Regional Geopoli ics, F ench Geog aphy,
and Clima ology in “D y Spain,” Eigh een h
o Twen y-Fi s Cen u ies: Bi h
o he “Medi e anean Clima e”
Albe o Celis and Lino Camp ubí
Con en s
1 In oduc ion ................................................................................... 2
2 Spanish and F ench “Clima e heo y”: Be ween he Decline o he Habsbu gs
and he Rise o he Bou bons ................................................................ 4
3 Equa ing “d y Spain” o he “Medi e anean egion” om F ench Impe ialism
o Spanish Regene a ionism .................................................................. 8
4 The “Medi e anean clima e” Has Changed: Pu ing he Sea Back in
he Medi e anean ............................................................................. 15
5 Conclusion .................................................................................... 17
Re e ences ........................................................................................ 18
Abs ac
While i s limi s and defini ions a e s ill widely discussed, he Medi e anean egion
is a fi m uni o analysis bo h in he ea h and en i onmen al sciences and in his o y.
The connec ions be ween he scien ific and he his o ical app oaches o he Med-
i e anean egion a e widely ecognized in he li e a u e, a leas since he wo ks o
Fe nand B audel. F ench and Ge man physical geog aphy fi s defined a bo anic
and clima ic egion which hen human geog aphe s and his o ians in e p e ed as a
space pa ly de e mining a sha ed human pas . This chap e con ibu es o his
his o iog aphy by highligh ing con inui ies be ween ea ly mode n scien ific and
poli ical in e es in “d y Spain” and la e clima ological defini ions o he “Medi-
e anean clima e” as cha ac e ized by summe d ough s—a defini ion which
became global h ough Wladimi Köppen’s ex ension o he Medi e anean clima e
o places like Cali o nia, Sou h A ica, and sou he n Aus alia. This concep uali-
za ion, howe e , con adic s cu en app oaches o defining he Medi e anean
clima e by seasonal ains induced by he Medi e anean S ea.
A. Celis (✉) · L. Camp ubí
Uni e sidad de Se illa/DEEPMED, Se ille, Spain
e-mail: [email p o ec ed]; [email p o ec ed]
1
© The Au ho (s) 2025
E. A ono a e al. (eds.), Handbook o he His o iog aphy o he Ea h
and En i onmen al Sciences, His o iog aphies o Science,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-92679-3_26-1
2 A. Celis and L. Camp ubí
Keywo ds
Medi e anean clima e · Medi e anean his o y · F ench impe ialism ·
Medi e anean egion · En i onmen al his o y · F ench geog aphy · Clima e
heo y
1 In oduc ion
While he his o ical li e a u e on he Ea h and en i onmen al sciences is apidly
g owing, he ocus emains on he de elopmen o global concep s—say “ ossil
eco d,” “clima e change,” and “An h opocene” (Heymann and Dah an 2019). None-
heless, a ew his o ians ha e insis ed ha local scales a e an essen ial s ep in building
global ea h-sys em concep s (Hulme 2010; Coen 2016; Camp ubí and Lehmann
2018). His o ians o pola science ha e been pa icula ly success ul in loca ing he
significance o egional his o ies o geopoli ics and geoknowledge (Howkins and
Robe s 2023). This chap e enqui es abou he his o y o a pa adoxical egional
clima ic concep : he “Medi e anean clima e.” The pa adox we e e o is dual.
Fi s , he “Medi e anean clima e” e e s o egions as a om he Medi e anean
Sea as Cali o nia and Aus alia. Second, un il ecen decades, he “Medi e anean
clima e” did ba ely conside he ole o he “Medi e anean Sea” in shaping a mo-
sphe ic dynamics. These a e wo sides o he same coin: he de achmen o he
“Medi e anean clima e” om he Medi e anean Sea. In ou day, when clima ologis s
a e ques ioning his de achmen , he ques ion o how he “Medi e anean clima e”
came o be as a scien ific concep becomes pa icula ly p essing. We wan o con ibu e
o i s answe by paying a en ion o egional geopoli ics and he no ion o “d y Spain.”
The link be ween geopoli ics and geohis o y in he Medi e anean is a well-
es ablished heme. In 1949, his o ian Fe nand B audel p esen ed he fi s e sion
o The Medi e anean, which in 1966 g ew in o he amous h ee olumes which
composed he second edi ion. The en i onmen al longue du ée occupied mos o he
wo k, and i p o ided a so o s able backg ound capable o explaining social,
economic, and poli ical his o y. Acco ding o B audel, w i ing he his o y o he
Medi e anean egion consis ed fi s and o em os in iden i ying he wo longue-
du ée en i onmen al s uc u es de e mining Medi e anean his o y: a common
“Medi e anean clima e” and su ace sea cu en s enabling connec i i y be ween
Medi e anean peoples (B audel 1949). This (con es ed) connec ion be ween he
s a us o he Medi e anean as an objec in bo h his o y and in he ea h and
en i onmen al sciences has been widely ecognized in he his o ical li e a u e
(Bou gue e al. 1998; Pa is 2002; Wick 2016; Cazza o 2017). In he
mid-nine een h cen u y, Élisée Reclus was pe haps among he fi s in he F ench
adi ion in b inging oge he physical and human geog aphy when desc ibing he
Medi e anean egion (Ruel 1991). B audel himsel acknowledged his deb s o
I alian, F ench, and Ge man, physical geog aphy and clima ology (Pa is 2002).
La e wo ks would compl e e and p oblema ize his adi ion. In his The Moun ains
o he Medi e anean Wo ld, en i onmen al his o ian John McNeil ecognized he
Medi e anean as a dis inc ecological egion, defined by he moun ain chains ha
un pa allel o he coas bo h no h and sou h o he Sea (McNeill 1992: 12). Unlike
his p edecesso s, McNeill’s app oach d ew om pla e ec onics o a gue o geolog-
ical uni y a he base o he en i onmen al esemblances o Medi e anean moun-
ains. Focusing his a en ion on fi e o hese moun ains, McNeill a gued ha while
hei deep his o y shows human ac i i ies did no deg ade he Medi e anean moun-
ain en i onmen , indus ializa ion ma ked an i e e sible ecological decline isible
h ough de o es a ion, soil e osion, and depopula ion. La e , he geog aphe and
clima ologis Al ed T. G o e pai ed wi h he en i onmen al his o ian Oli e Rack-
ham and objec ed o McNeill ha “deg ada ion” had been a common bu alse
he o ical ope since ea ly discussio ns o he Medi e anean egion (G o e and
Rackham 2003). Diana K. Da is (2018) poin ed owa d mo e ecen o igins o he
idea o d yness as deg ada ion in F ench and Ge man colonialism in No h A ica.
Regional Geopoli ics, F ench Geog aphy, and Clima ology in “D y Spain,”…3
In his chap e , we con ibu e o he his o iciza ion o he Medi e anean egion as
an objec o geog aphic and his o iog aphic analysis. We a gue ha he no ion o a
“Medi e anean clima e” cha ac e ized by d yness pa ly s ems om ea ly mode n
no he n Eu opean impe ial in e es s in he egion. We do so by looking a B audel’s
a p eceden s in F ance: he se en een h- and eigh een h-cen u y ad oca es o
F ench expansionism owa d he sou h who bound oge he wha hey pe cei ed as
he Spanish landscape wi h he idleness o i s peoples. F om he ea ly nine een h
cen u y onwa d, F ench bo anis s and geog aphe s wo king wi hin F ench impe i-
alism in No h A ica de elo ped wo new and in e connec ed concep s: he Medi-
e anean egion and he Medi e anean clima e. In 1826, Napoleon’s cap ain and
bo anis Jean Bap is e Bo y de Sain -Vincen applied hese concep s back o Spain,
iden i ying much o his coun y as ha ing a Medi e anean clima e. Ou hesis is
ha un eiling i s ea ly mode n p eceden s sheds new ligh bo h on he his o y and
he s uc u e o he concep o he “Medi e anean clima e,” which is s ill deba ed
oday by clima ologis s la gely unawa e o i s poli ical o igins. We a gue ha he
nine een h-cen u y iden ifica ion o he ea ly mode n idea o a “d y Spain” wi h he
new concep o “Medi e anean clima e” is one o he sou ces o he sus ained (and
la gely con es ed) cha ac e iza ion o he Medi e anean clima e wi h a idi y.
O he ac o s ha e con ibu ed o defining he Medi e anean egion—among
o he s, die , an h opology, and a . Howe e , he eme gence o clima ology in he
ea ly nine een h cen u y was a key de elopmen in he o ma ion o his concep .
1
Wi hin his discipline, he Medi e anean egion be came iden ified wi h a clima ic
zone cha ac e ized by summe d ough s (Ruel 1991). The e a e su ely sou ces o he
han ea ly clima ology o he idea o he Medi e anean clima e as an a id. A e all,
Ancien philosophe Pla o al eady lamen ed wha he pe cei ed as he decline o
G eek soil (G o e and Rackham 2003: 288).
2
Likely, u he his o ies o he concep
1
In his iso he m map, Alexande on Humbold was he fi s o di ide he plane in o di e en
clima ic egions acco ding o i s empe a u e, imp o ing he classical, adi ional di ision
dis inguishing be ween he o id, empe a e, and igid zones (Klein 2018).
2
We hank Paul Edwa ds o b inging his poin o ou a en ion.
o he Medi e anean clima e should ake in o accoun de elopmen s in G eece and
I aly, as well as he B i ish and Ge man scien ific and poli ical ela ionships wi h he
O oman empi e, he middle Eas , and No h A ica. We hink, howe e , ha
ocusing on he Medi e anean inc easing ole in defining “d y Spain” illumina es
some unknown p eceden s o he F ench geog aphic adi ion, whose impo in he
his o iog aphy o he Medi e anean egion is widely ecognized .
4 A. Celis and L. Camp ubí
The e a e impo an s udies on he o igins o he associa ion o he Medi e anean
egion wi h a cha ac e is ic clima e. Acco ding o hese wo ks, he “scien ific
in en ion o he Medi e anean” was he job o ea ly nine een h-cen u y impe ial
F ench human geog aphy and biogeo g aphy de eloped by Élisée Reclus and o he s
(Ruel 1991; Dep es 2002). Paul Vidal de la Blache, widely conside ed he ounde
o F ench egional geog aphy, d ew on his adi ion o es ablish he p esence o a d y
summe season as he defining cha ac e is ic o he Medi e anean egion in his 1886
pape “Des appo s en e les popula ions e le clima su les bo ds eu opéens de la
Médi e anée.” Vidal de la Blache emphasized how he Medi e anean clima e
p o oundly influenced he cha ac e and way o li e o he people inhabi ing hese
a eas (Cla al 1988). Fe nand B audel empha ically emb aced Vidal de la Blache’s
egional ake on he Medi e anean. In his 1949 The Medi e anean and he Medi-
e anean Wo ld in he Age o Philip II, B audel poin ed o “D ough : [as] he
scou ge o he Medi e anean” (B audel 1975: 238).
Cha ac e izing he Medi e anean clima e as d y enabled B audel o si ua e he
egional en i onmen as an ac i e s age, pa ly shaping human his o y. La e en i on-
men al app oaches o Medi e anean his o y ha e had B audel’s no ion o a sha ed
clima e defining a common egion (G eene 2017). And ye , as he la e sec ion o his
chap e shows, he e is no hing sel -e iden abou he idea o he Medi e anean egion
as a d y one. New defini ions o he “Medi e anean clima e” poin o au umn and
win e ain all as he specific cha ac e is ics o he Medi e anean egion. The Medi-
e anean Sea now eme ges as a main d i e o he Medi e anean clima e h ough
cyclone genesis. (Re)si ua ing he Sea a he cen e o he Medi e anean has opened
new ques ions abou he uni y o he egion, s essing sub egional sys ems o equal
a mosphe ic p essu e and dynamics. The ques ion we ask can hus be e amed: Why
did defini ions o he Medi e anean clima e e ase he Medi e anean Sea o so long?
The no ion o he Medi e anean egion, we show, has a long poli ical his o y linked o
F ench and Spanish plans o ans o ma ion o he Spanish landscape h ough engi-
nee ing wo ks di ec ed o ame a wild na u e and cul u e. The nex wo sec ions u n o
hose plans and hei associa ed no ions o a idi y.
2 Spanish and F ench “Clima e heo y”: Be ween he Decline
o he Habsbu gs and he Rise o he Bou bons
The pe sonifica ion o a d y Spain has long been a p ominen li e a y mo i . Take, o
ins ance, Ce an es’ Don Quix o e, nicknamed “de La Mancha” a e he la ges a id
plain in he Ibe ian Peninsula. F ench a ele s who a i ed in he Ibe ian Peninsula
in he se en een h cen u y ook up his ope, o en compa ing he d yness o he
sou he n landscape o he g een hey we e used o a home. In bo h cases, he
insis ence on a idi y eflec ed he conce n o he decline o he Spanish Empi e.
This sec ion acks he o igins o his idea h ough Spanish and F ench sou ces,
emphasizing i s changing social and poli ical in e p e a ions, including “clima e
heo y”—which held ha clima e de e mines he cha ac e o a popula ion. While
o en used in e changeably by he ac o s, in wha ollows we y o ese e “a idi y”
o e e ences o bioclima ic condi ions and g an “d yness” a b oade each, includ-
ing he e ec s o human inac ion (lack o public wo ks) and ac ion (de o es a ion).
Regional Geopoli ics, F ench Geog aphy, and Clima ology in “D y Spain,”…5
In 1599, Jesui Scholas ic and his o ian Juan de Ma iana discussed he p oblem o
d ough and how o coun e i . He ad oca ed policies o e o es a ion and i iga ion
o fields as measu es o economic imp o emen and public heal h, “so as o educe
he ai ’s d yness.” Modi ying he clima e migh be possible wi h he a i al o mo e
p ecipi a ion hanks o he e apo a ion o wa e om he canals (Ma iana [1599]
1845: 347). D ough and hyd aulic wo ks we e becoming common hemes among
Spanish hinke s. In 1627, o ins ance, economic hinke Caxa de Le uela oiced a
complain by Cas ilian a me s abou he lack o i iga ion p ojec s, poin ing ou ha ,
meanwhile, he Spanish C own spen la ge sums o money on he cons uc ion o
a ificial lakes in Flande s (Caxa de Le uela 1627: 18– 19).
The deba e ocused on who should unde ake hese hyd aulic wo ks. In he
six een h cen u y, Spanish economic hough a o ed p i a e ini ia i e o e s a e
in e en ion in ag icul u e (Fe nández Ál a ez 2014). Along he se en een h cen-
u y, howe e , demand o he king’s in e en ion inc eased (Fe nández Delgado
2003). The call o la ge s a e in e en ion in he economy cha ac e ized he
so-called “a bi is as.” This g oup o hinke s plead o e o ms ha would
s eng hen he king’s powe in he economy, pa icula ly by p omo ing field i iga-
ion and e o es a ion (He mann 1989). Only in his way, hey a gued, could he
c own p e en he depopula ion o e i o ies, which hey associa ed o decline and
lack o e enue. They peppe ed hei w i ing wi h wo ds like a idi y, s e ili y, and
sca ci y (Lo enzo 2014: 83). In a ime o impe ial decline, a bi is as ad anced
in e nal coloniza ion as a esponse o he me opole’s lack o popula ion.
Those poli ical ideas coincided wi h a g owing in e es in clima e change among
ea ly mode n Eu opean hinke s and go e nmen s (Pa ke 2013). The need o al e
clima ic condi ions o boos ag icul u al p oduc ion and imp o e he quali y o li e
o he popula ion was a de fining ea u e o ule s’ ac ions in he Ea ly Mode n age.
This app oach is wha some au ho s ha e e med “clima e heo y”: he a gumen ha
he clima e could de e mine bo h he weal h and he cha ac e o na ions (Mo gan
and Miglie i 2017). A la e exponen was Cha les de Mon esquieu. In The Spi i o
he Laws (1748), he explo ed how clima e influenced he cha ac e and cus oms o
people in di e en egions, including Spain. Acco ding o his F ench poli ical
philosophe , he in ense hea in sou he n Eu opean coun ies, like Spain, a ec ed
he empe amen a nd beha io o i s inhabi an s. Mon esquieu belie ed ha hea
made people mo e passi e, less indus ious, and mo e p one o laziness o leisu e. He
conside ed ha wa m clima es os e ed an inclina ion owa d a con empla i e o
eflec i e li e, in con as o he colde clima es o no he n Eu ope, which, in his
iew, encou aged ha d wo k, cons an ac i i y, and g ea e physical s eng h (Mon-
esquieu 1748: 300).
6 A. Celis and L. Camp ubí
Ea lie au ho s we e o en less a alis ic: Clima es do de e mine na ional cha ac e s,
bu humans can a ec clima es. While hese ideas commonly e e ed o hea , hey
o en ex ended o d yness, i s human-made causes, and how o coun e hem. In
F ance, he idea ha he go e nmen could imp o e he clima e o imp o e he na ion
ook hold h ough se e al impo an public wo ks. Raphaël Mo e a e e ed o he
d ainage and ag icul u al ans o ma ion o we lands as “go e ning wi h he en i on-
men ,” c ea ing “mic oclima es” conduci e o he g ow h o he F ench popula ion.
A e he ascension o he h one o Hen y IV o F ance in 1589, ans o ming a
“dese ic and uninhabi ed coun y “ became a undamen al objec i e o he c own
(Mo e a 2017). The house o Bou bon also amed d ainage o we lands as a legi i-
mizing exe cise o good go e nance. Soon, F ench a ele s began o apply hese ideas
o Spain, o en d awing on he abo emen ioned Spanish sou ces and o en on hei
own expe ience and poli ical in e es s. In 1655, as An oine B unel app oached he
bo de a e a long a el a ound o Spain, he compa ed bo h coun ies:
Wi hou exagge a ion o hype bole, I concluded ha , in one place, Judgmen Day would
ha e li le o des oy, while in he o he , he flames ha will ma k he end o he wo ld would
be he las o ex inguish. I seemed as hough fi e had al eady allen om he sky in he
o me , lea ing he land hal -baked, while in he la e , only a pleasan and li e-gi ing
wa m h was ecei ed. (B unel 1666: 320–321)
A ew days ea lie in Pamplona, loca ed in no he n Spain nea he F ench bo de ,
he had al eady dis inguished he Na a ese om o he Spania ds based on geog aph-
ical cha ac e is ics:
We obse ed ha , as we g adually mo ed away om he d yness o Cas ile and he aus e i y
o A agon, we a i ed in a mo e sociable coun y, wi h g ea e communica ion among i s
inhabi an s, as well as wi h hose who we e me ely passing h ough. (313)
He and o he F ench a ele s compa ed he succes ses achie ed in F ance unde
he Bou bon dynas y in p oducing Mo e a’s “mic oclima es” o wha hey pe cei ed
as Spanish inac ion and e en ac i e des uc ion h ough de o es a ion. The poli ical
mo i a ion behind some o hese nega i e iews was he wa be ween he kings o
F ance and Spain. B unel’s mo e posi i e iews on Na a e, o ins ance, we e
pe haps linked o he ac ha Hen y IV, he fi s Bou bon o eign in F ance
(1589–1610), had also been king o Na a e.
The discou se o clima e heo y and a idi y could none heless be adap ed o new
poli ical si ua ions. In 1669, some decades a e his compa io B unel, F ançois
Be au also desc ibed a depopula ed and ba en coun y: Spania ds we e o blame
o he depopula ed d yness o he Cas ilian land, because wi h hei laziness and
p ide hey e us ed o cul i a e i . “The diso de ed beha iou o i s men and women
s a s om childhood,” Be au a gued in he one o clima e heo is s, “ esul ing in
less kids being bo n and hose bo n no being as igo ous as in colde and mo e
mode a e coun ies” (Be au 1669: 274). He le , howe e , ample oom o hope
ega ding Spain’s economic p ospec s. The wo coun ies had now signed he Peace
o he Py enees (1659), and Be au a eled o Spain oge he wi h King Louis
XIV’s ambassado o ein o ce ha alliance. He hus had g ounds o be mo e
op imis ic han B unel had been. Bu canaliza ion and e o es a ion could eco e
an allegedly los weal h. Discussing he example o he Islamic hyd aulic wo ks in
G anada, “whe e he wa e flows h ough small canals like hose ha i iga e he
lands in F ance o e he meadows,” he p oposed “ ha i he Spania ds we e willing
o do he same e e ywhe e, his would be he mos e ile coun y in Eu ope” (276).
Hea y axes imposed by a co up dynas y, Be au concluded making his poli ical
case, we e he only obs acle o hese e o ming p ospec s.
Regional Geopoli ics, F ench Geog aphy, and Clima ology in “D y Spain,”…7
The idea o a d y Spain was hus no only linked o he a idi y o i s clima e bu
also o he pe cei ed laziness o i s inhabi an s (Schaub 2003: 211). Some au ho s
a gued ha he hea de e mined his beha io , as suppo ed by “clima e heo y,” bu
some o he s emphasized ha indol ence and bad go e nmen hinde ed he e o ms
ha we e necessa y o add ess he d yness caused by he clima e and he esul ing
depopula ion. In bo h cases, a idi y became he hallma k o he Spanish and a
powe ul image o explain he loss o impe ial hegemony.
These ideas played a pi o al ole in he b oade diploma ic s a egy o he F ench
Bou bons in Spain. As Cha les II o Spain had no hei , he F ench Bou bons de ised
plans o eplace he Habsbu g dynas y as ule s o Spain (Schaub 2003: 337). Louis
XIV’s diploma s, a ele s, and ambassado s p omo ed a p opagandis ic iew o he
o e all poo s a e o he Spanish mona chy compa ed o a F ance p ospe ing hanks
o poli ical and echni cal e o ms. The connec ion be ween decline and d yness came
o he on o he poli ical discou se. Ca dinal Pie e de Bonzi, Louis XIV’s
ambassado o Spain, w o e o his king in 1679 ha he Spanish would a he
d own hemsel es han build canals o di e wa e (Al a ez López 2008: 273).
This, o cou se, con as ed wi h impo an wo ks by Spanish enginee s and echni-
cians bo h in Spain and in he Ame i cas (Lucena Gi aldo and Fe nández-A mes o
2022). Bu he na a i e o idleness and he need o ans o ma i e p ojec s became
he usual legi imiza ion o he F ench king’s poli ical ambi ions. A g oup o
cou ie s consolida ed in Mad id who associa ed good go e nance wi h he e o ms
implemen ed in F ance (Al a ez López 2008: 114).
When he Bou bon dynas y finally seized powe in 1700 wi h Philipp V, hey
mo ed o implemen some o he p omised e o ms. Philip V ound in his g and a-
he Louis XIVo F ance no only a model o good go e nance bu also a oadmap
o execu ing his policies. The king Louis XIV sen Jean O y o Spain o assis his
g andson in building an absolu is c own he e (Dube 2008). Inc easing ax e enue
was a fi s s ep. O y no ed ha depopula ion was an essen ial obs acle o his. The
king ecei ed absolu ely no hing om “wa e s and o es s,” he complained, while
he ex ension o “uninhabi able Spain” kep inc easing.
3
O y’s model soon became
he 1669 O donnance su les Eaux e Fo ê s, p omo ed by Louis XIV’s minis e
3
A chi es diploma iques du minis è e des a ai es é angè es, Moyens de emédie à l’é a p ésen
des a ai es du Roy d ’Espagne… CPE 119, p. 132–213
Colbe . Mimicking i s emphasis on s a e con ol o e na u al esou ces, O y
ad oca ed o he ole o he in endan as a e i o ial ep esen a i e o he king o
implemen e o ms.
4
Finally, in 1718, an o dinance was app o ed o he c ea ion o
in endan s, whose esponsibi li ies included i e canaliza ion, he use o unde -
g ound wa e s, and e o es a ion.
5
Howe e , he Bou bons wa o succession agains
he Habsbu gs le li le oom o hese hyd aulic wo ks o ma e ialize.
8 A. Celis and L. Camp ubí
Philipp’s son, Fe dinand VI, became king in 1746 and, sho a e , ini ia ed an
in e en ionis policy aimed o end a idi y and depopula ion. His mos powe ul
minis e led he e o m: The Ma quis o Ensenada. Ensenada had managed o gain
he king’s us h ough a se ies o le e s known as “ ep esen a ions” (Delgado
Ba ado 2002). The mos amous is he one w i en in 1751, whe e he associa ed
“bad go e nmen ” wi h d y Spain and “good go e nmen ” wi h wha was accom-
plished by Louis XIV:
The e is no land in Eu ope d ie han Spain (...) i s i e s ha e no been made na igable o he
ex en possible, no a e he e canals o i iga ion and anspo a ion (...) i in his e i o y he
g ea Louis XIVo de ed ules and egula ions ha we e ollowed and con inued, why can’ hey
adop and p ac ice he same in Spain while you a e he king? (Rod íguez Vill a 1878: 47–48 )
Ensenada’s go e nmen was he fi s o design an ambi ious hyd aulic plan aimed
a ans o ming he e i o y, an icipa ing he hyd aulic policy ollowed du ing he
second hal o he eigh een h cen u y (Gil Olcina 1992: 174): The Cas ile Can al o
he Impe ial Canal o A agon, as well as he d ainage o lagoons and meadows o
c ea e new a able land, ecei ed a defini i e boos a ha ime wi h he desi e o u n
d y Spain in o he s onghold o he Spanish empi e.
3 Equa ing “d y Spain” o he “Medi e anean egion” om
F ench Impe ialism o Spanish Regene a i onism
Napoleon’s bo anis s and geog aphe s in oduced he scien ific concep o a Medi-
e anean egion as a na u al uni o analysis. They did so in he con ex o impe ial
a els o Egyp and a emp s a se ling colonies in No h A ica. While his s o y is
somewha known, he ole o hese same geog aphe s in Spain has been la gely
o e looked. In his sec ion, we a gue ha , in he nine een h cen u y, F ench geog-
aphe s ein e p e ed he old concep o “d y Spain” h ough he newly coined
“Medi e anean clima e.” They did so, mo eo e , in a con ex o poli ical and
physical ans o ma ion o he Spanish landscape which would hen con inue in
he Spanish adi ion o enginee ing, egene a ionism, and clima e s udies.
4
Ibidem, p. 213
5
Biblio eca Digi al Hispánica. O denanza de 4 de Julio de 1718 pa a el es ablecimien o é
ins uccion de In enden es, y pa a Teso e o Gene al, Pagado es y Con ado es de los Eje ci os y
P o incias, p. 47–48. h p://bdh- d.bne.es/ iewe . m?id=0000219669&page=1
Regional Geopoli ics, F ench Geog aphy, and Clima ology in “D y Spain,”…9
A e he de ea o T a alga in 1805, Napoleonic F ance ocused on con inen al
domina ion. One o Napoleon’s d agons, Cap ain o he fi h Ca al y Regimen Jean
Bap is e Bo y de Sain -Vincen , played a p ominen ole in he iden ifica ion o d y
Spain wi h he Medi e anean egion. Bo y had ecei ed aining as a na u alis and
geog aphe in his you h om he disciple o Coun Bu on, Be na d Ge mai n
Lacépède, and wen on o become a p ominen bo anis and o pa icipa e in some
o he F ench scien ific expedi ions in o e seas p o inces (Ál a ez and Qui ós
Lina es 2004). The e, he was among he p oponen s o he new concep o a
Medi e anean egion unified by unique ege a ion cha ac e is ics (Da is 2018).
Mo eo e , he iden ified his Medi e anean egion wi h he “Medi e anean clima e,”
cha ac e ized by hea (Bo y de Sain -Vincen 1826: 46). Bo y, howe e , did no only
blame he na u al clima e o an a id soil and ege a ion. He and o he s adop ed a
discou se o decay caused by human ac i i y, which became a legi ima ing common
place ollowing he F ench conques o Alge ia in 1830 (Da is 2018: 131).
We wan o a gue ha Bo y de Sain -Vincen ’s Medi e anean Spain se ed as a
significan p ecu so o a na a i e which he helped c ea e as a membe o F ench
scien ific expedi ions in Alge ia. In 1808, Bo y en e ed Spain wi h he G ande
A mée, whe e he ca ied ou a ious asks o geog aphical econnaissance, accumu-
la ing impo an in o ma ion. This wo k o med he basis o his la e wo ks, includ-
ing “Résumé géog aphique de la Péninsule Ibé ique” (1826) whe e he fi s di ided
he Ibe ian Peninsula, including a ca og aphic ep esen a ion (577), in o wo la ge
egions di e en ia ed by hei “na u al clima e”: he Eu opean egion, also known as
he Oceanic o empe a e egion, and he Medi e anean egion, e e ed o as he
A ican o ho egion (74–76). The idea o a “d y Spain” eeme ged in his w i ings as
a powe ul he o ical de ice o suppo his classifica ion. This idea e ained all he
p e ious poli ical conno a ions, including he idealiza ion o a emo e e ile pas
which would ha e been deg aded by idle ule s an d people:
Thus, his once e ile land, da kened by he lack o ees and de ou ed by he in ensi y o a
sun whose hea no oliage empe s, has g adually seen i s sp ings d y up, i s lagoons
disappea , and i s s eams un d y. A e e y s ep, one encoun e s d y basins and alleys
ha mus ha e once been i iga ed bu whe e, wi h e e y elemen o eshness now gone, he
soil can p oduce only a somb e dus ha he wind sca e s in su oca ing whi lwinds h ough
a sco ching a mosphe e. (70)
Echoing commonplaces o se en een h-cen u y F ench a ele s, Bo y linked he
a idi y o Spain o backwa dness, desola ion, and he igno ance o aci u n and p oud
Spania ds. Only he we es Sp ain, ull o joy and in elligence, escaped his cu se
(67–70). Bo y de Sain -Vincen would e u n, as in he se en een h cen u y, o he
uined A ab hyd aulic pas o poin ou he lack o hyd aulic in as uc u e. A good
example was he Guadalqui i Ri e , na igable up o Co doba du ing Muslim ule
and cu om i om he eign o Empe o Cha les Vonwa d. Acco ding o Bo y, he
F ench ma shal Soul achie ed o eopen his connec ion “in less han ou mon hs”
du ing he Napoleonic Wa s (90).
acili a ed he Allied landing in No mandy, depic ed he Medi e anean Sea as a
significan global cyclone g enesis a ea (L ionello e al. 2006: 328). The key was o
dis inguish cyclones o med in he sea om o he s wi h a di e en o igin. A new
b eak h ough came om Yugosla ia, he o he side o he I on Cu ain. In he 1960s,
Dju o Radino ić (1965) iden ified sub egional a eas whe e cyclone genesis
occu ed, such as he Gul o Genoa and he Aegean Sea. These cyclones esul ed
om di e ences in sea and a mosphe ic empe a u es: The Medi e anean Sea ac ed
as a sou ce o la en hea ha a o ed cyclone o ma ion.
16 A. Celis and L. Camp ubí
The exis ence o an inland sea ha a o ed he o ma ion o local cyclones
g adually came o define he “Medi e anean clima e” in di e en disciplines. F ench
geog aphe s, o ins ance, bega n o use a mosphe ic p essu e and wea he maps as
e e ence poin s in he 1950s (Billau e al. 1956). This, in u n, led o a g ea e
emphasis on egional di e ences wi hin he Medi e anean egion. The uni o m
cha ac e p o ided by he exis ence o a d y season in summe ga e way o high
complexi y o he di e en a mosphe ic pa e ns con e ging in he Medi e anean
basin (Lionello e al. 2006).
To be su e, olde app oaches o he Medi e anean egion coexis ed wi h he new
clima ic one. F ench bo anis and phy ogeog aphe Louis Embe ge p oduce d in
1962 he fi s Bioclima ic Map o he Medi e anean Zone as pa o UNESCO’s A id
Zone P og am (Da is 2018: 139). Inspi ed by Emb e ge ’s wo k, in 1983 he Spanish
geobo anis Sal ado Ri as Ma ínez defined “Medi e anean Spain” h ough a
clima ic index based on he p esence o absence o summe d ough (Ri as-Ma ínez
1983). He concluded ha p ac ically he en i e e i o y pe ained o he Medi e a-
nean egion, including inland a eas and coas al a eas ba hed by he A lan ic Ocean
(Fig. 1c). Today, Ri as Ma ínez’s index emains he main e e ence in Spanish
geog aphy o deli nea ing he coun y’s wo main na u al egions: he Medi e anean
and he Eu osibe ian.
7
In he la e wen ie h cen u y, howe e , di e en g oups o me eo ologis s ocuse d
hei e o s on linking ain all on he Medi e anean coas wi h hese cyclones.
Sub egional di e ences gained inc easing ele ance as he dynamics o he Medi-
e anean Oscilla ion (MO) became he ocus o s udy (Ma in-Vide and Lopez-
Bus ins 2006: 1456). The MO e e s o di e ences in su ace a mosphe ic p essu e
configu a ions o e long pe iods: An an icyclone in he wes e n Medi e anean and
Ibe ia opposes he low e p essu es o he eas e n Medi e anean. Scien is s u he
emphasized sub egional di e ences by s udying mo e local p essu e g adien s.
Unde s anding hese egional and sub egional dynamics p o ided a be e unde -
s anding o ain all pa e ns in he Medi e anean basin. Fo ins ance, he clima ol-
ogy g oup a he Uni e si y o Ba celona c ea ed he Wes e n Medi e anean
Oscilla ion index (WEMOi) (Ma in-Vide and Lopez-Bus ins 2006). The index
showed ha he compl ex o og aphy su ounding he Medi e anean isola es i om
no he n hemisphe e a mosphe ic dynamics, gi ing i unique clima ic cha ac e is ics
7
“A las Nacional de España, Ins i u o Geog áfico Nacional,” accessed Ma ch 1, 2024, h ps://www.
ign.es/web/ane-a ea-ane
due o local ac o s. These unique cha ac e is ics would explain ain all and d ough
pa e ns. Fo Spain, be ween 1910 and 2000, win e p ecipi a ion on he eas e n
slope o he Ibe ian Peninsula, especially in he Gul o Valencia, significan ly
inc eased wi h nega i e WeMOi alues. These co ela ions led o a new egionali-
za ion o he Ibe ian e i o y: Only he eas e n coas ecei ed mos o i s p ecipi a-
ion om he Medi e anean Sea, much o i in he o m o o en ial ains, while he
es depended on he A lan ic Ocea n (Fig. 1d).
Regional Geopoli ics, F ench Geog aphy, and Clima ology in “D y Spain,”…17
In he lapse o a cen u y, a en ion shi ed om he Medi e anean’s d y season o i s
ainy season. The Spanish geog aphe An onio Gil Olcina (2007) a gued ha a d y
season in summe is ypical o all empe a e d y-season clima es. Wha is specific o
he Medi e anean clima e is he p esence o an inland sea ha de e mines p ecipi a ion
in coas al a eas. Wi h insigh , i seems ha , pa adoxically, olde defini ions o he
Medi e anean clima e h ough d ough we e o e looking he geog aphical ea u e ha
gi es he egion i s name: he Medi e anean Sea! In oducing sea-a mosphe ic in e -
ac ions in a dynamic sys em led o a edefini ion o he Medi e anean clima e and o
he a eas unde i s clima ic influence. Fo ins ance, “d y Spain” and he Spanish
s eppes no longe all in o he “Medi e anean” a ea o influence in cu en indexes
and maps. Figu e 1 cap u es he his o ici y o he each o he Medi e anean clima e in
he Ibe ian Peninsula by applying cu en ain all da a o he di e gen indexes defined
by conflic ing defini ions o he Medi e anean clima e.
5 Conclusion
As defined by he each o he Medi e anean clima e, he Medi e anean egion is
his o ical in a leas wo senses. Fi s , he indexes used o define i ha e changed
h ough ime. Fo us, his his o ici y opens he doo o cul u al and poli ical
explana ions o he changing defini ions. In pa icula , we ha e a gued ha a long-
s anding conce n abou d ough in Spain was a key sou ce o ea ly mode n ideas o
clima ic influence on human beha io and o mode n associa ions o he Medi e -
anean egion o a d y clima e. We ha e shown how, h ough ime, hese ideas we e
poli ically si ua ed in impe ial dispu es and e o m plans.
Acco ding o his o ian Diana K. Da is, some o he main assump ions o Embe ge
Medi e anean map o UNESCO we e deeply oo ed in F ench colonial pe cep ions
o a deg aded No h A ican landscape. We hope o ha e shown ha Ri as’ Medi e -
anean index was no less oo ed han Embe ge ’s in impe ial s uggles and poli ical
p ojec s o landscape ans o ma ion. The old cha ac e iza ion o Spain as a d y and
backwa d coun y has been one o he sou ces o defini ions o he Medi e anean
egion as cha ac e ized by a d y clima e. A mo e ecen example is he In e go e n-
men al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC), which e e ences Köppen’s clima ic classi-
fica ion o define he Medi e anean egion by he p esence o a d y season in summe .
8
8
“Medi e anean Region, In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC),” accessed Ap il
14, 2024, h ps://www.ipcc.ch/ epo /a 6/wg2/downloads/ epo /IPCC_AR6_WGII_CCP4.pd
This cha ac e iza ion has e en been ex ended o define he clima e o a eas a om he
Medi e anean, such as Cali o nia, Chile, Sou h A ica, and Aus alia. This de ach-
men o he no ion o he Medi e anean clima e om he specifici ies o he Medi e -
anean Sea is inc easingly con es ed. As he de as a ing floods in Valencia in Oc obe
2024 show, Medi e anean egions in Eas e n Spain su e in ense ain all p oduced by
he in e sec ion o isola ed masses o cold ai le behind by he pola je s eam and
wa m and humid masses o ai coming om he Medi e anean sea—wha Spanish
scien is s called DANA and Ge man ones Kal lu op en, cold d op. As he Medi e -
anean clima e changes, ecognizing he changes o he e y no ion o “ he Medi e -
anean clima e” becomes mo e u gen . As Fig. 1 illus a es, egional mappings o he
Medi e anean influence in he Spanish clima e a e his o ical and con es ed. This
demons a es ha scien ific defini ions o he Medi e anean egion had also ex a-
scien ific sou ces. They we e pa o la ge poli ical and geopoli ical conflic s, o en
wi h endu ing and in isible legacies.
18 A. Celis and L. Camp ubí
Compe ing In e es Decla a ion The au ho (s) has no compe ing in e es s o decla e ha a e
ele an o he con en o his manusc ip .
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