REVIEW
Fo ensic Science, Medicine and Pa hology
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s12024-025-01022-7
Au o a Cas o-Méndez
[email p o ec ed]
Na alia To a uela-Ca ión
[email p o ec ed]
Lau a Regi e-Fe nández
[email p o ec ed]
Sa a Ga cía-Mo a
[email p o ec ed]
Ma ía Vázquez-Cas o
[email p o ec ed]
Juan Al a ez-Co de o
[email p o ec ed]
1 G upo de In es igación en Lide azgo He mes CTS-601,
Depa amen o de Podología, Facul ad de En e me ía,
Fisio e apia y Podología. Lide azgo DS-30 Bases biomédicas
del pie que a ec an al apoyo y la ma cha, Ins i u o de
Biomedicina de Se illa, IBiS/Uni e sidad de Se illa,
Se illa 41009, España
2 G upo de In es igación He mes CTS-601, Depa amen o de
Podología, Facul ad de En e me ía, Fisio e apia y Podología.
G upo de In es igación DS-30 Bases biomédicas del pie que
a ec an al apoyo y la ma cha, Ins i u o de Biomedicina de
Se illa, IBiS/ Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se illa 41009, España
3 Independen Resea che s, Luis Mon o o S : 91,
Se ille 41018, Spain
Abs ac
Pu pose: Fo ensic podia y is he applica ion o he p o essional knowledge o his specialis in he legal ield as an expe .
Fo ensic podia is s collabo a e in he o ensic iden i ica ion o e idence ha , om he oo , can help cla i y wha hap-
pened a a c ime o c ime scene. A he scene o he c ime, oo p in s, shoe p in s, and aces a e e idence ha a e p es-
en e en hough hey migh no be immedia ely isible. The o ensic analysis o a suspec ’s gai is e idence some imes
a ailable and has as an impo an cha ac e is ic: i is an indi idualis ic pa ame e and e en a biome ic ac o . This gai
analysis can be e y ele an as e idence in he con ex o a c ime. The objec i e o his sys ema ic e iew is o e alua e
he eliabili y o gai o ensics wi h espec o he use o angula measu emen s compa ed o obse a ional analysis o
mo phological cha ac e is ics o iden i y he cu en gold s anda d. Me hods: A sys ema ic e iew o he scien i ic li e a u e
a ailable in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web o Science, CINAHL, and Dialne has been ca ied ou . Nine obse a ional
s udies we e selec ed a e applying he eligibili y c i e ia. Resul s: The selec ed s udies we e analy ical and p o ided,
among o he in o ma ion, nume ical da a on he eliabili y, ep oducibili y, and alidi y o he analysis me hods in ques-
ion. The e is no enough conclusi e scien i ic e idence on he eliabili y o he me hod o analysis using angula measu e-
men s, as he e is con o e sy be ween au ho s. Conclusion: Fo ensic gai analysis based on angula measu emen s shows
eliabili y limi a ions due o in a-indi idual ac o s (mood, clo hing), equi ing u he empi ical e idence; in con as , he
obse a ional me hod analyzing o unique gai cha ac e is ics eme ges as he mos eliable me hod, o e ing high accu acy,
alidi y, and ep oducibili y when conduc ed by ained biomechanical expe s.
Keywo ds Fo ensic podia y · Foo p in measu emen · Fo ensic an h opology · Gai analysis
Accep ed: 7 May 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Fo ensic podia y in he iden i ica ion o gai by CCTV. A sys ema ic
e iew
Au o aCas o-Méndez1· Na aliaTo a uela-Ca ión2· Lau aRegi e-Fe nández3· Sa aGa cía-Mo a3·
Ma íaVázquez-Cas o3· JuanAl a ez-Co de o3
1 3
Fo ensic Science, Medicine and Pa hology
In oduc ion
Fo ensic podia y is a medical discipline ha plays a c ucial
ole in he iden i ica ion p ocess in legal p oceedings equi -
ing specialised knowledge in his ield [1]. C ime scenes
o en p esen e idence ha needs o be e alua ed om a
o ensic podia y pe spec i e, such as plan a oo p in s (pa -
ial o comple e), oo wea , ana omical emains o he ee ,
biomechanical analyses, o images and eco dings o gai
cap u ed by Closed Ci cui Tele ision (CCTV) came as, all
o which can con ibu e o cla i ying he ac s [2, 3]. Fo en-
sic podia is s ha e he expe ise o iden i y e idence ela ed
o he ee and assis in iden i ying indi iduals h ough hei
ana omical ea u es [4, 5]. The p inciples and knowledge
o o ensic podia y a e highly bene icial o in es iga o s
a c ime scenes, pa icula ly when dealing wi h e idence
ela ed o ee , oo wea , and/o gai . Mo eo e , his knowl-
edge helps es ablish he physical o biological p o ile o a
suspec o indi idualisa ion and iden i ica ion [1, 3].
Fo ensic gai analysis has eme ged as a ecen specialisa-
ion wi hin o ensic podia y, becoming inc easingly ecog-
nised and u ilised by expe s [6]. This analysis is ca ied ou
h ough a s uc u ed me hod, which includes he phases o
analysis, compa ison, e alua ion, e i ica ion, and he sub-
sequen p epa a ion o epo s [3, 4]. In CCTV gai s udies,
he gai o a subjec and i s inhe en cha ac e is ics a e ana-
lysed and compa ed o con ibu e o he iden i ica ion p o-
cess [7, 8]. I is a gued ha each pe son exhibi s a epe i i e
and dis inc i e gai pa e n, which gi es i an indi idualis ic
and ecognisable quali y. This pa e n can allow a pe son o
be iden i ied om a dis ance by hei walking s yle, making
gai analysis a aluable ool in o ensic in es iga ions, and
eme ging as a biome ic analysis pa ame e [9]. In addi ion
o gai , oo p in s eco e ed om he c ime scene, such as
ba e oo p in s, shoe p in s, o sequences o oo p in s, also
se e as c i ical e idence [1, 3, 10].
The use o CCTV came as and o he su eillance me h-
ods has gene a ed g owing in e es in he p ac ice and
esea ch o o ensic gai analysis and i s po en ial o human
indi idualisa ion. Fo he i s ime, o ensic gai analysis
was used as admissible scien i ic e idence a he Old Bailey
Cen al C iminal Cou in London, UK, in he case o R
. Saunde s in 2000 by he UK-based o ensic podia is ,
D . Haydn Kelly [6, 8]. Since hen, a ious coun ies ha e
admi ed gai analysis as a complemen a y o m o e idence
in cou , al hough his me hod is s ill conside ed ques-
ionable in e ms o eliabili y and accu acy [3, 6, 8, 11].
Simila ly, gai analysis has been used in o ensic p ac ice
in many coun ies, and came a-based compu e sys ems
ha e been de eloped o ecognise a pe son’s highly unique
mo emen pa e ns, o e ing dis inc i eness o hei gai
[12]. Cu en ly, gai ecogni ion sys ems based on a i icial
in elligence, such as con olu ional neu al ne wo ks, a e
being implemen ed and ha e been shown o imp o e iden i-
ica ion accu acy, e en wi h low- esolu ion eco dings [13].
Today, he majo i y o c imes occu ing on public s ee s
a e highly likely o be cap u ed by ideo su eillance
came as loca ed in shops, banks, o o he public places.
CCTV images p o ide di e en iews o he eco ded sub-
jec ( on , ans e se, and sagi al, wi h he on al iew
being he mos eliable [14]), elimina ing he psychologi-
cal ac o ha migh p edispose an indi idual o simula e
an un eal gai , as indi iduals a e usually unawa e hey a e
being eco ded. As a esul , his me hod is non-in usi e
and does no equi e he collabo a ion o he subjec , mak-
ing i pa icula ly use ul in he ield o c iminalis ics [14,
15]. Be o e he in en ion and use o CCTV, in es iga i e
agencies elied p ima ily on eyewi nesses who claimed o
ha e “seen” someone a he scene wi h a pa icula “walk-
ing s yle.”
In o ensic gai analysis, angula measu emen s play a
key ole, as hey a e necessa y o he analysis and he sub-
sequen p esen a ion o epo s as e idence in legal p oceed-
ings [3, 16, 17]. Examining hese angula measu emen s
o he gai cycle is essen ial, as hey p o ide quan i a i e
and objec i e in o ma ion abou he s udy pe o med. The
join angles and hose o med by a ious body angles ha e
an indi idualis ic cha ac e o each subjec [18]. Fo an
exhaus i e analysis o ideo e idence, i is necessa y o use
speci ic so wa e ha allows acking key poin s o he body
and calcula ing join angles du ing he gai cycle, such as
hose o he hip, knee, o ankle [18–20]. When ideo oo -
age only shows a pa ial gai cycle (since i ep esen s only
a po ion o he ull cycle), e iden ial ecogni ion using he
obse a ional me hod becomes challenging. In hese cases,
he use o join measu emen s a speci ic ime in e als is
ad oca ed, aiming o s udy he a iabili y be ween suspec s
and ob ain disc imina o y pa ame e s [21].
The e o e, gai analysis has signi ican po en ial o p o-
ide aluable e idence, as i is a unique cha ac e is ic o
each indi idual [20]. Howe e , imp o ing his analysis
wi h accu a e measu emen s is complica ed due o he low
quali y o some su eillance oo age, which p e en s a con-
clusi e iden i ica ion o a pe son based solely on image
analysis. I canno be de ini i ely s a ed in a cou o law
ha no o he pe son could ha e a simila gai pa e n based
on a speci ic se o cha ac e is ics [3, 22]. As a esul , gai
analysis is no conside ed as s ong e idence as inge p in s
o DNA, bu i can be use ul in he absence o conclusi e
e idence. Howe e , when combined wi h pho og amme y,
gai analysis can be ega ded wi h g ea e eliabili y [23].
The e o e, he aim o ou s udy is o e alua e he eliabili y
o o ensic gai analysis by using angula measu emen s o
1 3
Fo ensic Science, Medicine and Pa hology
Ti le, Au ho and Yea Objec i e S udy
Design
In e en ion Resul s Limi a ions
The epea abili y and ep o-
ducibili y o he She ield
Fea u es o Gai Tool.
I an Bi ch e al. [27].
2019
To check he epea abili y
and ep oducibili y o he
i s ool c ea ed o s anda d-
ize gai o ensics (She ield
Fea u es o Gai Tool) based
on obse a ional gai analysis
ools.
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse -
a ional
s udy.
Fou een pa icipan s, each wi h a leas 12
mon hs o expe ience in obse a ional gai
analysis, wa ched ideo images o a a a s
andomly o 6 weeks and comple ed all 113
pa ame e s o he ool o each image.
An a e age epea abili y o 79.54% and an a e -
age ep oducibili y o 73.45% we e ob ained,
demons a ing ha he use o his ool by expe i-
enced analys s esul ed in good epea abili y and
ep oducibili y.
S udies used
compu e -c e-
a ed a a a s, no
humans.
The accu acy and alidi y
o he She ield Fea u es o
Gai Tool.
I an Bi ch e al. [28].
2021
Check he accu acy o he
e alua o s, and he e o e, he
alidi y o he gai o ensic
analysis ool.
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse -
a ional
s udy.
Compa ison o he gai pa ame e s assessed
by each o he ou een pa icipan s in each
imaging s udy agains he co ec pa ame e s
p e iously p og ammed in each a a a .
The analys s achie ed an accu acy o 74.96% in
iden i ying he gai exhibi ed by he a a a s.
S udies used
compu e -c e-
a ed a a a s, no
humans.
Iden i ica ion o indi idu-
als by obse a ional gai
analysis using closed-ci cui
ele ision oo age.
Louis Raymond e al. [29].
2013
To e i y he e ec i eness o
obse a ional gai analysis as
a means o iden i ica ion, his
s udy in es iga ed he capac-
i y o expe ienced analys s
(minimum 5 yea s).
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse -
a ional
s udy.
Se en expe ienced analys s each iewed 5
CCTV oo age eco ded wi h he same came a
and pe spec i e, each showing a a ge walke
and i e suspec s in iden ical clo hing.
The inal esul showed ha he analys s we e
able o co ec ly disc imina e whe he he
suspec ’s gai was compa ible wi h he a ge ’s
in 71% o cases.
This was compa ed o a p e ious s udy o
obse a ional analysis by non-expe s, conclud-
ing ha expe ienced analys s we e 21% mo e
success ul.
Small sample
o expe ienced
podia is s.
Visual Analysis o Gai as a
Cue o Iden i y
Sa ah V. S e enage e al.
[30].
1999
To de e mine whe he walk-
ing can se e as a eliable
indica o o iden i y h ough
obse a ional analysis by
inexpe ienced s uden s.
Analy ical
c oss-
sec ional
obse a-
ional s udy
Fi s , he numbe o a emp s o iden i y a
subjec in a mixed design wi h di e en ligh -
ing condi ions was assessed as a dependen
a iable.
Finally, he numbe o co ec iden i ica ions
and he con idence in selec ion in a design wi h
a iable condi ions we e assessed as dependen
a iables.
The human isual sys em was shown o be
sophis ica ed enough o lea n o iden i y six
indi iduals based on hei gai in simula ed
dayligh , simula ed dusk, and spo ligh displays.
E en unde ad e se iewing condi ions in ol -
ing a single b ie exposu e, humans could
iden i y a a ge in a “walking iden i y pa ade”
a le els highe han chance.
Age o s udy
The iden i ica ion o indi-
iduals by obse a ional
gai analysis using closed
ci cui ele ision oo age:
Compa ing he abili y and
con idence o expe ienced
and nonexpe ienced analys s
Ma ía Bi ch e al. [18].
2020
To compa e he skills and
con idence o pa icipan s
wi h expe ience in obse a-
ional gai analysis and inex-
pe ienced pa icipan s using
he me hodology o Louis
Raymond e al. 2013.
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse -
a ional
s udy.
The pa icipan s we e di ided in o wo g oups:
11 p o essionals in gai analysis (podia is s)
and 19 non-p o essionals in his ield.
The me hodology o he s udy by Louis Ray-
mond e al. 2013 was used, and, in addi ion o
iden i ying he a ge and suspicious subjec ,
he pa icipan s had o ma k hei le el o con-
idence in hei decision using a scale.
The esul s showed a highe a e o co ec
iden i ica ion and a highe le el o con idence
in obse a ional gai s udies conduc ed by expe-
ienced analys s compa ed o non-expe ienced
ones. In conclusion, he s udy highligh ed
he impo ance o aining and expe ience o
imp o e he e ec i eness o gai analysis in
CCTV images.
Poo quali y
o he ideo
s udied.
Table 1 Selec ed a icles ha me he inclusion and exclusion c i e ia o he s udy
1 3
Fo ensic Science, Medicine and Pa hology
Ti le, Au ho and Yea Objec i e S udy
Design
In e en ion Resul s Limi a ions
Use o gai pa ame e s o
pe sons in ideo su eillance
sys ems.
Zeno Ge ad s e al. [16].
2002
Compa e and e alua e he
use ulness o using mea-
su emen s o di e en gai
pa ame e s o iden i y people
h ough ideo su eillance
sys ems.
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse -
a ional
s udy.
Ele en heal hy indi iduals wi h an a e age
age o 23.2 yea s and an a e age body mass
o 73.5 kg had ma ke s placed on di e en
join s and wo e he same clo hing. Pa icipan s
we e asked o walk a hei usual speed along a
came a pa h wi h di e en pe spec i es. Se en
ials we e conduc ed o each subjec .
The pa ame e s ha showed a signi ican di -
e ence be ween subjec s we e he angle o he
oo , he angle o he hip join and s ide leng h.
The o he pa ame e s ob ained a sco e o less
han 25% which means hey a e poo o ecog-
ni ion pu poses
The ac ual si ua-
ion di e s om
he expe imen al
si ua ion in
which he s udy
is conduc ed.
(clo hing, oo -
wea , came a
loca ion, speed).
Va iabili y and Simila i y o
Gai as E alua ed by Join
Angles: Implica ions o
Fo ensic Gai Analysis
Syl ia Yang e al. [18].
2014.
To analyse he disc imina -
ing powe o join angles
h oughou a gai cycle using
CCTV.
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse -
a ional
s udy.
Walking da a was collec ed om 12 heal hy
men using 5 VGA ideo came as while hey
walked ba e oo . Re lec i e ma ke s we e
placed on 15 di e en join segmen s o he
lowe limb.
The disc imina ing powe and a iabili y o he
join angles eco ded a a gi en ime and plane
o he gai cycle can be e alua ed. This ool
be e suppo s s a emen s in o ensic gai cases
abou whe he a suspec and pe pe a o could
be he same pe son.
This gai cycle
assessmen
me hod does
no equi e he
eco ding o
s udy o a ull
cycle.
Gai Recogni ion Using
Join Momen s, Join
Angles, and Segmen Angles
P.K. La sen. [22].
2010
To examine he abili y o
ecognize indi idual join
momen s, join angles, and
segmen angles in he h ee
planes using CCTV eco ded
images unde labo a o y
condi ions.
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse a-
ional s udy
Six heal hy women and i een men, wi h an
a e age age, heigh and weigh o 34 yea s,
170 cm, and 61 kg, espec i ely, we e ec ui ed
o he s udy. Fi een she ical ma ke s we e
placed on ana omical landma ks on he lowe
ex emi y, and a le - igh gai cycle was
eco ded o each subjec in all es s.
High ecogni ion a es ha e been ound, espe-
cially when analysing join and segmen angles
in he sagi al and on al planes using co ela-
ion analysis. The a iables in he on al plane
showed g ea e in e indi idual di e ences.
Choice o a
ixed speed.
In a-indi idual gai pa -
e n a iabili y in speci ic
si ua ions:
Implica ions o o ensic gai
analysis Oli e Ludwig e
al. [20].
2015.
To examine in e -in a-
indi idual di e ences in gai
pa e ns in di e en gai si u-
a ions using phase diag ams
o lowe ex emi y angles
in o de o d aw conclu-
sions abou he sui abili y
o gai pa e n analysis o
iden i ica ion.
C oss-sec-
ional and
analy ical
obse -
a ional
s udy.
Unde biomechanics labo a o y condi ions,
subjec s (5 men and 3 women) walked a
6-me e -long walkway a a gi en speed. This
was eco ded wi h a came a posi ioned 5 m
away and 1.5 m high. Fi e a ian s we e
eco ded o all subjec s: ba e oo , spo s
shoes, ull- ace helme , comba boo s, and
a igue.
Each sub es was epea ed 3 imes.
The s udy showed he adap abili y o he gai
pa e n, which a ies unde di e en condi ions.
This a iabili y complica es he compa ison
be ween a pe pe a o eco ded by CCTV and
he suspec ’s compa a i e eco dings. Gai
pa e ns change depending on mul iple ac o s.
While i is di icul o de ini i ely iden i y a
subjec o he easons men ioned, gai analysis
could be qui e use ul o exclude indi iduals
om a pool o possible suspec s.
High simila -
i y in in a-
indi idual
measu emen s
Table 1 (con inued)
1 3
Fo ensic Science, Medicine and Pa hology
ha excluded one sex, and s udies ha did no use gai anal-
ysis in he o ensic ield.
Da a selec ion and ex ac ion
A icles e ie ed wi h he Zo e o bibliog aphic e e ence
managemen ool we e elimina ed using he Check o
duplica es ab. We e iewed he i les and abs ac s o he
a icles and elimina ed hose ha did no mee he es ab-
lished inclusion c i e ia. Rega ding da a ex ac ion, he ol-
lowing in o ma ion was ob ained: au ho ’s name, yea o
publica ion, s udy i le, objec i es, s udy design, sample,
in e en ion, esul s, and limi a ions.
Resul s
F om bibliog aphic sea ches, 762 a icles we e ob ained in
he six da abases consul ed (Table 1). A e emo ing dupli-
ca es (458 a icles), a o al o 304 a icles we e e iewed.
Following es ablished c i e ia, 168 a icles we e disca ded
a e eading he i le and abs ac . The emaining a icles
we e ead in ull ex , and o hese, only nine we e eligible
a e eading and mee ing he inclusion and exclusion c i e-
ia (Fig. 1).
The nine a icles chosen a e c oss-sec ional desc ip-
i e obse a ional s udies. Acco ding o he Canadian Task
Fo ce o he Pe iodic Heal h Examina ion e idence scale,
he le el o e idence hey acqui e is III. Fo he assessmen
o he le el o scien i ic e idence o his sys ema ic e iew,
he e idence quali y e alua ion sys em was used, and was
o icially alida ed and published in he Canadian Task
Fo ce on he Pe iodic Heal h Examina ion and in he U.S.
P e en i e Se ices Task Fo ce [25].
Table 1 p o ides an indi idual syn hesis o he objec-
i es, me hodology and esul s ob ained om each o he
s udies ha a e pa o he sys ema ic e iew.
Discussion
Fo ensic podia y has eme ged as a i al discipline wi hin
c iminalis ics, playing an inc easingly impo an ole in
legal p oceedings [5]. This special y ocuses on applying
podia ic knowledge o p o ide scien i ic e idence ha
can be used in cou , pa icula ly in iden i ying indi iduals
h ough podological clues, such as oo p in s, oo wea , and
gai analysis [1]. Wi hin his ield, o ensic gai analysis has
become cen al, wi h me hods like angula measu emen s
being widely u ilised o iden i ying indi iduals based on
gai pa e ns. This esea ch aimed o examine he eliabil-
i y o hese me hods by compa ing angula measu emen
subjec iden i ica ion and o compa e i wi h obse a ional
analysis o mo phological ea u es.
Me hods
Sea ch s a egy and inclusion c i e ia
A sys ema ic e iew o he scien i ic li e a u e was ca ied
ou in he PubMed, EMBASE, Web o Science (WoS), Sco-
pus, Dialne Plus, and CINAHL da abases and o he g ay
li e a u e om speci ic eposi o ies and Google Schola o
mi iga e biases. I should be no ed ha all he in o ma ion
has been collec ed, o ganized, and iewed using he Zo e o
bibliog aphic manage . The sea ch was conduc ed be ween
Janua y and May 2024 by wo independen esea che s
(J.A.C and M.V.C). The s uc u e o he sys ema ic e iew
ollowed he p inciples p oposed in he PRISMA [24].
The e iew p o ocol was egis e ed in he Open Science
F amewo k (OSF), unde he name: “Subjec iden i ica ion
me hods in ela ion o o ensic gai analysis using CCTV. A
sys ema ic e iew.” (a ailable a h ps://os .io/4byz ).
The esea ch ques ion ollowed he PICOS c i e ia
(P-Pa ien s: heal hy adul popula ion wi h no mal gai ;
I-In e en ion: Use o o ensic gai analysis using angula
measu emen s in he iden i ica ion o subjec s om CCTV
eco dings o images; C-Compa ison: o ensic gai analy-
sis using obse a ional s udy o indi idual cha ac e is ics;
and O-Ou comes: Reliabili y o o ensic gai analysis using
angula measu emen s in he iden i ica ion o subjec s).
The sea ch s a egy was es ablished using he Medical
Subjec Headings (MeSH) hesau us o iden i y keywo ds.
The selec ed e ms we e linked wi h Boolean ope a o s
(AND, OR, and NOT).
A e conduc ing he sea ch s a egy in he di e en da a-
bases, duplica e a icles we e elimina ed, and he emaining
a icles we e e iewed by wo independen e iewe s o
hei i les and abs ac s. Those ha did no mee he inclu-
sion c i e ia we e elimina ed. The ollowing inclusion c i e-
ia we e used o selec he a icles: a icles published in he
las 25 yea s (1999–2024), in Spanish o English, in ol ing
a heal hy adul popula ion o bo h sexes wi h no mal gai ,
and he ype o s udy (desc ip i e o obse a ional), expe i-
men al, case epo s, me a-analyses, sys ema ic e iews, o
c oss-sec ional s udies consis ing o s udies in which gai
analysis was pe o med using CCTV came as o labo a o y
simula ions he eo . The exclusion c i e ia we e: a icles
ha included subjec s wi h a no able pa hology in he gai
cycle (s udies o pa ien s wi h neu ological p oblems o a -
ious ypes, such as hemiplegia), s udies ha analyzed gai
using ad anced so wa e o a i icial in elligence, s udies
1 3
Fo ensic Science, Medicine and Pa hology
measu emen placemen [19]. La sen e al. [22] sugges
ha inco po a ing addi ional a iables om mul iple planes
o mo emen could imp o e gai analysis, con ibu ing o
highe ecogni ion a es.
Fu he con ibu ions by S. Yang e al. [21] ocused on
enhancing he eliabili y o angula analysis, especially
when incomple e gai cycles a e cap u ed by su eillance
came as. Thei esea ch demons a ed ha ocusing on spe-
ci ic poin s wi hin he gai cycle wi h highe disc imina o y
powe can imp o e he iden i ica ion p ocess. Ne e heless,
he s udy by O. Ludwig e al. [19] also highligh ed ha a i-
ous ac o s, including en i onmen al condi ions o he ype
o oo wea , could a ec he ep oducibili y o angula mea-
su emen s, hus limi ing hei e ec i eness.
On he o he hand, obse a ional gai analysis, elying on
biome ic ecogni ion h ough CCTV oo age, is conside ed
mo e lexible in eal-wo ld condi ions whe e o he ma ke s
may be obscu ed o hidden. Acco ding o Bi ch e al. [17]
and Raymond e al. [30], his non-in usi e me hod o e s
dis inc ad an ages in law en o cemen and secu i y applica-
ions. Thei esea ch indica es ha expe ienced analys s a e
signi ican ly mo e accu a e in iden i ying indi iduals based
on gai analysis, showing ha amilia i y wi h he p ocess
imp o es ecogni ion a es [17]. Addi ionally, he “She -
ield Fea u es o Gai Tool,” de eloped by Bi ch e al. [26],
has been widely es ed o epea abili y and ep oducibili y,
analysis wi h he adi ional gold s anda d o obse a ional
s udies.
Gai pa e ns a e conside ed aluable o ensic e idence
due o hei kinema ic cha ac e is ics, which can be unique
o each indi idual, making hem a po en ial ool o dis-
c imina ion in c iminal in es iga ions [26, 27]. Bi ch e
al. [26] asse ha gai analysis, pa icula ly he examina-
ion o walking s yle, is a c ucial pa o o ensic science,
wi h he me hod gaining p ominence as a biome ic ool o
indi idualisa ion. The i s o ensic use o gai analysis in
cou occu ed in 1839, wi h signi ican ad ancemen s since
hen, including au oma ed sys ems ha ecognise gai pa -
e ns [27]. La sen e al. [22] highligh ed ha , al hough mo e
empi ical esea ch is needed, gai analysis o e s an ad an-
age o e o he biome ic me hods, such as acial ecogni-
ion, which can be comp omised i he pe pe a o a emp s
o conceal hei ace.
Among he popula o ensic gai analysis me hods, angu-
la measu emen s ha e shown p omise, ocusing on join
angles and anges o mo ion du ing gai cycles [17, 28, 29].
Howe e , ecen s udies by Bi ch e al. [17, 28] unde sco e
he e ec i eness o obse a ional gai analysis om CCTV
eco dings, demons a ing i s high applicabili y, epea abil-
i y, and ep oducibili y. While angula analysis is eliable in
con olled en i onmen s, i s accu acy can be in luenced by
ac o s such as clo hing o oo wea , and a iabili y in join
Fig. 1 PRISMA 2020 lowcha o he selec ion o s udies o he sys ema ic e iew
1 3
Fo ensic Science, Medicine and Pa hology
Rega ding he compa ison be ween he me hod o analy-
sis by means o angula measu emen s and he me hod o
obse a ional analysis o indi idual cha ac e is ics, we can
conclude ha he la e is imposed as he me hod wi h he
g ea es scien i ic e idence as i has high le els o p ecision,
alidi y and epea abili y when p ac iced by p o essionals
in he biomechanical s udy o gai and by o e coming he
limi a ions exp essed by he au ho s in e ms o he analysis
o angula measu emen s.
Key poin s
1. Gai o ensic analysis iden i ies subjec s h ough gai
cha ac e is ics and compa ison.
2. Gai o ensics is i al when biome ic da a like inge -
p in s o ace a e una ailable.
3. S udies show ha angula a iables in gai o e high
in e -indi idual a iabili y and disc imina o y powe .
4. The gai cycle analysis ool “She ield Fea u es o Gai ”
demons a es high accu acy, alidi y, and epea abili y
in subjec iden i ica ion.
Abb e ia ions
CCTV Closed Ci cui Tele ision
DNA Deoxy ibonucleic Acid
PRISMA P e e ed Repo ing I ems o Sys ema ic
Re iews and Me a-Analyses
WOS Web o Science
CINAHL Cumula i e Index o Nu sing and Allied Heal h
Li e a u e
OSF Open Science F amewo k
MeSH Medical Subjec Headings
Funding Funding o open access publishing: Uni e sidad de Se illa/
CBUA
Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License, which pe mi s use, sha ing,
adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma ,
as long as you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he
sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons licence, and indica e
i changes we e made. The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his
a icle a e included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence, unless
indica ed o he wise in a c edi line o he ma e ial. I ma e ial is no
included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence and you in ended
use is no pe mi ed by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed
use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly om he copy igh
holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p : / / c e a i e c o m m o n s . o
g / l i c e n s e s / b y / 4 . 0 /.
showing p omising esul s in he e alua ion o gai om
CCTV oo age.
Al hough he eliabili y o he “She ield Fea u es o
Gai Tool” has been es ablished, challenges emain ega d-
ing he s anda disa ion o o ensic gai analysis me hods
wo ldwide. The adop ion o a uni e sal p o ocol, as seen
in egions like he UK, Denma k, and he US, is c ucial
o enhancing he ep oducibili y and c edibili y o o en-
sic podia y [26]. Despi e some limi a ions iden i ied in he
s udies, such as he in luence o a ious ex e nal ac o s on
gai pa e ns, obse a ional analysis h ough CCTV emains
he mos eliable me hod o o ensic gai analysis, pa icu-
la ly when combined wi h ad anced ools like he She ield
Fea u es o Gai Tool.
This sys ema ic e iew is no wi hou i s limi a ions,
which should be conside ed when in e p e ing he indings.
One signi ican limi a ion is he lack o scien i ic a icles
ha di ec ly compa e he eliabili y o a ious me hods o
o ensic gai analysis. This gap in he li e a u e makes i di -
icul o es ablish a clea o me hods and de e mine which
app oach is mos e ec i e in o ensic applica ions. Fu he -
mo e, he majo i y o he s udies included in his e iew a e
obse a ional in na u e, and he sea ch did no yield s udies
wi h highe le els o scien i ic e idence, such as andom-
ized con olled ials, coho s udies, o case-con ol s udies,
which could ha e p o ided mo e obus and gene alizable
esul s. Addi ionally, he e is a no iceable lack o s udies
on o ensic gai analysis conduc ed in Spain, wi h all he
me hods analyzed o igina ing om o eign au ho s, many
o whom ha e implemen ed hei app oaches in coun ies
o he han Spain. This geog aphical gap limi s he applica-
bili y o he indings o Spanish o ensic con ex s. Las ly,
he ield o o ensic gai analysis has been de eloped by a
ela i ely small g oup o au ho s, wi h many o he a icles
e iewed o igina ing om he same esea che s, which
may es ic he di e si y o pe spec i es and inno a ions
in he ield. These limi a ions unde sco e he need o u -
he esea ch, including compa a i e s udies, highe -quali y
e idence, and a b oade geog aphical and au ho ial scope,
o s eng hen he ield and ensu e i s b oade applicabili y in
o ensic science.
Conclusions
Rega ding he eliabili y o o ensic gai analysis using
angula measu emen s, i is concluded ha mo e empi ical
in o ma ion is needed, since, al hough some au ho s a i m
le els o posi i e co ela ion in he combina ion o angula
a iables in he di e en planes, he e a e au ho s who s a e
ha he change in in a-indi idual condi ions (mood, clo h-
ing) make iden i ica ion impossible by his me hod.
1 3
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