Mi iga ing u ban hea pains h ough na u e-based cool pa emen in
ex emely ho clima es
☆
Paulo Ga cía-Melga
a
, Paz Mon e o-Gu i´
e ez
a
, Ma ía del Ca men Gue e o Delgado
a,*
,
Albe o Ce ezo Na ´
aez
b
, Jos´
e S´
anchez Ramos
a
, Se ando ´
Al a ez Domínguez
a
a
G upo Te mo ecnia, Escuela Supe io de Ingenie ía, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain
b
G upo Te mo ecnia, Escuela Supe io de Ingenie ía, Uni e si y o Cadiz, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
U ban o e hea ing
Na u e based solu ions
Passi e cooling
Cool pa emen s
Hea -pain
ABSTRACT
Global wa ming is in ensi ying he equency and se e i y o hea wa es, making u ban en i onmen s inc eas-
ingly hos ile, especially du ing he summe mon hs. Pa emen su aces a e pa icula ly ulne able, o en
eaching ex eme empe a u es ha cause signi ican he mal discom o , con ac bu ns and ma e ial deg ada-
ion. This s udy p esen s an inno a i e solu ion based on na u e: a cold pa emen sys em ha akes ad an age o
na u ally cooled subsu ace wa e o educe su ace empe a u es by conduc ion, wi hou elying on e apo a ion
o wa e consump ion due o he absence o capilla i y. The sys em is pa icula ly sui able o ho clima es and
ou doo public spaces whe e use s can walk ba e oo , such as coas al p omenades o wa e pa ks. To e alua e i s
pe o mance, a digi al he mal model was de eloped and expe imen ally alida ed in eal condi ions in Se ille,
Spain, du ing he summe o 2023. A sensi i i y analysis iden i ied op imal design pa ame e s, including
pa emen hickness, he mal conduc i i y, abso p i i y and wa e hea exchange. Resul s indica e ha his
passi e cooling s a egy can educe su ace empe a u e by up o 20 ◦C compa ed o con en ional pa emen s,
while main aining sa e he mal condi ions o mo e han 80 % o he exposu e ime and sys ema ically a oiding
ha m ul con ac h esholds. This na u e-based app oach demons a es g ea po en ial o imp o e ou doo u ban
he mal com o , mi iga e hea - ela ed heal h isks, and suppo he de elopmen o mo e sus ainable and
clima e- esilien u ban en i onmen s.
1. In oduc ion
1.1. Con ex
The in ensi ica ion o clima e change and i s ad e se e ec s a e
p esen ing inc easingly complex challenges in u ban en i onmen s,
impac ing bo h he well-being o esiden s and he en i onmen al
quali y o ci ies In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change [1]. Rising
global empe a u es, combined wi h ex eme wea he pa e ns, a e
wo sening li ing condi ions in u ban a eas, whe e he buil en i onmen
signi ican ly con ibu es o hea e en ion and o e hea ing [2]. U ban-
iza ion has inc eased he use o hea -abso bing ma e ials like asphal
and conc e e, aising local empe a u es and ha ming en i onmen al
quali y [3]. These u ban elemen s, p e alen in s ee s, squa es, and
o he public spaces, exace ba e empe a u es in su ounding a eas and
c ea e un a ou able mic oen i onmen s ha discou age ou doo
ac i i ies and limi he he mal com o o esiden s [4].
Fu he mo e, he educ ion o g een spaces and ege a ion wi hin
u ban en i onmen s diminishes he na u al cooling capaci y o ci ies
[5,6]. This, coupled wi h a lack o shade and in ense sola adia ion,
u he complica es he habi abili y and enjoymen o public spaces [7].
Conside ing his issue, p io i izing he design and e alua ion o mi i-
ga ion s a egies o egula e empe a u es and alle ia e he ad e se e -
ec s o he buil en i onmen is essen ial. Inco po a ing sus ainable
solu ions—such as low-hea abso p ion ma e ials, expanded g een
spaces, and passi e cooling in as uc u e—helps mi iga e clima e
change impac s while os e ing ci ies be e p epa ed o u u e
challenges.
In ho summe clima es, high empe a u es can u n conc e e and
asphal loo s in o hea sou ces ha pose a dange o anyone who walks
on hem. The combina ion o di ec sola adia ion and abso bed adian
hea causes ce ain su aces in he u ban en i onmen , such as asphal
oads and conc e e pa emen s, o each empe a u es signi ican ly
☆
This a icle is pa o a special issue en i led: ‘NBS o Clima e Change’ published in Ene gy & Buildings.
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (M. Ca men Gue e o Delgado).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Ene gy & Buildings
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h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.115945
Recei ed 31 Ma ch 2025; Recei ed in e ised o m 21 May 2025; Accep ed 28 May 2025
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
A ailable online 31 May 2025
0378-7788/© 2025 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie B.V. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/ ).
highe han he su ounding ai empe a u e [8]. Resea ch, including
s udies by Ha ing on e al. [9] sugges s ha while bu ns can occu a a
skin empe a u e o 44 ◦C, con ac wi h su aces can cause second-
deg ee bu ns wi hin 35 s when ai empe a u es exceed 35 ◦C. Wi h
ci ies expe iencing ex emely ho summe s, and day ime empe a u es
equen ly su passing 40 ◦C, he soil in hese a eas can become in ensely
ho , leading o discom o and po en ial bu ns on he ee o ba e oo
gues s. This si ua ion is no only c i ical o ci y dwelle s bu also o
a ious animal species, which can su e bu ns on hei ee when
walking on hese ex emely ho pa emen s, pa icula ly in a eas ha
lack shel e om shadows.
Bu ns om ho su aces du ing he summe mon hs a e ela i ely
common, pa icula ly in ho dese clima es. Fo ins ance, he s udy by
M.M. Al-Qa an [10] highligh s he bu ns su e ed by Muslims on he
day o he weekly mass. Be o e en e ing he mosque, Muslims lea e hei
sandals ou side, and a e he se ice, hese sandals may be misplaced o
los . S anding o walking ba e oo in he s ee a ha ime o day can
esul in bu ned ee . The issue ex ends beyond he po en ial o bu ns o
he inhabi an s; i can also lead o a al consequences.
In June 2024, empe a u es in G and Mecca soa ed o 51.8 ◦C [11]
leading o 550 pilg im dea hs du ing he Hajj, mos ly due o hea s ess.
As a esul , heal h o icials epo ed nea ly 5,800 cases o hea - ela ed
illnesses, unde sco ing he u gen need o in e en ions o comba
hea s ess. Addi ionally, he esea ch conduc ed by Asqui h e al. [12]
emphasizes cases o bu ns on child en’s ba e ee while playing in public
play a eas. A s udy conduc ed by Saquib e al.[13] concluded ha ad-
missions o hei heal h cen e o bu ns in child en began e en when he
ou side ai empe a u e was as low as 35 ◦C. Fu he mo e, he wo k o
Shaki o e al. [14] indica es ha e en in Cen al Asian clima es, bu ns
om con ac wi h conc e e and asphal su aces accoun o up o 16.6 %
o o al bu ns in child en, making i he second mos common ype o
bu n.
1.2. Cool pa emen s
In esponse o u ban he mal challenges, cool ma e ials ha e
eme ged as an e ec i e solu ion o mi iga e u ban o e hea ing and
add ess hea -pain issues. These ma e ials a e speci ically designed o
minimize hea abso p ion and e lec sola adia ion, he eby educing
he su ace empe a u e o pa ed a eas and enhancing he mal com o
in u ban en i onmen s [15]. Among he mos ad anced clima e
adap a ion s a egies, Na u e-Based Solu ions (NBS) play a signi ican
ole by o e ing g een, blue, and g ey solu ions o hea mi iga ion [16].
G een solu ions in ol e he implemen a ion o g een oo s and ee
plan ing [17]; X. [18]), while blue solu ions ocus on inco po a ing
wa e sys ems in o u ban design [19]. Howe e , his s udy p ima ily
emphasizes g ey solu ions, which include in e en ions in building and
pa ing ma e ials. In his con ex , cool loo co e ings ha e gained in-
e es . The e a e di e en ypes, such as e lec i e ones, which inc ease
he su ace’s abili y o e lec hea ; po ous ones, which allow wa e o
pass h ough and help cool he loo ; and pho o ol aic ones, which no
only educe he empe a u e, bu also gene a e ene gy om sunligh
[20].
Re lec i e pa emen s a e enginee ed wi h high e lec i i y and
emissi i y owa ds sola ene gy, aimed a educing he abso p ion o
sola adia ion and enhancing he emission o in a ed adia ion [8,21].
This is accomplished by minimizing adia ion abso p ion wi hin he
conc e e s uc u e, which leads o a dec ease in su ace empe a u e and
hea e en ion. While his echnology has been widely esea ched and is
ela i ely s aigh o wa d o implemen , signi ican ins alla ion and
main enance cos s p esen challenges, along wi h issues ela ed o he
he mal and isual com o o u ban esiden s [22,23]. On he o he
hand, pe meable and wa e - e en i e pa emen s possess a g ea e
numbe o oids compa ed o con en ional pa emen s, allowing wa e
o pe mea e in o he sub-laye s and he g ound below [24,25]. These
pa emen s can e ain abso bed wa e and u ilize i o cooling h ough
e apo a ion, he eby lowe ing hei su ace empe a u e. Addi ionally,
i is sugges ed ha he il e ing capabili ies o pe meable pa emen s
may aid in enhancing g oundwa e quali y [26,27]. Howe e , a p ima y
disad an age o his pa emen ype is he wa e consump ion associa ed
wi h e apo a ion as a cooling mechanism.
The e a e a ious expe imen al p oo s o concep o hese cold
pa emen echnologies. Fo ins ance, Ruas e al. [28] conduc ed a s udy
compa ing a ious echnologies like e lec i e pa ing, e apo a i e
pa ing, and di e en shading quali ies o ou doo pa ing in Pa is,
F ance. While his s udy assesses com o indica o s based on UTCI, i
does no add ess he isual discom o associa ed wi h e lec i e pa e-
men s. O he signi ican s udies on e lec i e pa emen s include hose
conduc ed by Middel e al. [29] and Kousis e al. [30]. The o me in-
es iga es he he mal beha iou o asphal pa emen s conce ning hei
e lec i e laye s, while he la e examines a ype o pa emen ha
u ilizes phospho escence o assess i s hyg o- he mal and adia i e
p ope ies.
Se e al s udies ha e been conduc ed on e apo a i e pa emen
echnology. One no able s udy by Wang e al. [24] explo es he impac
o e apo a i e cooling om wo ypes o pe meable loo ing on ou doo
he mal com o in Guangzhou (China). While his esea ch yields
insigh ul esul s, he speci ics o echnological implemen a ion emain
ambiguous. Ano he s udy conduc ed by Liu e al. [31] in es iga es he
he mal com o o he human body when po ous loo ing is we ed in
Lanzhou (China). The indings indica e ha ou doo he mal com o
diminishes when ou doo empe a u es exceed 20 ◦C and ela i e hu-
midi y inc eases.
Despi e ad ancemen s in he de elopmen o hese ma e ials and
ecen con ibu ions o he ield, he scien i ic li e a u e emains limi ed
ega ding inno a i e pa emen designs aimed a e ec i ely educing
su ace empe a u es and comp ehensi ely mi iga ing hea e ec s in
u ban spaces. This limi a ion ep esen s a signi ican gap o u u e
esea ch in he pu sui o mo e esilien ci ies.
Fo his eason, he au ho s o his pape p oposed an inno a i e cold
sc eed solu ion in a p e ious a icle [32]. The objec i e o his ech-
nology is o cool pa emen s using na u ally cooled wa e , he eby
e alua ing i s po en ial o educe i s su ace empe a u e wi hou
depending on he e apo a i e cooling e ec s o adi ional e apo a i e
pa emen s and he associa ed wa e usage. This app oach consis s o
allowing cold wa e o low unde he bo om su ace o he pa emen
wi hou capilla y ac ion, which cools he bo om su ace when i mee s
Nomencla u e
Abb e ia ions
LMTD Log mean empe a u e di e ence
NBS Na u e-based solu ion
PUR Polyu e hane oam
Symbols
∝The mal di usi i y [m
2
/s]
c
p
Speci ic hea capaci y [J/kg K]
k The mal conduc i i y [W/m K]
ρ
Densi y [kg/m
3
]
Time [s]
T
A,0
Maximum allowable ma e ial empe a u e [◦C]
T
ai
Ou doo empe a u e [◦C]
T
B,0
Ini ial skin empe a u e [◦C]
T
o e hea ing
O e hea ing empe a u e [◦C]
T
pa emen
Uppe su ace pa emen empe a u e [◦C]
T
PM
Con ac empe a u e [◦C]
T
skin
Tempe a u e a he in e ace [◦C]
X Con ac conduc ance [W/m
2
K]
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
2
he wa e . Consequen ly, he e is a educ ion in he empe a u e o he
uppe su ace due o conduc ion and he sensible hea o he wa e . As a
esul , he pa emen has an inhe en ly low wa e consump ion du ing
he cooling p ocess. This inno a i e echnological app oach no only
con ibu es o he ena u a ion o ci ies and alle ia es u ban o e -
hea ing, bu also add esses he p oblems ela ed o con ac bu ns caused
by ex eme su ace empe a u es.
Howe e , he adop ion o his inno a i e solu ion by he scien i ic
communi y will depend on esea ch ha de ines i s op imal ope a ing
condi ions, assessing du abili y, economic easibili y, en i onmen al
impac , and e iciency h ough eal case s udies. Fu he mo e, la ge-
scale pilo s udies and compa a i e analyses wi h exis ing echnologies
will be essen ial o alida e i s e ec i eness and p omo e
implemen a ion.
1.3. Objec i es
The main objec i e o his s udy is o e alua e an inno a i e cold
pa emen solu ion aimed a educing bu n isks in eal-wo ld se ings,
pa icula ly in public a eas whe e ba e oo walking is common, such as
wa e pa ks o coas al pa hs in ho clima es. Gi en ha summe em-
pe a u es in hese egions o en exceed 40 ◦C, su ace hea poses a heal h
and sa e y isk. This s udy explo es a cold pa emen concep o lowe
su ace empe a u es and enhance isi o sa e y, ocusing on he
ollowing key aspec s:
•Analysis o he e ec s o high empe a u es on con en ional sun-
exposed pa emen s, ocusing on ba e oo bu n isks and sa e y
implica ions.
•Design o a cold pa emen concep wi h imp o ed he mal pe o -
mance, iden i ying p ope ies ha educe hea abso p ion.
•De elopmen o a digi al model o simula e and compa e he he mal
beha iou o he cold pa emen e sus con en ional su aces.
•Sensi i i y analysis o de e mine he op imal pa emen con igu a ion
based on ma e ial pe o mance.
•Technological implemen a ion in a 100 m
2
pilo o analyse echnical
aspec s and economic ac o s.
2. Me hodology
In his s udy, a model is p oposed o p edic he he mal pe o mance
o inno a i e cold pa emen s, based on expe imen al es ing and sub-
sequen alida ion. A p oo o concep was conduc ed du ing he sum-
me o 2023 o e alua e a passi e cooling solu ion using na u ally
cooling ma e ials [32]. The p omising esul s led o a case s udy
explo ing hese pa emen s as a solu ion o con ac bu ns and discom-
o caused by o e hea ed su aces. Based on hese indings, a ma he-
ma ical model was de eloped o simula e pa emen pe o mance unde
a ious clima ic condi ions.
The concep o con ac empe a u e is cen al o assessing he sa e y
and e ec i eness o cold pa emen s. To es ima e i , he ma e ial’s
he mal p ope ies a e analysed, including i s capaci y o abso b and
dissipa e hea in di e se en i onmen al con ex s. Based on hese p in-
ciples, a simpli ied design model is c ea ed o p edic he mal beha iou
ac oss di e en clima es. Expe imen al esul s a e in eg a ed o calib a e
he model and enhance p edic ion accu acy. The model aims o es ima e
bo h su ace and con ac empe a u es in speci ic scena ios, assessing
he pa emen ’s po en ial o mi iga e ad e se he mal e ec s in u ban
and ec ea ional se ings.
Fo alida ion, a case s udy is implemen ed in a eal-wo ld wa e pa k
en i onmen wi h ex eme empe a u es. Simula ed alues a e
compa ed wi h on-si e measu emen s o e i y he model’s accu acy in
p edic ing pa emen empe a u e and e alua ing i s con ibu ion o
Fig. 1. Me hodological ou line o he p ocess.
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
3
he mal sa e y. Addi ionally, a sensi i i y analysis is pe o med o assess
di e en combina ions o design a iables such as ma e ial ype, colou ,
ex u e, and conduc i i y. Fig. 1 ou lines he whole p ocess.
2.1. One-dimensional ansien conduc ion modelling
2.1.1. Theo e ical ma hema ical modelling
In his sec ion, he ma hema ical model used as a ’’Digi al Twin’’ o
he he mal beha iou o pa emen s is p esen ed. The nume ical model
is employed o e alua e he e ec i eness o he p oposed concep ual
solu ion unde he Dubai clima e condi ions. To in es iga e he pe o -
mance o opaque elemen s unde a ying bounda y condi ions, he
analysis commences wi h he undamen al equa ion o hea conduc ion
wi h gene a ion, as ou lined in Eq. (1).
∂
∂
x(k
∂
T
∂
x)+
∂
∂
y(k
∂
T
∂
y)+
∂
∂
z(k
∂
T
∂
z)+G=
ρ
C
∂
T
∂
(1)
Pa icula izing his exp ession o he unidi ec ional case wi hou gen-
e a ion, he esul ing exp ession is shown in Eq. (2).
∂
∂
x(k
∂
T
∂
x)=
ρ
C
∂
T
∂
(2)
The equa ion is de e mined by he bounda y condi ions ha desc ibe he
pa emen scena io. The bounda y condi ion on he uppe su ace pe -
ains o he ene gy equilib ium a ha speci ic su ace. The main ac o s
con ibu ing o his a e he abso p ion o sho -wa eleng h adia ion
( om he sun), long-wa eleng h adian ans e be ween he pa emen
su ace and he sky, and con ec i e ans e esul ing om he pa emen
su ace’s in e ac ion wi h he ambien ai .
In he e e ence (con en ional) si ua ion, he bo om su ace will
ha e a empe a u e imposed by he empe a u e a ia ion o he g ound
as a unc ion o dep h and obse a ion pe iod. Con e sely, o a we
pa emen scena io, he empe a u e a his su ace co esponds o ha
o he ci cula ing wa e . To sol e Eq. (2), nume ical modelling is
es ablished, disc e izing he domain wi h a su icien ly small mesh so
ha uni o m empe a u e can be assumed in each cell. Fo each pa e-
men node, Fig. 2 p oposes an inc emen al balance as ollows by Eq. (3).
ρ
CpΔxi(
∂
Ti
∂
)=(Ti+1−Ti
Ri+Ti−1−Ti
Ri−1)(3)
When sol ing he de i a i e e m conce ning ime, wo po en ial dis-
c e iza ion me hods can be employed: ei he explici ly Eq. (4) o
implici ly Eq. (5).
ρ
CpΔxi(Ti,j−Ti,j−1
Δ )=(Ti+1,j−1−Ti,j−1
Ri+Ti−1,j−1−Ti,j−1
Ri−1)(4)
ρ
CpΔxi(Ti,j−Ti,j−1
Δ )=(Ti+1,j−Ti,j
Ri+Ti−1,j−Ti,j
Ri−1)(5)
In his case, he implici me hod will be used as i is mo e complex bu
will p o ide mo e eliable and s able esul s. The esul ing ma ix
equa ion o he implici me hod is p esen ed in Eq. (6), de ailing i s
componen s in Eqs. (7)–(9).
[MA]⋅[T] = [VB](6)
Fig. 2. Ene gy balance in node.
[MA] =
⎛
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
1+
ρ
eceΔx2
2keΔ −1
−k(i)Ci
ρ
iΔx2+(ki+1+ki)Δ
Δ
0 0
−k(i+1)0
⋯0
⋯0
0−k(i)
0 0
Ci
ρ
iΔx2+(ki+1+ki)Δ
Δ −k(i+1)
−k(i)⋱
⋯0
⋯−k(i+1)
⋮ ⋮
0 0
⋮0
0 0 −k(i)Ci
ρ
iΔx2+(ki+1+ki)Δ
Δ
⋯−1
0
0
⋮
0
−k(i+1)
1+
ρ
eceΔx2
2keΔ +hiΔx
ki
⎞
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠(7)
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
4
T=
⎛
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
Ti,j
Ti+1,j
Ti+2,j
Ti+3,j
⋮
Tn,j
⎞
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
(8)
[VB] =
⎛
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎝
Tex
heΔx
ke+Ti,j−1
ρ
eCeΔx2
2keΔ
⋮
Ti,j−1
ρ
iCiΔx2
Δ
⋮
Tin
hiΔx
ki+Ti,j−1
ρ
iCiΔx2
2kiΔ
⎞
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎠
(9)
In his con ex , he unknowns ep esen he empe a u es a indi idual
nodes o each ime s ep, wi h he su ace empe a u e o he pa emen
se ing as he e alua ion a iable.
2.1.2. Expe imen al e alua ion
The pa ame e s o he p oposed model a e ob ained om expe i-
men s conduc ed by he au ho s. Recogni ion wi hin he scien i ic
communi y is es ablished h ough heo e ical con ibu ion[33,34]. This
sec ion summa izes he da a ob ained om an expe imen al e alua ion
o he concep unde s udy. The p oo o concep ep esen s he ini ial
phase o he au ho s’ in es iga ion in o his inno a i e cool pa emen
solu ion[32]. Fig. 3 p esen s he p o o ype o he expe imen al acili y
being s udied. This expe imen al acili y consis s o h ee key sys ems
designed o es he he mal beha iou o he cool pa emen s:
Wa e pond (Cold-wa e supply sou ce): The wa e pond se es as he
main ese oi o supply cold wa e h oughou he expe imen . I
unc ions as a he mal bu e , keeping he wa e empe a u e s able
o ensu e consis en expe imen al condi ions. The wa e s o ed in
his pond is used o simula e ealis ic cooling scena ios, acili a ing
he con olled low o wa e h ough he hyd aulic sys em and un-
de nea h he pa emen samples. The he mal p ope ies o he pond,
such as hea abso p ion and dissipa ion a es, a e c ucial o e alua e
he o e all e ec i eness o he cooling sys em.
Wa e supply sys em (Con olled wa e dis ibu ion): The hyd aulic
sys em is esponsible o he con olled supply o wa e o he pa ing
s a ion. This sys em includes a ne wo k o pipes, al es and pumps
ha egula e wa e low, p essu e and dis ibu ion. I ensu es a
cons an and uni o m supply o wa e unde he pa emen su aces,
allowing p ecise con ol o he cooling e ec s. The sys em is designed
Fig. 3. Expe imen al cool pa emen p o o ype [32].
Fig. 4. Expe imen al he mal pe o mance o he cool pa emen solu ion.
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
5
o simula e eal-wo ld condi ions whe e wa e is used as a cooling
mechanism in u ban pa emen en i onmen s.
Pa emen S a ion: This is he co e o he expe imen al se up, whe e
he he mal pe o mance o pa emen samples is analysed unde
con olled condi ions. This s a ion is speci ically designed o acili-
a e a sys ema ic compa ison be ween d y and we pa emen sce-
na ios. In he d y pa emen s a ion, pa emen samples a e exposed
o en i onmen al condi ions wi hou any wa e in e ac ion. The
objec i e is o s udy hei na u al he mal esponse o sola adia ion,
ai empe a u e, and o he clima ic ac o s. Tempe a u e senso s
embedded in he pa emen measu e su ace and subsu ace em-
pe a u e a ia ions o e ime. This analysis es ablishes a baseline o
unde s anding how con en ional d y pa emen s e ain and dissipa e
hea . The second sec ion o he pa ing s a ion examines he impac o
wa e low unde he pa emen su ace. A con olled olume o
wa e is ci cula ed benea h he pa emen laye s o assess i s cooling
po en ial. By moni o ing empe a u e luc ua ions in eal ime, e-
sea che s can quan i y how e ec i ely he wa e ci cula ion mi i-
ga es hea buildup. This analysis is essen ial o de e mine he
easibili y o implemen ing wa e -based cooling s a egies in u ban
in as uc u e.
To ensu e he eliabili y o he esul s, wo iden ical pa emen
samples a e es ed simul aneously: one d y and one wi h wa e ci cu-
la ion unde nea h. Since bo h samples a e subjec ed o iden ical en i-
onmen al condi ions, any empe a u e a ia ions obse ed be ween
hem can be di ec ly a ibu ed o he cooling mechanism being es ed.
This con olled app oach elimina es ex aneous a iables, ensu ing ha
he esul s accu a ely e lec he po en ial bene i s o he p oposed
cooling pa emen concep . Clima e da a a e eco ded by means o a
clima e s a ion loca ed in si u in he expe imen al acili y, as well as a
backup s a ion loca ed a he School o Enginee ing o he Uni e si y o
Se ille du ing he summe o 2023.
On he o he hand, Fig. 4 p esen s he empe a u e cu es o he d y
uppe su ace o he pa emen s, which se e as a e e ence, alongside
he cool pa emen unde e alua ion, ambien ai empe a u e, and he
empe a u e o he wa e used o na u al cooling. The we expe imen s
begin a 14:00, du ing which wa e ci cula es benea h he bo om su -
ace o he pa emen . This wa e low, occu ing om 14:00 o 18:00, is
designa ed as he ’On Pe iod,’ depic ed in he g aph by he ligh blue
a ea. This ime ame coincides wi h peak sola adia ion hou s, du ing
which pedes ian a ic dec eases as indi iduals seek shel e indoo s,
he eby enhancing com o du ing ex eme condi ions. Subsequen ly,
he ’O Pe iod’ commences, which is analysed o e alua e he he mal
esponse esul ing om he we ing du ing he ’On Pe iod.’ This phase is
i al as i ma ks he onse o inc eased pedes ian ac i i y in public
spaces, emphasizing he impo ance o he mal com o .
I is no ed ha bo h d y and we pa emen s exhibi a g adual and
ema kably simila empe a u e ajec o y un il 14:00 when wa e ci -
cula ion begins. The cool pa emen quickly eac s o he cooling e ec o
he wa e , leading o a signi ican dec ease in he empe a u e o he
pa emen ’s uppe su ace compa ed o he d y e e ence. This empe -
a u e educ ion is subs an ial enough o he pa emen o lowe i s
empe a u e below ha o he ou doo ai . Mo eo e , a e he cessa ion
o wa e ci cula ion, he we pa emen s con inue o main ain a em-
pe a u e ha emains lowe han he ou doo ai empe a u e, while he
d y pa emen s s ay wa me un il nigh ime.
2.1.3. Theo e ical model alida ion
To alida e he model, esul s om a pa emen su ey conduc ed in
summe 2023 a e compa ed wi h he nume ical ou pu s o he compu-
a ional model desc ibed in Sec ion 2.1.1. Speci ically, 85 % o he
expe imen al da a om he 2023 campaign a e used o compa ison.
The esul s show s ong alignmen be ween he simula ed and expe i-
men al alues, bo h in end and magni ude. Fig. 5 illus a es his
ag eemen wi h a sca e plo , whe e each poin ep esen s a pai o
expe imen al and simula ed empe a u es eco ded simul aneously. The
poin s closely ollow he bisec o , indica ing a nea one- o-one ma ch.
The model’s accu acy is u he suppo ed by an e o ma gin o less
han 5 % o mos da a poin s, con i ming i s eliabili y.
2.2. P ac ical applica ion
Beyond alida ing indi idual models, i is c ucial o es ablish con-
nec ions be ween modelled elemen s o accu a ely p edic cold pa e-
men beha iou . The de eloped model se es as a link be ween
con olled expe imen s and eal-wo ld applica ions, enabling he anal-
ysis o a iables such as ma e ial ype, colou , he mal p ope ies, and
he e ec o g oundwa e ci cula ion. This app oach allows labo a o y
esul s o be ex apola ed o eal u ban se ings. To suppo his, a case
s udy is de ined in which a cold pa emen p o o ype is designed and
implemen ed.
2.2.1. Ex eme hea challenges in u ban public spaces
In ex emely ho clima es, u ban public spaces like wa e pa ks and
coas al walkways ace signi ican challenges due o ele a ed pa emen
empe a u es. Fo ins ance, wa e pa ks a e designed o o e isi o s a
e eshing escape om high empe a u es, bu in a id and ex emely ho
egions, en i onmen al condi ions c ea e unexpec ed p oblems. One o
he mos p essing p oblems aced by isi o s is excessi e hea ing o he
pa emen s su ounding he pools. Due o p olonged exposu e o in ense
sola adia ion and cons an high empe a u es h oughou mos o he
yea , hese su aces each dange ously high empe a u es, posing a
signi ican isk o ba e oo isi o s.
Such clima e condi ions a e cha ac e ized by p olonged pe iods o
in ense hea , wi h summe empe a u es o en exceeding 40 ◦C and
ex eme sola adia ion ha signi ican ly inc eases su ace empe a-
u es. The combina ion o low humidi y, high ai empe a u es, and
s ong sunligh esul s in apid hea abso p ion by ma e ials such as
pa emen and conc e e, making ou doo su aces pa icula ly haza dous
o di ec human con ac .
A equen consequence o his ex eme hea is con ac bu ns on he
soles o isi o s’ ee when hey walk on hese o e hea ed pa emen s
a e lea ing he pools. This p oblem no only causes discom o , bu also
ep esen s a se ious sa e y haza d, which can nega i ely impac he
Fig. 5. Expe imen al alida ion o he nume ical model.
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
6
Fig. 6. P oposed applica ion o channel o ma ion.
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
7
o e all isi o expe ience. I le unadd essed, his p oblem could educe
he a ac i eness o he pa k as a ec ea ional des ina ion, ul ima ely
a ec ing isi o sa is ac ion and a endance.
2.2.2. Desc ip ion o he design
Wa e managemen in cold pa emen s is a key ac o o he mal
egula ion and op imiza ion o wa e esou ces. To mi iga e his p ob-
lem, his s udy explo es an inno a i e cold pa emen solu ion designed
o educe su ace empe a u es h ough an in eg a ed cooling sys em
wi hou e apo a i e losses o wa e . Fo his pu pose, co uga ed
gal anized s eel shee s and a PVC pipe sys em a e used. Fig. 6 de ails he
assembly p ocess, om ab ica ion o ins alla ion, ensu ing he hy-
d aulic unc ionali y and s uc u al s eng h o he sys em. The sys em is
composed o a ious s uc u al and unc ional elemen s ha allow i s
co ec pe o mance.
1. P e ious conc e e slab: Ac s as a s uc u al base and suppo poin o
he channels. This slab p o ides mechanical s abili y and minimizes
he need o addi ional s uc u es o he ins alla ion o he sys em.
2. Mass conc e e: 10 cm hick op laye ha p o ec s he sys em and
dis ibu es he loads. The ci cula ion o cold wa e inside he chan-
nels gene a es a conduc i e hea low in which he cemen p o ides
he mal s abili y.
3. Co uga ed gal anized s eel shee : 0.5 mm hick me al shee ha
o ms he wa e channels. I s co uga ed design allows he o ma ion
o apezoidal sec ions o 0.0824 m
2
gene a ing an e icien wa e
s o age and conduc ion sys em. A 1 m wide co uga ed shee p o-
duces 4 wa e channels. The co uga ed shee s a e a anged by dis-
inguishing be ween he cen al shee s and he end shee s. Gi en ha
he e a e 4 apezoids pe shee , he a ea pe shee is 0.03296 m
2
.
Consequen ly, a s anda d 12 m shee can hold 0.39552 m
3
o wa e ,
esul ing in a o al o 3.296 m
3
o wa e o 100 m
2
o cold pa emen .
4. Polyu e hane oam sealing: Used as a seal be ween PVC pipes and
s eel shee s, p e en ing leakage and ensu ing s uc u al s abili y.
5. PVC pipe: This 32 mm diame e pipe is esponsible o anspo ing
he accumula ed wa e o he gal anized s eel shee s, as well as o he
d ainage o euse sys em.
The implemen a ion o he sys em ollows a wo-phase me hodology.
Phase 1 ocuses on he ab ica ion o he channel end pieces in he
wo kshop, allowing he manu ac u ing condi ions o be con olled. This
equi es he cu ing and subsequen bending o a 2 mm hick pla e in
dimensions o 150 mm and 350 mm o se e as a s uc u al base. The
gal anized s eel shee (3) is ins alled on his base, ensu ing ha i adop s
he equi ed shape in he channels. Epoxy esin and sel -d illing sc ews
a e used o join he 32 mm diame e pipe (5) wi h he shee and he base
c ea ed. Finally, polyu e hane oam (5) is used be ween he co uga ed
shee (2) and he PVC pipe (4) o p e en leaks and p o ide ai igh
join s.
Phase 2 allows he ins alla ion o he sys em in he building by laying
he co uga ed shee s c ea ed du ing phase 1 on he exis ing conc e e
slab (1). I is essen ial o assemble hese pieces wi h he supply and
d ainage ne wo ks, as well as o ensu e he i and sealing o he con-
nec ions wi h polyu e hane oam ein o cemen s i necessa y. Finally, a
10 cm hick laye o cemen o e lay is pou ed o e he channels,
ensu ing uni o m load dis ibu ion and in eg a ion wi h he exis ing
in as uc u e.
To op imize he hyd aulic e iciency o he sys em, he design o he
piping ne wo k ollows a s agge ed con igu a ion ha allows he co ec
e acua ion o he wa e . The conduc ion sys em is composed o a 100
mm diame e pipe, which unc ions as he main condui o he sys em. I
consis s o a 100–40 mm T-join ha allows he bi u ca ion o he wa e
low in o smalle sec ions, edi ec ing he low in a mo e con olled
manne and minimizing p essu e loss hanks o wo 45◦elbows. Finally,
a 40–32 mm educe allows he wa e o be con eyed o he inal 32 mm
pipe, aking ca e o he discha ge o euse o he wa e in he sys em.
2.2.3. Simula ion condi ions
The calcula ion ool is TRNSYS 18 [35], which is used by o he au-
ho s o analyse he pe o mance o cold pa emen and o he echnol-
ogies based on na u al echniques [34]. This p og am is essen ial o
analyze he ene gy sys em o he solu ion applied o he wa e pa k,
conside ed a sys em ha s o es and gene a es ene gy. The modeled
sys em consis s o hese h ee elemen s:
•Cold pa emen s: The cold pa emen ac s as a hea exchange , whe e
cold wa e ci cula es h ough in e nal channels, educing he su ace
empe a u e.
•Wa e s o age ank: A ank is inco po a ed whe e he p e iously
cooled wa e is s o ed. This ank is essen ial o he con inuous
supply o wa e o he channels and he he mal egula ion o he
pa emen . I is modelled in TRNSYS wi h Type 39, ensu ing e icien
con ol o empe a u e and wa e low.
•Wa e cooling sys em: Two cooling sys ems a e used o educe he
wa e empe a u e. Fi s , a passi e cooling sys em using a alling ilm
is conside ed, since he buildings and su oundings loca ed in he
wa e pa k ha e enough space o pho o ol aic panels [36–38]. This
mechanism allows he hea accumula ed in he wa e o dissipa e a
nigh , ensu ing ha he sys em is eady o ope a e e icien ly du ing
he day [36]. In bo h cases, he simpli ied models published by he
au ho s a e implemen ed as a unc ion using he TRNSYS edi o .
The cold sc eed ope a es dynamically, adjus ing i s ope a ion ac-
co ding o he ambien empe a u e and he empe a u e o he s o ed
wa e . Nigh ime wa e cooling ope a es o 8 h. Meanwhile, e apo a-
i e mis ing cooling is implemen ed o 12 day ime hou s. The chilled
wa e ci cula es h ough he pa emen channels when he ai empe -
a u e exceeds 30 ◦C and he ank empe a u e is below 27 ◦C. The
g oundwa e s o age olume is es ima ed a 70 m
3
o ensu e su icien
cooling o a leas 6 h. On he o he hand, he nigh ime dissipa ion a ea
o he alling shee echnology is conside ed equal o 380 m
2
.
The mon hs om May o Oc obe a e es ed because hey a e
conside ed he mos c i ical in Dubai due o he high empe a u es and
inciden sola adia ion on he pa emen s. An ENVI-me model [39] is
used o calcula e he ambien and su ace empe a u es eached in hese
mon hs, as well as o de e mine he inciden sola adia ion. This inpu
da a is included in TRNSYS, using a TMY (Typical Me eo ological Yea )
ile o pe o m he simula ions.
2.2.4. Pa emen he mal e alua ion
A de ailed he mal s udy will be ca ied ou on he con en ional
pa emen exposed o a ious clima ic condi ions, wi h he objec i e o
cha ac e izing i s he mal beha iou du ing he ho es mon h in Dubai.
The pa emen su ace empe a u e p o ile and he deg ee o o e hea ing
in ela ion o he ambien empe a u e will be analysed. This e e ence
scena io will se e as a poin o compa ison o quan i y he imp o e-
men s ob ained h ough he implemen a ion o cold pa emen
echnology.
The ci cula ion a eas o he wa e pa k in he e e ence si ua ion a e
composed o di e en laye s o ma e ial, whose he mal p ope ies a e
de ailed in Table 1. The abso p i i y alues conside ed a e 0.4 o ligh -
colou ed su aces and 0.55 o medium-colou ed su aces. These alues
a e de i ed om he abso p i i y measu emen s o he pa emen
Table 1
Re e ence pa emen ma e ial laye s.
Ma e ials Thickness
(m)
Conduc i i y (W/
mK)
Densi y
(Kg/m
3
)
Speci ic Hea
(J/KgK)
Conc e e
slab
0.1 1.6 2100 1179
G a el 0.45 1.4 2000 880
Soil 1.45 1.25 2425 890
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
8
samples e alua ed du ing a p e ious expe imen al campaign conduc ed
in Se ille [32], which is summa ized in Table 2. The alues o 0.4 and
0.55 ep esen he a e ages o all he ligh -colou ed and medium-
colou ed samples, espec i ely.
To analyse he pe o mance o di e en cold pa emen solu ions,
simula ions ha e been ca ied ou conside ing di e en design a iables.
The he mal p ope ies o he ma e ial such as conduc i i y, densi y and
speci ic hea a e conside ed, as well as he hickness o he es ed
pa emen , i s su ace abso p i i y and he empe a u e o he wa e used
in he cooling sys em. The he mal p ope ies o he ma e ials consid-
e ed in he analysis a e p esen ed in Table 3, whe e ou di e en ypes
o cemen a e g ouped wi h a ia ions in hei conduc i i y, densi y and
hea capaci y. To e alua e he in luence o each o hese p ope ies on
he he mal beha iou o he pa emen , simula ions ha e been ca ied
ou keeping all o he a iables cons an while modi ying he pa ame e
o in e es . This analysis allows us o quan i y and compa e he impac o
each p ope y on he pa emen su ace empe a u e.
2.3. Pa emen ouch empe a u e
2.3.1. Modelling and calcula ion o con ac empe a u e
De ining empe a u e limi s o skin con ac wi h bo h ho and cold
objec s is c ucial o p e en pain and skin damage. Th ee di e en
me hods can be used o es ima e his pa ame e . The i s is a simpli ied
ime-independen app oach, assuming pe ec he mal con ac . The
second co esponds o a de ailed ime-dependen app oach, conside ing
he ansien e ec s o conduc ion. Finally, he e is an expe imen al
app oach, based on empi ical da a o alida e he de ailed model.
The con ac empe a u e (T
A
) can be de e mined by using he an-
sien conduc ion solu ion in semi-in ini e solids. This con ac empe a-
u e occu s a he de mal/epide mal in e ace, app oxima ely 0.25 mm
below he su ace. A simpli ied and conse a i e solu ion in ol es
conside ing he con ac empe a u e di ec ly a he su ace and
assuming in ini e he mal conduc i i y o he con ac ma e ial (pe ec
con ac be ween skin and ma e ial). This ime-independen solu ion is
ep esen ed by Eq. (10).
Tskin =((k
ρ
Cp)
1
2
ATA,0+(k
ρ
Cp)
1
2
BTB,0
(k
ρ
Cp)
1
2
A+(k
ρ
Cp)
1
2
B
)(10)
whe e T
B,0
is he ini ial skin empe a u e, T
skin
is he empe a u e a he
in e ace, and T
A,0
is he maximum allowable ma e ial empe a u e ha
ensu es ha he skin empe a u e limi s a e no exceeded. k,
ρ
,Cp a e he
conduc i i y, densi y and speci ic hea o he ma e ial.
In he assessmen o alida ing he con ac empe a u e using he
p o ided equa ion, an example o con ac empe a u e is compa ed wi h
a de ailed p ocedu e ou lined by Eugene Unga (S oud, n.d.). The
de ailed p ocedu e is p esen ed in Eq. (11).
TPM =[Tskin(0)+Tobjec (0)]•
kobjec
α
objec
√
kobjec
α
objec
√+kskin
α
objec
√
•{e c(|X|
2
α
objec •
√)−exp(h2|X|+h2
2
α
skin )
•e c(|X|
2
α
objec •
√+h2
α
objec
√)} (11)
I has been obse ed ha using he ollowing pa ame e s in he de ailed
model esul s in an excellen co ela ion wi h p e iously conduc ed
es s: an ini ial skin empe a u e o 32.5 ◦C, a skin he mal conduc i i y
o 0.54 W/m⋅K, a skin he mal di usi i y o 1.3 ×10
−7
m
2
/s, a con ac
conduc ance o 1000 W/m
2
⋅K, a pain h eshold o 44 ◦C a he de mal/
epide mal in e ace, and a de mal/epide mal in e ace loca ed 0.25 mm
below he su ace.
Fo he de ailed model, a co ela ion om a NASA epo [40] o an
Table 2
Abso p i i y o es ed pa emen samples.
Colou Manu ac u e 1 Manu ac u e 2 Manu ac u e 3 Manu ac u e 4 Manu ac u e 5 Mean
Da k 0.69 0.71 0.67 0.60 0.64 0.67
Medium 0.64 0.53 0.51 0.42 0.46 0.55
Ligh 0.50 0.39 0.47 0.39 0.41 0.4
Table 3
The mal p ope ies p o ided o he pa ing ma e ial.
Conduc i i y [W/m K] Densi y [kg/m3] Speci ic hea [J/kg K]
Conc e e 1 1.4 1800 940
Conc e e 2 1.5 2000 900
Conc e e 3 1.6 2100 850
Conc e e 4 1.7 2250 800
Fig. 7. Touch empe a u e compa ison (de ailed me hod s simpli ied me hod).
Table 4
Resul s o he applica ion o he de ailed model.
De ailed model
ime(s) a b T
PM
1 15,500 55.2 61.79
10 15,500 46.4 52.99
30 15,500 44.8 51.39
60 15,500 44.3 50.89
In ini e 15,500 43.4 49.99
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
9
using he sky empe a u e [36,38]. The pe cen age o co e age o
nigh ime dissipa ion is app oxima ely 18 % and 13 %, depending on he
wa e empe a u e.
4.3. Limi a ions and ou look
Despi e he encou aging esul s, se e al ac o s could limi
eal‑wo ld pe o mance. Fi s , bounda y‑condi ion a iabili y may a ise
because he analysis assumes s eady inle ‑wa e empe a u e and low.
In p ac ice, diu nal s a i ica ion o luc ua ing ba he loads could lessen
cooling e ec i eness du ing peak occupancy. Then, long‑ e m du a-
bili y mus be add essed: p olonged exposu e o chlo ina ed wa e , ul-
a iole adia ion and mechanical wea may deg ade bo h he
co uga ed line and he conc e e, equi ing accele a ed ageing es s and
bespoke main enance p o ocols. Nex , hyd aulic ouling dese es
a en ion. Bio ilm o ma ion inside wa m channels can inc ease p essu e
d op and dep ess hea ‑ ans e a es, so pe iodic lushing o bio-
cide‑dosing s a egies should be de ised. La e , spa ial and ene gy
cons ain s become ele an . Al hough longe channels educe olu-
me ic low and pump size, hey demand addi ional oo p in and ci cui
complexi y; mo eo e , pump elec ici y could o se pa o he he mal
bene i i i is no supplied om enewable sou ces. Finally, economic
unce ain y emains. Labou and ins alla ion cos s can a y widely
ac oss ma ke s and should be inco po a ed in o u u e li e‑cycle
assessmen s.
Add essing he limi a ions abo e will equi e coo dina ed esea ch
spanning labo a o y, ield and socio‑economic s udies. P io i y lines o
enqui y begin deploying p o o ype slabs unde dynamic, eal-li e
clima e and ope a ional condi ions, including ex eme hea wa es and
a ying use loads, as well as in o he clima e zones, apa om
hype ‑a id (Dubai) ones, such as Medi e anean (A hens o Se ille) and
humid‑sub opical (Hous on o Singapo e) si es o e i y pe o mance
and du abili y unde con as ing me eo ological and wa e ‑quali y e-
gimes and assess he scalabili y and obus ness o he sys em design. In
addi ion, adap i e hyd aulic con ol can combine su ace‑ empe a u e
senso s wi h p edic i e algo i hms o modula e low a e and minimise
pump ene gy wi hou comp omising he mal sa e y. Fu he mo e,
addi ional esea ch in o al e na i e ma e ials wi h highe he mal con-
duc i i y o du abili y could u he imp o e sys em pe o mance. Ma-
e ial op imisa ion should in es iga e high‑conduc i i y, low‑ca bon
conc e e mixes (e.g., basal ‑ ib e‑ ein o ced geopolyme s) and p o ec-
i e coa ings o ex end se ice li e in chlo ina ed o saline en i onmen s.
On he o he hand, a comp ehensi e li e‑cycle assessmen (LCA) should
quan i y embodied ene gy, g eenhouse‑gas mi iga ion and wa e sa -
ings ela i e o e lec i e and e apo a i e pa emen s, including sensi-
i i y o egional elec ici y mixes. Subsequen ly, enewable‑ene gy
in eg a ion mus e alua e he echno‑economic easibili y o powe ing
pumps and auxilia y equipmen wi h oo op pho o ol aics o
was e‑hea ‑d i en abso p ion chille s. Finally, use accep ance and us-
abili y s udies will moni o pe cei ed com o , slip esis ance and
main enance demands in ope a ional se ings o e ine design guidelines
and suppo egula o y app o al.
5. Conclusion
This s udy assessed he easibili y o an inno a i e, na u e-based cold
pa emen solu ion designed o mi iga e he he mal impac on u ban
su aces, wi h a pa icula ocus on p e en ing con ac bu ns in ex eme
ho public spaces, such as wa e pa ks and coas al walkways in
ex emely ho clima es. The indings con i m he e ec i eness o his
Fig. 14. In e ed e u n s a egy.
P. Ga cía-Melga e al.
Ene gy & Buildings 343 (2025) 115945
16
echnology in signi ican ly educing pa emen su ace empe a u es,
achie ing a educ ion o mo e han 19 ◦C compa ed o con en ional
pa emen s.
A comp ehensi e analysis demons a ed ha his solu ion no only
minimizes he isk o bu ns bu also enhances he mal com o o use s,
pa icula ly du ing peak sola exposu e hou s. The digi al model, ali-
da ed h ough expe imen al es ing, con i med ha he cool pa emen
main ains accep able empe a u e le els o o e 80 % o he analysed
hou s, consis en ly emaining below c i ical he mal isk h esholds.
The sensi i i y analysis o key pa ame e s, including abso p i i y,
he mal p ope ies, and pa emen hickness, enabled he iden i ica ion
o op imal con igu a ions ha maximize cooling pe o mance and
minimize su ace empe a u e. Addi ionally, a p elimina y economic
e alua ion sugges s ha his echnology ep esen s a iable and cos -
e ec i e al e na i e o con en ional solu ions, wi h implemen a ion
cos s signi ican ly educed unde speci ic con igu a ions.
F om a sus ainabili y pe spec i e, he e icien use o wa e esou ces
and he po en ial in eg a ion o nigh - ime adia i e cooling s a egies
ein o ce he iabili y o his solu ion as a clima e- esilien measu e o
u ban en i onmen s. Howe e , while hese esul s a e p omising, u u e
esea ch should ocus on assessing he long- e m du abili y and pe -
o mance o his sys em ac oss di e en clima ic condi ions o ensu e
scalabili y and adap abili y.
In summa y, he cool pa emen echnology p esen ed in his s udy
o e s a subs an ial con ibu ion o mi iga ing u ban o e hea ing while
p omo ing sa e and mo e li eable ci ies. This inno a i e app oach
e ec i ely add esses he isks associa ed wi h excessi ely hea ed su -
aces, enhancing sa e y, he mal com o , and he o e all use expe i-
ence in public spaces exposed o ex eme empe a u es.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Paulo Ga cía-Melga : W i ing – o iginal d a , In es iga ion, Da a
cu a ion. Paz Mon e o-Gu i´
e ez: W i ing – o iginal d a , In es iga-
ion, Fo mal analysis, Da a cu a ion. Ma ía del Ca men Gue e o
Delgado: In es iga ion, Me hodology, Valida ion, Supe ision. Albe o
Ce ezo Na ´
aez: Visualiza ion, In es iga ion, Concep ualiza ion. Jos´
e
S´
anchez Ramos: Valida ion, P ojec adminis a ion, Me hodology,
In es iga ion, Funding acquisi ion. Se ando ´
Al a ez Domínguez:
Me hodology, In es iga ion, Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen s
This s udy has been unded by he p ojec s “CONSTANCY - Resilien
u banisa ion me hodologies and na u al condi ioning using imagina i e
na u e-based solu ions and cul u al he i age o eco e he s ee li e”
(G an Ag eemen PID2020-118972RB-I00) and he p ojec “COSMIC -
Combined AI and Da a Solu ions o La ge Scale Resou ce Op imiza ion
wi h G een Deal Impac ” (G an Ag eemen GA-101189676) by he
Eu opean Commission. The second au ho is suppo ed by he Spanish
Minis y o Science, Inno a ion and Uni e si ies h ough a PhD g an
ag eemen FPU22/03587.
Da a a ailabili y
Da a will be made a ailable on eques .
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