15 Ma ch 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
geosciences
A icle
Fab ica ion and Mechanical E alua ion o Eco-F iendly
Geopolyme ic Mo a s De i ed om Ignimb i e and
Demoli ion Was e om he Cons uc ion Indus y in Pe u
F edy Albe o Huamán-Mamani 1,*, C is Ka he in Palomino-Ñaupa 1, Ma ía del Ma O a Cue as 2
and San iago Medina-Ca asco 3
1Depa amen o de Ciencias Na u ales, Uni e sidad Ca ólica San Pablo, A equipa 04001, Pe u;
[email p o ec ed]
2Depa men o Analy ical Chemis y, Facul y o Pha macy, Uni e si y o Se ille, E-41012 Se ille, Spain;
[email p o ec ed]
3X- ay Labo a o y (CITIUS), Uni e si y o Se ille, E-41012 Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Ignimb i e ock is a olcanic ma e ial loca ed in he A equipa egion (Pe u), and o
cen u ies, i has been used as a cons uc ion ma e ial, gi ing a cha ac e is ic ligh pas el, whi e o pink
colo o he ci y o A equipa, wi h whi e being he mos common. In he p esen s udy, he po en ial
use o h ee ypes o A equipa aw ma e ials (ignimb i e ock powde , calcined clay powde , and
demoli ion mo a powde ) as he main sou ce o new binde s o he manu ac u e o en i onmen ally
iendly mo a s, wi hou he addi ion o o dina y Po land cemen (OPC) is discussed. In his wo k,
an in-dep h cha ac e iza ion o he ma e ials used was ca ied ou . The p oposed ab ica ion ou e o
geopolyme ic ma e ials was conside ed o he manu ac u e o binde s and mo a s using an alkaline
solu ion o NaOH wi h alues be ween 12 and 18 mola , as a igge o he geopolyme iza ion
p ocess. Geopolyme ic mo a s we e ob ained by adding a con olled amoun o ine sand o he
p e iously p epa ed mix u e o binde aw ma e ial and an alkaline solu ion. Con en ional OPC
and geopolyme ic mo a s manu ac u ed unde he same condi ions we e mechanically e alua ed
by uniaxial comp ession es s a a cons an comp ession a e o
0.05 mm/min
and unde no mal
condi ions o empe a u e and a mosphe e, whe e he mos op imal alues we e ob ained o
15 mola
alkaline solu ions o ignimb i e wi hou he addi ion o agg ega es, wi h alues o comp essi e
s eng h o 42 MPa and a modulus elas ic o 30 GPa. The esul s e ealed a signi ican inc ease in
he maximum s eng h and modulus o elas ici y alues when he olume ic ac ions o OPC a e
comple ely eplaced wi h geopolyme ic binde s in he s udy condi ions o his wo k, demons a ing
he eno mous po en ial o he ignimb i e ock and cons uc ion was e s udied, as aw ma e ial o
al e na i e mo a binde s wi hou he addi ion o OPC. Wi h his wo k, he ignimb i e ock, o g ea
alue in he egion and also ound in o he a eas o he Ea h’s geog aphy, was cha ac e ized and
alued, in addi ion o he calcined clay and demoli ion mo a o he egion.
Keywo ds: ignimb i e; mo a ; geopolyme ; mechanical s eng h; binde
1. In oduc ion
Ignimb i es a e olcanic ocks o med by consolida ion o i e cloud pa icles. Volcanic
e up ions expel a la ge amoun o pa icles o ock agmen s, ine glass dus , and gases in o
he a mosphe e, all o which cons i u e a lammageni us o i e cloud. When he bu ning
cloud loses he abili y o keep he pa icles in suspension, hey all, o ming py oclas ic
deposi s, which join and o m py oclas ic ocks such as ignimb i es. Silla is he local name
gi en o ocks o he ignimb i e ype; he e m comes om he egion o A equipa, Pe u
(Figu e 1) [1–3].
Geosciences 2024,14, 80. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/geosciences14030080 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/geosciences
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 2 o 23
Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 o 24
Figu e 1. Qua y o he Añashuayco deposi , A equipa, Pe u. The figu e shows he cha ac e is ic
colo o he ignimb i e ock.
In gene al, ignimb i e is a ma e ial wi h a po ous ex u e and he abili y o abso b
liquids and saline solu ions wi hou losing i s cohesion. I esis s hea up o 500 °C wi hou
mel ing. I comes in whi e, pink, and c eam colo s. I s mois u e abso p ion eaches 30.8%;
i has an a e age specific weigh o 1.65 N/m3; is a poo conduc o o empe a u e; has
esis ance o comp ession o 94.4 kg/cm2 d y and 85.5 kg/cm2 we ; i s a e age elas ic mod-
ulus is 56.875 kg/cm2 s a ic and 110.05 kg/cm2 dynamic; and i has high esis ance o wea h-
e ing [1].
Ignimb i es a e ound h oughou he wo ld in olcanic egions ha ea u e high-
silica magma and he esul ing explosi e e up ions. The e a e known deposi s in Aus-
alia, New Zealand, Mexico, he Uni ed S a es, and he Cana y Islands in Spain. This
wo k ocusses on he ignimb i e ock o Pe u, whe e he e a e many geological uni s,
mainly in A equipa, Ayacucho, and Puno, which belong o he Cenozoic e a hem and a e
loca ed nea olcanoes. The Sencca o ma ion, which allowed o he exis ence o he main
ignimb i e qua ies o A equipa (Pe u), consis s o hyoli ic composi ion uffs ha can be
dis inguished wi h he naked eye: qua z g ains, eldspa s, and bio i e lamellae. In addi-
ion, i con ains pumice and la as ha can be ounded o angula and o a iable size.
They a e usually compac . They appea in hick banks and usually show a p isma ic dis-
junc ion, gi ing ise o columna blocks cu by ho izon al planes. Two le els a e dis in-
guished acco ding o colo , one pink o eddish b own and one ligh g ey o whi e [1].
Cu en ly, in Pe u, ignimb i e is geo e e enced in he INGEMMET geoscien ific da abase.
In 2018, 29 deposi s and 14 qua ies appea ed in his da abase (Figu e 2 and Table 1).
Figu e 1. Qua y o he Añashuayco deposi , A equipa, Pe u. The igu e shows he cha ac e is ic
colo o he ignimb i e ock.
In gene al, ignimb i e is a ma e ial wi h a po ous ex u e and he abili y o abso b
liquids and saline solu ions wi hou losing i s cohesion. I esis s hea up o 500
◦
C wi hou
mel ing. I comes in whi e, pink, and c eam colo s. I s mois u e abso p ion eaches 30.8%;
i has an a e age speci ic weigh o 1.65 N/m
3
; is a poo conduc o o empe a u e; has
esis ance o comp ession o 94.4 kg/cm
2
d y and 85.5 kg/cm
2
we ; i s a e age elas ic
modulus is 56.875 kg/cm
2
s a ic and 110.05 kg/cm
2
dynamic; and i has high esis ance o
wea he ing [1].
Ignimb i es a e ound h oughou he wo ld in olcanic egions ha ea u e high-silica
magma and he esul ing explosi e e up ions. The e a e known deposi s in Aus alia,
New Zealand, Mexico, he Uni ed S a es, and he Cana y Islands in Spain. This wo k
ocusses on he ignimb i e ock o Pe u, whe e he e a e many geological uni s, mainly in
A equipa, Ayacucho, and Puno, which belong o he Cenozoic e a hem and a e loca ed nea
olcanoes. The Sencca o ma ion, which allowed o he exis ence o he main ignimb i e
qua ies o A equipa (Pe u), consis s o hyoli ic composi ion u s ha can be dis inguished
wi h he naked eye: qua z g ains, eldspa s, and bio i e lamellae. In addi ion, i con ains
pumice and la as ha can be ounded o angula and o a iable size. They a e usually
compac . They appea in hick banks and usually show a p isma ic disjunc ion, gi ing
ise o columna blocks cu by ho izon al planes. Two le els a e dis inguished acco ding
o colo , one pink o eddish b own and one ligh g ey o whi e [
1
]. Cu en ly, in Pe u,
ignimb i e is geo e e enced in he INGEMMET geoscien i ic da abase. In 2018, 29 deposi s
and 14 qua ies appea ed in his da abase (Figu e 2and Table 1).
In his wo k, ignimb i e esidues om he Añashuayco a ine (Paccha Qua y, nea
he Añashuayco deposi ) we e s udied. Paccha qua y (A equipa) is loca ed in he Ce o
Colo ado dis ic , p o ince o A equipa, 10 km in a s aigh line no hwes o he ci y. The
access is by pa ed oad ollowing he A equipa–Yu a ou e, wi h a dis ance o
10.5 km
,
hen 0.5 km by pa ed oad un il eaching he Añashuayco a ine (UTM coo dina es:
8191 198 N, 222 077 E) [1].
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 3 o 23
Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 24
Figu e 2. Ignimb i e ock qua y and deposi map (adap ed om [1]). Numbe ing acco d-
ing o codes in Table 1.
In his wo k, ignimb i e esidues om he Añashuayco a ine (Paccha Qua y, nea
he Añashuayco deposi ) we e s udied. Paccha qua y (A equipa) is loca ed in he Ce o
Colo ado dis ic , p o ince o A equipa, 10 km in a s aigh line no hwes o he ci y. The
access is by pa ed oad ollowing he A equipa–Yu a ou e, wi h a dis ance o 10.5 km,
hen 0.5 km by pa ed oad un il eaching he Añashuayco a ine (UTM coo dina es: 8191
198 N, 222 077 E) [1].
The ignimb i e ound in his qua y appea s as hick banks, wi hou s a ifica ion,
wi h e ical sca ps due o a p isma ic disjunc ion. S a ig aphically, i belongs o he
Añashuayco membe o he Sencca olcanic o ma ion. The ock is a whi e o g eyish-
whi e hyoli ic uff o low specific g a i y, compac in la ge masses and o medium ha d-
ness, wi h qua z c ys als, eldspa , inclusions and agmen s o andesi es, and pumice
s ones o subangula o sub ounded shape. The ignimb i e o his a ea is exploi ed along
he en i e Añashuayco a ine. The exploi a ion me hod is open pi , in an a isanal and
in o mal manne . I is impo an o no e ha h ough hese me hods, a la ge amoun o
clea ing o was e is gene a ed, con ibu ing o he des uc ion o na u al esou ces.
Ignimb i e as a ma e ial was widely used in colonial imes; chu ches and many public
and p i a e ci il wo ks we e buil wi h i . Cu en ly, i is used in wall co e ing, in he
cons uc ion o ou is buildings and walls. I should be no ed ha o he exis ing a ie ies,
Figu e 2. Ignimb i e ock qua y and deposi map (adap ed om [
1
]). Numbe ing acco ding o codes
in Table 1.
The ignimb i e ound in his qua y appea s as hick banks, wi hou s a i ica ion,
wi h e ical sca ps due o a p isma ic disjunc ion. S a ig aphically, i belongs o he
Añashuayco membe o he Sencca olcanic o ma ion. The ock is a whi e o g eyish-whi e
hyoli ic u o low speci ic g a i y, compac in la ge masses and o medium ha dness,
wi h qua z c ys als, eldspa , inclusions and agmen s o andesi es, and pumice s ones o
subangula o sub ounded shape. The ignimb i e o his a ea is exploi ed along he en i e
Añashuayco a ine. The exploi a ion me hod is open pi , in an a isanal and in o mal
manne . I is impo an o no e ha h ough hese me hods, a la ge amoun o clea ing o
was e is gene a ed, con ibu ing o he des uc ion o na u al esou ces.
Ignimb i e as a ma e ial was widely used in colonial imes; chu ches and many
public and p i a e ci il wo ks we e buil wi h i . Cu en ly, i is used in wall co e ing,
in he cons uc ion o ou is buildings and walls. I should be no ed ha o he exis ing
a ie ies, wi h shades be ween whi e o pink, pink is gene ally much a e and mo e alued,
and has gene ally been used o buildings wi h high added alue, such as chu ches o
monumen al buildings.
Be ween 2000 and 2017, ignimb i e p oduc ion inc eased a an a e age annual a e o
3.9% in Pe u wi h he pa icipa ion o se en egions, he mos impo an being he A equipa
egion wi h 72%. Ignimb i e consump ion is mos ly local and is 100% supplied by local
p oduc ion in each o he egions whe e i exis s. I is used as a cons uc ion ma e ial, in
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 4 o 23
he co e o acades and a chi ec u e, and i is also used as a ma e ial o make o namen al
igu es and monumen s [1].
Table 1. De ail o he si ua ion o ignimb i e ock qua ies and deposi s in Pe u ([
1
], Geoscien i ic
Da abase—GEOCATMIN).
Code Region P o ince Dis ic Name UTM Coo dina es Ca ego y
Eas No h
1 Ancash Bolognesi Cajacay Incahuanca 245241 8876224 Deposi
2 Ancash Recuay Llacllin Chaucayan 219806 8872650 Deposi
3 Ancash Recuay Ma ca Co ico o 229027 8877271 Deposi
4 Ancash Recuay Ma ca Mogo e 224474 8877412 Deposi
5 Apu imac An abamba An abamba Mollojo (Wilca) 732995 8406657 Deposi
6 Apu imac G au Mama a Mama a 759554 8425354 Qua y
7 A equipa A equipa Ce o
Colo ado Flo Blanca 221000 8188994 Deposi
8 A equipa A equipa Ce o
Colo ado La Paccha 222077 8191198 Qua y
9 A equipa A equipa Majes Añashuayco 220670 8191105 Deposi
10 A equipa A equipa Quequeña El Ingenio II 234960 8169952 Qua y
11 A equipa Camana Ocoña Lomas Agua
Blanca 682514 8201524 Deposi
12 A equipa Ca a elíCa a elíCan e a 682641 8225304 Deposi
13 A equipa Caylloma Huambos Anda ay 730300 8253800 Deposi
14 Ayacucho Cangallo Cangallo Cangallo 593373 8492466 Deposi
15 Ayacucho Huamanga Las Naza enas Chacco 584212 8553134 Deposi
16 Ayacucho Huamanga Pacaycasa Silla
Ayacuchano 588500 8556620 Deposi
17 Ayacucho Huanca Sancos San iago de
Lucanama ca Lucanama ca 567814 8469314 Deposi
18 Ayacucho Lucanas La ama e La ama e 521412 8420618 Deposi
19 Ayacucho Víc o Faja do Caya a Mayopampa 612246 8473702 Deposi
20 Cajama ca Cajama ca Baños del Inca La mesma 784674 9220370 Deposi
21 Cajama ca Celendín JoséGal ez Ce o Láza o 810624 9233327 Deposi
22 Cajama ca Cho a Huambos Pululo 718968 9286276 Deposi
23 Cajama ca San Ma cos Ichocan Llanupacha 820181 9184347 Qua y
24 Cajama ca San a C uz San a C uz Pied a Blanca 726237 9267049 Qua y
25 Cusco Canchis San Ped o Auquisa Dos 245689 8432456 Deposi
26 Cusco Chumbi ilcas Llusco Llusco I 809113 8413826 Qua y
27 Cusco Chumbi ilcas Llusco Llusco II 809848 8414374 Qua y
28 Cusco Chumbi ilcas San o Tomás San o Tomás I 813998 8401356 Qua y
29 Cusco Chumbi ilcas San o Tomás San o Tomás II 815350 8402623 Qua y
30 Moquegua Ma iscal Nie o Moquegua El Calican o I 298927 8092960 Deposi
31 Moquegua Ma iscal Nie o Moquegua KAGIBEDA V 297325 8092367 Deposi
32 Moquegua Ma iscal Nie o Moquegua San Diego 5 295596 8091797 Deposi
33 Piu a Huancabamba Sondo illo Cascapampa 664564 9411821 Deposi
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 5 o 23
Table 1. Con .
Code Region P o ince Dis ic Name UTM Coo dina es Ca ego y
Eas No h
34 Puno Ca abaya Co ani Ce o Huillaco a 332446 8461578 Deposi
35 Puno Ca abaya Co ani Ce o Huillaco a 332877 8461280 Qua y
36 Puno Ca abaya Macusani Chillicuno 339363 8458070 Qua y
37 Puno Chucui o Juli C uzpa a 453648 8207043 Qua y
38 Puno Lampa Palca Umpuco 335360 8310123 Qua y
39 Puno Lampa Puca áCe o Llallahua 35.6062 8331301 Qua y
40 Puno Melga Aya i i Cacapunco 324817 8342147 Qua y
41 Puno San An onio de
Pu ina Pu ina Mo occa ca 421765 8395996 Qua y
42 Tacna Canda a e Quilahuani Buena Vis a 371012 8081711 Deposi
43 Tacna Tacna Tacna Hospicio 361251 7990188 Deposi
Howe e , A equipa is he second mos popula ed ci y in Pe u, and in ecen yea s, i
has achie ed accele a ed popula ion g ow h, wi hou conside ing an u ban plan, leading
o he se lemen o 25% o he million inhabi an s in a eas o mode a e dange due o i s
p oximi y o he Mis i and Chachani olcanoes. The his o ic cen e o A equipa is buil wi h
ignimb i e, which gi es he ci y an a chi ec u al peculia i y. Wi h he pu pose o p omo ing
spaces wi h geological in e es ha become ools o educa ion, dissemina ion, and commu-
nica ion o he dange s ela ed o olcanic ac i i y, INGEMMET p oposed six pilo geosi es
nea he ci y: (1) he ignimb i e qua ies, whe e he e is ignimb i e in he A equipa Ai po
a ea; (2) Chili Ri e Valley; (3) Mis i and Chachani Volcanoes Viewpoin ; (4) Nicholson
Monogene ic Volcano; (5) Yu a Monogene ic Field; and (6) Volcancillo Dome [4,5].
The ma e ial used in his wo k was collec ed in he qua ies o Añashuayco and is
limi ed o he a ea o accumula ion o ignimb i e was e de i ed om he a isanal and
in o mal exploi a ion o ignimb i e.
The OPC is he second mos consumed p oduc on Ea h a e wa e , wi h an annual
global consump ion du ing 2018 o a ound 4100 M ons [
6
]. OPC is also he second la ges
sou ce o an h opogenic ca bon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions, a e powe gene a ion. The e-
o e, o al emissions om he cemen indus y could con ibu e up o 8% o global CO
2
emissions [
7
]. Because o ha , an en i onmen ally iendly al e na i e o OPC consump ion
is necessa y o educe he high ca bon dioxide consump ion and imp o e g een cemen
p oduc ion. In ecen yea s, geopolyme s ha e a ac ed conside able a en ion among
hese binde s due o hei ea ly comp essi e s eng h, low pe meabili y, good chemical
esis ance, and excellen i e esis ance beha io [
8
–
11
]. Geopolyme s, which can be used
as a g een subs i u e o OPC, can be syn hesized using di e en indus ial and ag icul u al
was es [12,13] o na u al pozzolan [10].
Geopolyme iza ion p ocess consis s o he eac ion o a solid aluminosilica e wi h a
highly concen a ed aqueous alkali hyd oxide o silica e solu ion p oducing a syn he ic
alkali aluminosilica e ma e ial gene ically called a geopolyme [
8
,
11
,
12
], and esul s in
amo phous o sub-c ys alline spa ial s uc u es, simila o zeoli es [
14
]. The s uc u e o
geopolyme s consis s o a polyme ic Si-O-Al amewo k om chains o [SiO
4
] and [AlO
4
]
e ahed a wi h oxygen, sha ed co ne s o ming a 3D ne wo k, and me al ca ions s abilizing
he s uc u e [
8
,
9
,
14
]. The me al ca ions mos commonly used a e sodium o po assium, and
i is also possible o use calcium o li hium. Con ol o he alkaline solu ion ha p o ides
he me al ca ions is impo an in he geopolyme iza ion p ocess, NaOH being one o he
mos used possibili ies [
15
]. A common example o he use o NaOH o ac i a e he p ocess
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 6 o 23
is he use o ly ash [
16
–
18
]. In he same way, in his wo k, NaOH was used as an alkaline
solu ion o he p oduc ion o geopolyme s.
The high demand o housing and in as uc u e has esul ed in he gene a ion o a
subs an ial olume o was e as a esul o inc eased cons uc ion ac i i ies. This is causing
c i ical en i onmen al and ecological p oblems o u u e gene a ions, since cons uc ion
and demoli ion was e is esponsible o 30% o global solid was e [
19
,
20
]. Annually, he
cons uc ion and ce amics indus ies gene a e billions o ons o cons uc ion demoli ion
was e wo ldwide, including ed clay b icks, ce amic iles, and conc e e was e; China alone
con ibu es mo e han 2.3 billion ons, ollowed by he Eu opean Union and he Uni ed
S a es wi h 800 and 700 million ons, espec i ely [21].
The use o was e ma e ial in he de elopmen o geopolyme s can signi ican ly con-
ibu e o a educ ion in CO
2
oo p in when hese ma e ials a e compa ed o cemen ,
conc e e, o ce amic [
22
]. One possibili y o g ea po en ial is he applica ion o cons uc ion
was e [
23
–
25
] o calcined clays [
26
] o implemen geopolyme s. In his wo k, geopolyme
binde s and mo a s we e de eloped om b icks, demoli ion mo a s, and ignimb i e.
A ecen wo k has e alua ed he use o ignimb i e powde in eac i e powde conc e e
oad pa emen , showing he many possibili ies o his ma e ial o cons uc ion [
27
]. Ign-
imb i e, as well as o he py oclas ic i eous olcanic ocks ex ac ed di ec ly om mining
p ospec s, was p e iously s udied o he ealiza ion o geopolyme ic ma e ials [
28
]. To ou
knowledge, he e is no li e a u e ha s udies he p ope ies o geopolyme s p epa ed om
ignimb i e ocks om he A equipa egion in Pe u.
The s udy o he mechanical p ope ies o he mos used geopolyme ic ma e ials
ob ained wi h he desc ibed p ocesses has also been ex ensi ely analyzed in he li e a-
u e [
10
,
29
–
35
]. Mul iple wo ks ha e been ca ied ou s udying he mechanical p ope ies
o geopolyme ic cemen s ein o ced wi h s eel o di e en ibe s [
36
–
40
], wi h di e en
indus ial was es [
41
–
43
], o om cons uc ion demoli ion was e [
24
,
25
]. The a o emen-
ioned wo ks gi e a b oad idea o he many possibili ies ha geopolyme ic ma e ials ha e,
and o he g owing in e es in he s udy o hei mechanical p ope ies. In his wo k, he
mechanical p ope ies o geopolyme ic ma e ials de eloped om demoli ion was e om
he cons uc ion indus y in Pe u we e analyzed.
The e o e, his wo k sough o euse ignimb i e was e, calcined clay om demoli ion
b icks, and demoli ion mo a om he cons uc ion indus y in A equipa o he manu ac-
u e o a no el geopolyme ic binde ma e ial, which has p ope ies, cha ac e is ics, and
applica ions simila o hose o o dina y Po land cemen (OPC). The main no el y o his
wo k is a deep cha ac e iza ion ha has no been p e iously ca ied ou o ignimb i e ock
as well as a geological desc ip ion o he ignimb i e ock om he egion o A equipa, Pe u,
and i s use o he manu ac u e o high-quali y geopolyme ma e ial o cons uc ion. The e
a e no simila wo ks ha p esen me hodologies o p o ocols o he use o ignimb i e
ock was e. In his wo k, a no el me hodology is p oposed, based on he au ho s’ esea ch
expe ience wi h o he ypes o ino ganic was e. The impac o ad ancing he s udy o
geopolyme s based on ignimb i e esidues has alue o all places (no jus Pe u) whe e
his ype o ock exis s ( olcanic zones).
The esul s o ou wo k ha e been compa ed wi h con en ional Po land cemen
mo a s in o de o analyze he mechanical, s uc u al, and physical p ope ies o he
geopolyme s ob ained. I should be no ed ha his s udy shows a highe maximum
esis ance o uniaxial comp ession and modulus o elas ici y o geopolyme ic mo a s
wi h espec o Po land cemen mo a p epa ed unde he same condi ions. The au ho s
conside ha his s udy o e s in e es ing pe spec i es o he ecycling o cons uc ion
was e, and esul s ha allow o unde s anding he beha io o he use o b icks, demoli ion
mo a s, and ignimb i e o he p oduc ion o cemen and geopolyme ic mo a s.
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 7 o 23
2. Ma e ial and Me hods
2.1. Raw Ma e ials and Cha ac e iza ion Techniques
The a e age chemical composi ion o ignimb i e ock is simila o hyoli e, i has a high
con en o silica and alumina, and aces o s on ium, li hium, and ubidium ha e also been
iden i ied (Table 2). The e a e di e en ypes o ignimb i e ock [
1
], highligh ing hose ha
a e whi e (compac and loose) and pink (compac and loose). Compac whi e ignimb i e has
a massi e, po ous, pe meable, and e osion- esis an appea ance, gene ally wi h agmen s
o qua z, po assium eldspa , shee s o musco i e o bio i e, and agmen s o pumice
cons i u ing a he e ogeneous agg ega e, bu wi h a uni o m appea ance. Mic oscopically,
i gene ally con ains plagioclase, sanidine o mic ocline, qua z, phyllosilica es such as
musco i e o bio i e depending on he chemical composi ion, and glass chips. Loose whi e
ignimb i e is simila o whi e u bu is less consolida ed and less esis an o e osion. I s
colo is due o he g ea e p esence o po assium eldspa s, such as sanidine and o hose.
On he o he hand, pink ignimb i e has a chemical composi ion simila o ha o whi e
ignimb i e (Table 2). The eddish hue is ob ained om hema i e.
Table 2. Compa a i e able o he chemical composi ion o whi e and pink ignimb i e ock by XRF
analysis (in w %) [1].
Whi e Ignimb i e (w %) Pink Ignimb i e (w %)
SiO273.60 75.50
Al2O313.60 13.50
K2O 4.23 4.64
Na2O 3.94 3.44
Fe2O31.41 1.60
CaO 1.20 1.14
TiO20.24 -
MgO 0.20 0.21
MnO 0.06 0.09
SO30.06 0.04
P2O50.05 0.05
Z O20.04 0.04
S O 0.03 0.04
The ignimb i e ock wi hou any ans o ma ion was analyzed by X- ay mic o omog-
aphy (CT) o s udy i s in e nal mo phology. The size o he piece analyzed was a cube wi h
dimensions 1 cm
×
1 cm
×
1 cm. Th ee ypes o aw ma e ials we e s udied as po en ial
sou ces o aluminosilica es ha allow o he acquisi ion o new geopolyme ic binde s. The
h ee aw ma e ials used a e cu en ly conside ed ino ganic was e om he cons uc ion in-
dus y in A equipa (Pe u), and hey a e calcined clay powde om demoli ion b icks (CCP),
demoli ion mo a powde (DMP), and ignimb i e ock powde (IRP) [
2
,
3
], whe e CCP
and DMP was e we e ob ained di ec ly om demolished buildings in he ci y o A equipa.
Addi ionally, o ob ain geopolyme ic mo a s, con olled addi ions o ine sand (FS) we e
conside ed, and o he geopolyme iza ion p ocess, addi ion o alkaline solu ions o NaOH.
Fo he p epa a ion o he solu ions, NaOH pelle s (Biochem, Lima, Pe u, 99% pu i y) and
dis illed wa e a e added in adequa e amoun s o he equi ed concen a ion, hea ing o
5 min wi h s i ing a 80 ◦C. The solu ion is hen expec ed o each oom empe a u e and
mix wi h he d y aw ma e ials. Fo he p epa a ion o he solu ion, i is no an essen ial
equi emen o include he hea ing s age; he p ocess can be ca ied ou by means o a
longe p epa a ion ime o he solu ion and cons an s i ing. The goal is o ha e a mo e
homogeneous solu ion be o e mixing.
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 8 o 23
The s a ing ma e ials we e cha ac e ized physically, s uc u ally, and mic os uc-
u ally. Physical cha ac e iza ion was ca ied ou by helium pycnome y (Quan ach ome,
model Pen apycnome e 5200e, G az, Aus ia) and g anulome y o lase ligh di ac-
ion (Mal e n Ins umen s, model Mas e size 2000, Mal e n, UK), de e mining he eal
densi y and a e age pa icle size, espec i ely. The ma e ials we e sie ed by mesh size
o
106 µm
(ASTM sie e no. 140, Gilson, Columbus, USA). Mic og aphs o he sam-
ples we e ob ained using a Zeiss scanning elec on mic oscope, model ZEISS MA LS
10 (Obe kochen, Ge many).
X- ay mic o omog aphy is a non-des uc i e 3D imaging echnique; i was applied
o he ignimb i e ock o isualize p ope ies ela ed o he po osi y and in e nal com-
posi ion o he ma e ial. The equipmen used o he measu emen was an X adia 610
Ve sa (Zeiss, Obe kochen, Ge many). Measu ing condi ions: op ical
magni ica ion = 0.4×
,
pixel
size = 18.81 µm
, cu en = 90 mA, ol age = 50 kV, images aken = 1018, image
heigh = 1024
, image wid h = 1004. The 3D images o he samples we e ende ed using
he Fiji image p ocessing package o isualize omog aphy-de i ed da ase s. The po osi y
calcula ion was pe o med wi h AVIZO 9.4.0 so wa e (The mo Fishe Scien i ic, Wal ham,
USA). A c ys allog aphic s uc u al analysis o aw ma e ials was pe o med by X- ay
di ac ion (XRD) using a D8 Focus di ac ome e (B uke , Ka ls uhe, Ge many) wi h a Cu
ube (
λ= 1.5406 Å
), in he 2
θ
ange o 5 o 100 and a s ep o 0.02. The p esen c ys alline
phases we e iden i ied using Di ac.EVA 5.2 so wa e (B uke , Ka ls uhe, Ge many) and
hei Rie eld quan i ica ion was pe o med using Topas 6 so wa e [
44
,
45
] o each ype o
aw ma e ial. Rie eld e inemen s we e made using he undamen al pa ame e me hod.
Some ea u es such as ze o e o (2
θ
), sample displacemen , and abso p ion and la ice pa-
ame e s we e ea ed as adjus able pa ame e s o achie e he bes i ing. The backg ound
was i ed by a ou h-o de Chebyshe polynomial. Fo measu emen con igu a ion, we
used he Lo en z pola iza ion geome ic ac o s. The obus ness o he da a ob ained was
co obo a ed om he alues o se e al i ing indica o s, such as goodness-o - i (GOF)
and esidual ac o s (Rwp and RB agg) [
44
]. A chemical quan i ica ion o he p esen
elemen s was ca ied ou by o al e lec ion X- ay luo escence (TXRF) (BRUKER, model
S2-PICOFOX, Ka ls uhe, Ge many), wi h a Mo ube and measu emen ime o 2000 s.
2.2. P epa a ion o Geopolyme and OPC Mo a
The h ee ypes o aw ma e ials and ine sand we e g ound and sie ed sepa a ely by
ASTM no. 140 mesh unde iden ical condi ions. Geopolyme ic binde s and mo a s we e
p epa ed ollowing he speci ic ou e o his wo k, acco ding o he pa h ecommended
in p e ious esea ch wo k [
46
–
49
]. In he i s s age, geopolyme ic binde s we e ob ained
by mixing aw ma e ial powde (CCP, DMP, IRP) and sodium hyd oxide solu ion wi h
mola concen a ions be ween 5 and 15 mola and a a 2:1 olume ic a io o aw ma e ial
powde and alkaline solu ion, espec i ely. In his wo k, i was decided o use he alkaline
solu ion/ aw ma e ial a io o 0.5, as his a io is wi hin he a e age used o added wa e
o OPC mo a s (wi h ypically used alues anging om 0.4 o 0.6). This a io was
used as a s anda d in ab ica ed ma e ials, bo h geopolyme ic and OPC mo a s. A e
he mechanical e alua ion o he geopolyme ic binde s, i was possible o de e mine he
op imal condi ions o he mola concen a ion o he sodium hyd oxide solu ion, and in a
second s age, geopolyme ic mo a s we e manu ac u ed, adding a con olled amoun o ine
sand o he pas e o he geopolyme binde . Fo he manu ac u e o geopolyme ic mo a s,
he olume ic a io o aw ma e ial, ine sand, and NaOH solu ion was 2.00:3.33:1.00,
co esponding o a composi ion in he mix u es in kg/m
3
ha is p esen ed in Table 3.
The mola concen a ions used o he p epa a ion o he alkaline solu ion we e 12, 15, o
18 mola
. In bo h he p epa a ion o binde s and mo a s, powde s and alkaline solu ion
we e mixed un il a homogeneous pas e was ob ained and hen hey we e p essed in a
20 mm
diame e cylind ical mold. The cylinde s we e demolded and deposi ed in ai igh
bags, whe e hey cu ed o 24 h; a e his ime, hey we e emo ed om he bags and
placed in he en i onmen o 28 days. In his way, geopolyme ic mo a om calcined
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 9 o 23
clay (GM-CC), geopolyme ic mo a om demoli ion mo a (GM-DM), and geopolyme ic
mo a om ignimb i e ock (GM-IR) we e ob ained. This p epa a ion ime o 28 days is
in acco dance wi h o he wo ks and allows o co ec wo kabili y o he samples [
19
,
24
].
The manu ac u e o con en ional OPC mo a s (M-PC) was conside ed using he same
olume ic ac ions o ine sand and binde , he same amoun o wa e added, and he
same molding and se ing pa ame e s.
Table 3. Mixing p opo ions o geopolyme ic mo a s s udied.
Componen GM-CC GM-DM GM-IR M-PC
FS (kg/m3)1676.4 1654.4 1634.1 1791.7
Raw ma e ial (kg/m3)1005.9 992.7 980.4 1075.0
Alkaline NaOH solu ion (kg/m3)502.9 496.3 490.2 537.5
2.3. S uc u al, Mic os uc u al, and Mechanic Cha ac e iza ion o Geopolyme ic and OPC Mo a
The s uc u al c ys allog aphic cha ac e iza ion o he mo a s was ca ied ou on a
D8 Ad ance di ac ome e (B uke , Ka ls uhe, Ge many) wi h a Cu ube (
λ
= 1.5406 Å),
equipped wi h a Van ec posi ion-sensi i e de ec o . The di ac ome e had adial Solle
sli s and 60 mm Göbel mi o s o CuK
α
adia ion (
λ
= 0.15405 nm) wi h pa allel geome y
in he inciden beam. The pa allel beam con igu a ion in inciden adia ion allows o
p ecise s udy o he c ys alline s uc u es o supe icially inhomogeneous samples. Due
o his cha ac e is ic, i was possible o di ec ly moun and measu e mo a specimens
wi hou g inding hem. The es s we e pe o med in he 2
θ
ange om 5 o 90 and a s ep o
0.02. Iden i ica ion o he c ys alline phases and pe cen age o he amo phous phase was
de e mined using Di ac.EVA 5.2 so wa e (B uke , Ka ls uhe, Ge many). Due o he high
p esence o amo phous ma e ial in he solid specimens analyzed, a quan i a i e analysis o
he c ys alline phases was no ca ied ou using he Rie eld me hod. The mic os uc u al
cha ac e iza ion was ca ied ou on he same scanning elec on mic oscopy equipmen
used o cha ac e izing he s a ing aw ma e ials. Fo mic os uc u al s udies, he samples
we e p e iously polished wi h lub ica ing liquid and diamond pas e o pa icle size o
6 o 0.25 µm.
Mechanical e alua ion was ca ied ou in uniaxial comp ession es s (MICROTEST,
model EM1/FR, Mad id, Spain) a a cons an comp ession a e o 0.05 mm/min (Figu e 3a).
The samples used we e 5 mm
×
5 mm
×
10 mm pa allelepipeds, cu om la ge cylind ical
samples. Th ee epe i ions we e ca ied ou o each sample (ini ial pieces in Figu e 3b
and es ed samples wi h agile beha io in Figu e 3c). All mechanical es s we e ep e-
sen ed in s ess e sus s ain cu es and he maximum s eng h and modulus o elas ici y
could be de e mined. The da a ob ained o geopolyme ic mo a s we e con as ed wi h
hose ob ained on samples o con en ional Po land cemen mo a s o simila geome y
and dimensions.
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 16 o 23
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Figu e 8. Diff ac og ams eco ded o geopolyme ic and OPC mo a wi h he main B agg peaks o
he p esen phases ma ked o (a) GM-CC, (b) GM-DM, (c) GM-IR, and (d) M-PC.
Figu e 8. Di ac og ams eco ded o geopolyme ic and OPC mo a wi h he main B agg peaks o
he p esen phases ma ked o (a) GM-CC, (b) GM-DM, (c) GM-IR, and (d) M-PC.
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 17 o 23
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Figu e 9. Compa ison o a semiquan i a i e es ima ion o he pe cen age o amo phous phase o
geopolyme ic (GM-CC, GM-DM, and GM-IR) and con en ional mo a s o OPC (M-PC).
Figu e 10 shows mic og aphs by scanning elec on mic oscopy o polished su aces
o con en ional geopolyme ic and OPC mo a s. Fo all he ma e ials, i was possible o
iden i y wo phases e y well diffe en ia ed om each o he ; on he one hand, a con inu-
ous phase o binde ma e ial and, on he o he , a discon inuous phase o fine sand g ains
cha ac e ized by a ypical mo phology o equiaxia ed g ains imme sed in he phase
binde con inues. F om hese images, i can be unde s ood ha he FS does no geopoly-
me ize o a g ea ex en , and he aluminosilica es ha cause his p ocess come mainly om
aw ma e ials.
Figu e 10. Scanning elec on mic oscopy mic og aphs o geopolyme ic mo a s (GM-CC, GM-DM,
GM-IR) and hei compa ison wi h con en ional Po land cemen conc e e (M-PC) showing he si -
ua ion o FS o all cases.
Figu e 9. Compa ison o a semiquan i a i e es ima ion o he pe cen age o amo phous phase o
geopolyme ic (GM-CC, GM-DM, and GM-IR) and con en ional mo a s o OPC (M-PC).
Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 24
Figu e 9. Compa ison o a semiquan i a i e es ima ion o he pe cen age o amo phous phase o
geopolyme ic (GM-CC, GM-DM, and GM-IR) and con en ional mo a s o OPC (M-PC).
Figu e 10 shows mic og aphs by scanning elec on mic oscopy o polished su aces
o con en ional geopolyme ic and OPC mo a s. Fo all he ma e ials, i was possible o
iden i y wo phases e y well diffe en ia ed om each o he ; on he one hand, a con inu-
ous phase o binde ma e ial and, on he o he , a discon inuous phase o fine sand g ains
cha ac e ized by a ypical mo phology o equiaxia ed g ains imme sed in he phase
binde con inues. F om hese images, i can be unde s ood ha he FS does no geopoly-
me ize o a g ea ex en , and he aluminosilica es ha cause his p ocess come mainly om
aw ma e ials.
Figu e 10. Scanning elec on mic oscopy mic og aphs o geopolyme ic mo a s (GM-CC, GM-DM,
GM-IR) and hei compa ison wi h con en ional Po land cemen conc e e (M-PC) showing he si -
ua ion o FS o all cases.
Figu e 10. Scanning elec on mic oscopy mic og aphs o geopolyme ic mo a s (GM-CC, GM-DM,
GM-IR) and hei compa ison wi h con en ional Po land cemen conc e e (M-PC) showing he
si ua ion o FS o all cases.
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 18 o 23
Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o 24
Figu e 11a shows he s ess e sus s ain cu es o he geopolyme binde s a e be-
ing cu ed o 28 days in ai . This p epa a ion ime is in acco dance wi h p e ious wo ks
and allows o co ec wo kabili y o he samples [19,24]. I should be no ed ha he pas es
ob ained om he mix u e o binde aw ma e ials and alkaline solu ions o 5 mola con-
cen a ion did no ha e he cohesion and compac abili y necessa y o ob ain adequa e
samples and we e disca ded. On he o he hand, he alkaline solu ion o 15 M p oduced a
wo kable and moldable pas e wi h good mechanical s eng h. To educe he amoun o
alkaline compound wi hou damaging mechanical esis ance, 12 M and 18 M p epa a ions
we e made o he geopolyme ic mo a manu ac u ing s age. As will be seen in he pa -
icula s udy o he esul s, i was gene ally ound ha o concen a ions 12 M and 15 M,
he e is no significan gain in mechanical esis ance, bu o 18 M, he e is a dec ease. Ge-
opolyme s wi h 18 M mola i y had high plas ici y, and hei molding p ocess was com-
plex; howe e , i was possible o manu ac u e geopolyme s sa is ac o ily. In gene al, he
bes o e all esul s we e ob ained o he 12 M concen a ion.
F om he cu es o Figu e 11a, highe alues o maximum esis ance o uniaxial com-
p ession and modulus o elas ici y can be obse ed in binde s de i ed om IRP, wi h
espec o hei DMP and CCP coun e pa s when ob ained wi h alkaline mola i y solu-
ions o 15 M. Fu he mo e, educing he mola i y o he alkaline solu ion om 15 o 10 M
p oduces a sligh educ ion in comp essi e s eng h, al hough i is mo e e iden in CCP-
de i ed binde s, educing i s esis ance om 32 o 24 MPa and i s modulus o elas ici y
om 18 o 13 GPa. Compa ing he esul s ob ained wi h he influence o he chemical ac-
i a ion p ocess by NaOH on he comp essi e s esses o geopolyme s in p e ious wo ks,
he alues ob ained in his wo k a e good and ha e simila mola i y alues [24,48].
In Figu e 11b, a compa ison o s ess e sus s ain cu es is made o DMP geopoly-
me ic mo a s wi h alkaline solu ion concen a ions o 12, 15, and 18 M. The esul s eflec
a sys ema ic educ ion in comp essi e s eng h when he concen a ion o he alkaline so-
lu ion inc eases om 12 o 18 M. I is impo an o men ion ha he 18 M concen a ion is
no ecommended, acco ding o he esul s o his wo k, since i educes he o e all e-
sis ance o he manu ac u ed geopolyme . This educ ion in mechanical esis ance could
be due o he accumula ion and c ys alliza ion o seconda y compounds (NaOH o o he
Na compounds) in he geopolyme binde in e aces and fine sand, which could p oduce
an inadequa e ansmission o s ess be ween bo h phases, an effec ha is mo e significan
wi h an excess concen a ion o sodium ions in he alkaline solu ion used.
Figu e 11. S ess e sus s ain cu es o (a) IRP, CCP, and DMP geopolyme binde s, and (b) DMP
geopolyme ic mo a s wi h a ied alkaline solu ion mola i ies.
Figu e 11. S ess e sus s ain cu es o (a) IRP, CCP, and DMP geopolyme binde s, and (b) DMP
geopolyme ic mo a s wi h a ied alkaline solu ion mola i ies.
F om he cu es o Figu e 11a, highe alues o maximum esis ance o uniaxial
comp ession and modulus o elas ici y can be obse ed in binde s de i ed om IRP, wi h
espec o hei DMP and CCP coun e pa s when ob ained wi h alkaline mola i y solu ions
o 15 M. Fu he mo e, educing he mola i y o he alkaline solu ion om 15 o 10 M
p oduces a sligh educ ion in comp essi e s eng h, al hough i is mo e e iden in CCP-
de i ed binde s, educing i s esis ance om 32 o 24 MPa and i s modulus o elas ici y
om 18 o 13 GPa. Compa ing he esul s ob ained wi h he in luence o he chemical
ac i a ion p ocess by NaOH on he comp essi e s esses o geopolyme s in p e ious wo ks,
he alues ob ained in his wo k a e good and ha e simila mola i y alues [24,48].
In Figu e 11b, a compa ison o s ess e sus s ain cu es is made o DMP geopoly-
me ic mo a s wi h alkaline solu ion concen a ions o 12, 15, and 18 M. The esul s e lec
a sys ema ic educ ion in comp essi e s eng h when he concen a ion o he alkaline
solu ion inc eases om 12 o 18 M. I is impo an o men ion ha he 18 M concen a ion
is no ecommended, acco ding o he esul s o his wo k, since i educes he o e all
esis ance o he manu ac u ed geopolyme . This educ ion in mechanical esis ance could
be due o he accumula ion and c ys alliza ion o seconda y compounds (NaOH o o he
Na compounds) in he geopolyme binde in e aces and ine sand, which could p oduce
an inadequa e ansmission o s ess be ween bo h phases, an e ec ha is mo e signi ican
wi h an excess concen a ion o sodium ions in he alkaline solu ion used.
I was demons a ed ha ignimb i e ock powde as a binde ma e ial (wi hou he
addi ion o agg ega es) p esen ed he bes mechanical cha ac e is ics, among he h ee ypes
o binde aw ma e ials used in his wo k, wi h alues o comp essi e s eng h o 42 MPa
and a modulus elas ic o 30 GPa, when ac i a ed wi h a 15 M sodium hyd oxide solu ion.
The esul s show ha he inc ease in he mola concen a ion o he sodium hyd oxide
ha dening solu ion did no inc ease he comp essi e s eng h o he elas ic modulus; on
he con a y, i educed i , inding ha he bes mechanical esul s we e ob ained when
going om 18 o 12 mola ; his esul is sys ema ic and ep oducible o he h ee ypes o
geopolyme ic mo a s s udied.
Figu e 12 shows s ess e sus s ain cu es o geopolyme mo a s o calcined clay
powde (GM-CC), demoli ion mo a powde (GM-DM), ignimb i e ock powde (GM-IR),
and con en ional Po land cemen mo a s (M-PC). All es s we e ca ied ou wi h ou
epe i ions and unde no mal en i onmen al condi ions. The esul s in Figu es 11 and 12 a e
p esen ed in pe cen ages, gene ally ob aining alues o he o de o 2%, which is equi alen
o 0.02 de o ma ion. In his wo k, he esul s we e exp essed in % o acili a e unde s anding
o he g aphs. The alue close o 2% is consis en wi h o he wo ks in he li e a u e and he
expec ed alues o mo a s manu ac u ed om Po land cemen . When compa ing he
da a ob ained only o geopolyme ic mo a s, i can be men ioned ha he highes alues in
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 19 o 23
comp essi e s eng h and modulus o elas ici y we e o GM-CC, ollowed by GM-DM and
GM-IR. The wo s alues ob ained o GM-IR coincide wi h he highe c ys allini y shown
by XRD (Figu e 9) ha can be ela ed o a lowe geopolyme iza ion o GM-IR compa ed o
GM-CC and GM-DM [
9
,
14
]. The highes maximum esis ance o uniaxial comp ession and
modulus o elas ici y o geopolyme ic mo a s is shown wi h espec o Po land cemen
mo a in he s udy condi ions o his wo k. Acco ding o p e ious epo s, he modulus o
elas ici y o geopolyme ma e ials is gene ally lowe han ha o OPC ma e ials, which is
one o he signi ican weaknesses and disad an ages o geopolyme conc e es. Howe e ,
his does no happen in all cases, and in ce ain geopolyme ic ma e ials, simila o e en
be e alues a e ob ained han OPC-p epa ed mo a s [
48
,
49
]. The mode o p epa a ion
o M-PC in his wo k is no he con en ional way o p epa a ion, so by p epa ing hese
mo a s unde mo e s anda dized condi ions, we conside ha hei mechanical p ope ies
can be signi ican ly imp o ed. In any case, his wo k o e s a pe spec i e o he g ea
po en ial o he geopolyme ic ma e ials s udied.
Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 o 24
Figu e 12. S ess e sus s ain cu es o (a–c) con en ional geopolyme ic mo a s and (d) Po land
cemen mo a s, es ed in ai a oom empe a u e o ou epe i ions in each case
Figu e 13 p esen s wo compa a i e g aphs in which all he mechanical da a ob ained
in he uniaxial comp ession es s a e summa ized. These g aphs show he deg ee o e-
pe i i eness o he esul s, which is accompanied by he homogenei y o he samples. In
gene al, alues o he same o de o ela i ely s able a e ob ained o bo h he uniaxial
comp essi e s eng h and he modulus o elas ici y. The elas ic modulus was calcula ed
di ec ly om he s ess e sus s ain cu es; i is he esul o measu ing he slope in he
linea elas ic zone o each o he cu es in Figu e 12 o mo a s. A g ea e epe i i eness
can be seen, wi h espec o he comp essi e s eng h alues (Figu e 13a), o he esul s in
geopolyme ic DMP mo a s and OPC mo a s. Howe e , obse ing Figu e 13b, a g ea e
epe i i eness o he esul s o he modulus o elas ici y can be seen in he geopolyme ic
mo a s o CCP and DMP, wi h espec o he geopolyme ic mo a s o IRP and he con-
en ional mo a s o OPC.
Figu e 12. S ess e sus s ain cu es o (a–c) con en ional geopolyme ic mo a s and (d) Po land
cemen mo a s, es ed in ai a oom empe a u e o ou epe i ions in each case.
Figu e 13 p esen s wo compa a i e g aphs in which all he mechanical da a ob ained
in he uniaxial comp ession es s a e summa ized. These g aphs show he deg ee o epe i-
i eness o he esul s, which is accompanied by he homogenei y o he samples. In gene al,
alues o he same o de o ela i ely s able a e ob ained o bo h he uniaxial comp essi e
s eng h and he modulus o elas ici y. The elas ic modulus was calcula ed di ec ly om
he s ess e sus s ain cu es; i is he esul o measu ing he slope in he linea elas ic
zone o each o he cu es in Figu e 12 o mo a s. A g ea e epe i i eness can be seen,
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 20 o 23
wi h espec o he comp essi e s eng h alues (Figu e 13a), o he esul s in geopolyme ic
DMP mo a s and OPC mo a s. Howe e , obse ing Figu e 13b, a g ea e epe i i eness
o he esul s o he modulus o elas ici y can be seen in he geopolyme ic mo a s o CCP
and DMP, wi h espec o he geopolyme ic mo a s o IRP and he con en ional mo a s
o OPC.
Geosciences 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 o 24
Figu e 13. Compa a i e summa y o alues o (a) maximum esis ance o uniaxial comp ession and
(b) modulus o elas ici y, o con en ional and geopolyme ic Po land cemen mo a s.
This s udy demons a ed ha i is possible o ob ain geopolyme ic mo a s wi hou
he addi ion o Po land cemen , wi h maximum comp essi e s eng h alues and elas ic
moduli highe han hose o con en ional Po land cemen mo a s. The bes esul s we e
ound o calcined clay powde mo a s, ollowed by demoli ion mo a powde mo a s
and ollowed by ignimb i e ock powde mo a s, his las ype o mo a is o pa icula
ele ance due o he po en ial use o ignimb i e was e o he manu ac u e o new con-
s uc ion ma e ials, conside ing ha cu en ly, his was e only accumula es in he qua ies
whe e i is exploi ed, and he e a e no simila s udies ha p o ide insigh s o ecommen-
da ions o i s use.
4. Conclusions
A deep cha ac e iza ion and geological desc ip ion o ignimb i e ock om he egion
o A equipa, Pe u was ca ied ou in his wo k. An ignimb i e ock was cha ac e ized,
ob aining a po osi y by CT echnique o 0.97% by olume, e i ying he known cons uc-
i e capaci y o his geological ma e ial.
In his wo k, eco iendly geopolyme ic binde s and mo a s, wi hou he addi ion o
o dina y Po land cemen , we e success ully manu ac u ed om ino ganic was e om he
cons uc ion indus y: ignimb i e ock powde , calcined clay powde , and demoli ion
mo a powde . Aluminosilica es o sodium (albi e), calcium (ano hi e), and po assium
(mic ocline) we e ound in high pe cen ages, by XRD, in he s a ing powde s o calcined
clay, demoli ion mo a , and ignimb i e ock, espec i ely, sugges ing ha hese phases
would be esponsible o he geopolyme iza ion p ocess (in he c ys alline egion) o ob-
ain geopolyme binde s and mo a s. The Si/Al a ios ound in all s a ing powde s sug-
ges ha he bonds o med in he geopolyme ic ma e ials s udied a e siala e (Si/Al > 3).
Na om ini ial albi e and he inco po a ion o Na+ ions in he aluminosilica e s uc-
u e o he p ecu so ma e ials enables he o ma ion o new c ys alline phases in he p e-
pa ed geopolyme s. The o ma ion o mic ocline om musco i e, ano hoclase om an-
o hi e wi h K con ibu ion om musco i e, and sanidine om mic ocline a e sugges ed
o calcined clay geopolyme ic mo a s, geopolyme ic demoli ion mo a , and ignimb i e
ock geopolyme ic mo a , espec i ely. Fo con en ional and geopolyme ic Po land ce-
men mo a s, i was possible o iden i y by scanning elec on mic oscopy wo e y well-
diffe en ia ed phases: on he one hand, a con inuous phase o he binde ma e ial, and on
he o he , a discon inuous phase o fine sand g ains imme sed in he con inuous binde
phase.
Highe alues o maximum esis ance o uniaxial comp ession and modulus o elas-
ici y can be obse ed in binde s de i ed om IRP compa ed o CCP and DMP, ob ained
wi h 15 M alkaline mola i y solu ions. Fu he mo e, educing he mola i y o he alkaline
solu ion om 15 o 10 M p oduces a educ ion in he comp essi e s eng h o all geopol-
yme ic binde s. The highes alues in he comp essi e s eng h and modulus o elas ici y
Figu e 13. Compa a i e summa y o alues o (a) maximum esis ance o uniaxial comp ession and
(b) modulus o elas ici y, o con en ional and geopolyme ic Po land cemen mo a s.
This s udy demons a ed ha i is possible o ob ain geopolyme ic mo a s wi hou
he addi ion o Po land cemen , wi h maximum comp essi e s eng h alues and elas ic
moduli highe han hose o con en ional Po land cemen mo a s. The bes esul s
we e ound o calcined clay powde mo a s, ollowed by demoli ion mo a powde
mo a s and ollowed by ignimb i e ock powde mo a s, his las ype o mo a is o
pa icula ele ance due o he po en ial use o ignimb i e was e o he manu ac u e o
new cons uc ion ma e ials, conside ing ha cu en ly, his was e only accumula es in he
qua ies whe e i is exploi ed, and he e a e no simila s udies ha p o ide insigh s o
ecommenda ions o i s use.
4. Conclusions
A deep cha ac e iza ion and geological desc ip ion o ignimb i e ock om he egion
o A equipa, Pe u was ca ied ou in his wo k. An ignimb i e ock was cha ac e ized,
ob aining a po osi y by CT echnique o 0.97% by olume, e i ying he known cons uc i e
capaci y o his geological ma e ial.
In his wo k, eco iendly geopolyme ic binde s and mo a s, wi hou he addi ion
o o dina y Po land cemen , we e success ully manu ac u ed om ino ganic was e om
he cons uc ion indus y: ignimb i e ock powde , calcined clay powde , and demoli ion
mo a powde . Aluminosilica es o sodium (albi e), calcium (ano hi e), and po assium
(mic ocline) we e ound in high pe cen ages, by XRD, in he s a ing powde s o calcined
clay, demoli ion mo a , and ignimb i e ock, espec i ely, sugges ing ha hese phases
would be esponsible o he geopolyme iza ion p ocess (in he c ys alline egion) o ob ain
geopolyme binde s and mo a s. The Si/Al a ios ound in all s a ing powde s sugges
ha he bonds o med in he geopolyme ic ma e ials s udied a e siala e (Si/Al > 3).
Na om ini ial albi e and he inco po a ion o Na
+
ions in he aluminosilica e s uc u e
o he p ecu so ma e ials enables he o ma ion o new c ys alline phases in he p epa ed
geopolyme s. The o ma ion o mic ocline om musco i e, ano hoclase om ano hi e
wi h K con ibu ion om musco i e, and sanidine om mic ocline a e sugges ed o
calcined clay geopolyme ic mo a s, geopolyme ic demoli ion mo a , and ignimb i e
ock geopolyme ic mo a , espec i ely. Fo con en ional and geopolyme ic Po land
cemen mo a s, i was possible o iden i y by scanning elec on mic oscopy wo e y
well-di e en ia ed phases: on he one hand, a con inuous phase o he binde ma e ial,
and on he o he , a discon inuous phase o ine sand g ains imme sed in he con inuous
binde phase.
Geosciences 2024,14, 80 21 o 23
Highe alues o maximum esis ance o uniaxial comp ession and modulus o elas-
ici y can be obse ed in binde s de i ed om IRP compa ed o CCP and DMP, ob ained
wi h 15 M alkaline mola i y solu ions. Fu he mo e, educing he mola i y o he alka-
line solu ion om 15 o 10 M p oduces a educ ion in he comp essi e s eng h o all
geopolyme ic binde s. The highes alues in he comp essi e s eng h and modulus o
elas ici y o mo a s we e o GM-CC, ollowed by GM-DM and GM-IR. I was ound ha
he alues o maximum esis ance o uniaxial comp ession and modulus o elas ici y a e
sys ema ically highe in geopolyme ic mo a s om he cons uc ion indus y compa ed o
Po land cemen , p epa ing mo a s unde he condi ions o his wo k.
In his s udy, cha ac e iza ion o he ignimb i e o he A equipa, Pe u egion was
ca ied ou . This wo k demons a es he eno mous po en ial o he cons uc ion was e
s udied, namely, he aw ma e ial o al e na i e mo a binde s wi hou he addi ion
o OPC. Ignimb i e gene ally shows good esul s as a geopolyme ic p ecu so . As a
conclusion, in gene al, he bes o e all esul s we e ob ained o he 12 M concen a ion o
all he ma e ials, and he op imal alues we e ob ained in maximum esis ance o uniaxial
comp ession and modulus o elas ici y o 15 M alkaline solu ions o ignimb i e wi hou
he addi ion o agg ega es, wi h alues o comp essi e s eng h o 42 MPa and a modulus
elas ic o 30 GPa.
Fu he esea ch is needed on he long- e m echnical pe o mance, du abili y, and
economic easibili y o geopolyme ic building p oduc s made om ecycled ino ganic
was e om he cons uc ion indus y.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, F.A.H.-M. and S.M.-C.; me hodology, F.A.H.-M. and
S.M.-C.; so wa e, F.A.H.-M., C.K.P.-Ñ. and S.M.-C.; alida ion, F.A.H.-M. and S.M.-C.; o mal analy-
sis, F.A.H.-M., C.K.P.-Ñ., M.d.M.O.C. and S.M.-C.; in es iga ion, F.A.H.-M., C.K.P.-Ñ., M.d.M.O.C.
and S.M.-C.; esou ces, F.A.H.-M., M.d.M.O.C. and S.M.-C.; da a cu a ion, F.A.H.-M. and S.M.-C.;
w i ing—o iginal
d a p epa a ion, F.A.H.-M. and S.M.-C.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, F.A.H.-M.,
C.K.P.-Ñ., M.d.M.O.C. and S.M.-C.; isualiza ion, F.A.H.-M. and S.M.-C.; supe ision, F.A.H.-M.;
p ojec adminis a ion, F.A.H.-M.; unding acquisi ion, F.A.H.-M. and M.d.M.O.C. All au ho s ha e
ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This s udy was unded by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Inno ación Tec-
nológica (CONCYTEC) and Se icio Nacional de Capaci ación pa a la Indus ia de la Cons ucción
(SENCICO) om Pe u (g an numbe 106-2017-FONDECYT). Uni e si y o Se ille h ough he VII
Plan P opio de In es igación (P oyec 2022/00000279).
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : All da a a e included in his a icle.
Acknowledgmen s: CONCYTEC and SENCICO om Pe u and he Uni e si y o Se ille h ough he
VII Plan P opio de In es igación. The au ho s a e g a e ul o he X- ay Labo a o y and Func ional
Cha ac e iza ion Se ices o he Cen o de In es igación Tecnología e Inno ación de la Uni e sidad
de Se illa (CITIUS).
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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