Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
A ailable online 18 Augus 2021
0143-6228/© 2021 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
A coas al looding da abase om 1980 o 2018 o he con inen al
Po uguese coas al zone
Alexand e Oli ei a Ta a es
a
, Jos´
e Leand o Ba os
b
,
*
, Paula F ei e
c
, Ped o Pin o San os
d
,
Luís Pe diz
b
, And ´
e Bus o Fo una o
c
a
Ea h Sciences Depa men and Cen e o Social S udies, Uni e sidade de Coimb a. Rua Síl io Lima, P´
olo II, 3030-790, Coimb a, Po ugal
b
Cen e o Social S udies, Uni e sidade de Coimb a, Po ugal. Col´
egio de S. Je ´
onimo, Apa ado 3087 3000-995, Coimb a, Po ugal
c
Es ua ine and Coas al Zones Uni /Na ional Ci il Enginee ing Labo a o y, A . do B asil 101, 1700-075, Lisboa, Po ugal
d
Cen e o Geog aphical S udies, Ins i u e o Geog aphy and Spa ial Planning, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisboa. Edi ício IGOT, Rua B anca Edm´
ee Ma ques, Cidade
Uni e si ´
a ia, 1600-276, Lisboa, Po ugal
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Coas al zone
Coas al looding
Da abase
Impac s
Occu ences
ABSTRACT
Con inen al Po ugal p esen s an ex ensi e and di e si ied coas al zone which concen a es he main public and
p i a e in as uc u es o he di e en economic sec o s, as well as he main c i ical in as uc u es. This a ea is
also cha ac e ized by a high popula ion densi y, being a di e en ia ed e i o y in geophysical, biological and
landscape e ms. The wa e egime is highly ene ge ic, and s o ms a e equen . In he las decades, he coas o
con inen al Po ugal has been a ec ed nume ous imes by o e opping and coas al looding p ocesses. Iden i-
ying he c i ical coas al ypologies a ec ed by looding can con ibu e o a comp ehensi e lood isk manage-
men amewo k o he Po uguese coas al zones. Hence, a his o ical da abase o coas al looding occu ences
was c ea ed o he pe iod 1980–2018 based on na ional and egional newspape s. Fo his pe iod 650 occu -
ences we e iden i ied as well as 1708 impac s associa ed wi h hem. In e ms o impac s, he ypologies asso-
cia ed wi h public a eas, human impac s, he na u al sys em, en i onmen al deg ada ion and buildings s and ou .
Resul s p o ide ele an empo al and spa ial in o ma ion abou coas al his o ical lood occu ences ela ed o
ex eme s o m e en s and associa ed impac s, and con ibu e o he design o a isk amewo k.
1. In oduc ion
Coas al looding and i s associa ed impac s ha e become a g owing
conce n in ecen decades, as a esul o he inc easing exposu e and
changes in he haza d o ce s h oughou he 20 h and 21s cen u ies
(Nicholls & Cazena e, 2010; Weisse e al., 2014; Sil a e al., 2017).
Among o he na u al haza ds, coas al looding is esponsible o some o
he wo s human and economic losses wo ldwide (K on, 2013). Ac-
co ding o he In e go e nmen al Oceanog aphic Commission o
UNESCO (IOC/UNESCO e al.,), 40% o he wo ld’s popula ion and mos
economic ac i i ies a e loca ed wi hin 100 km om he coas line, while
in he Eu opean Union (EU) 86 million people (19%) li e wi hin 10 km
o he coas line (EEA, 2006). In Po ugal, he coas al zone s ands ou as
an ex emely impo an a ea, whe e ¾ o he popula ion and 80% o
G oss Domes ic P oduc (GDP) a e loca ed (San os e al., 2017), and
whe e he isk o sea-le el ise (SLR) is high (Veloso-Gomes e al., 2004;
An unes & Tabo da, 2009; Rocha e al., 2020).
All he p ojec ions o he In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e
Change (IPCC, 2014) p edic he con inuous ise o he mean sea le el
and he wo ldwide inc ease in s o miness. This ac pu s se e al coas al
zones a high isk o looding, including densely popula ed and
economically i al a eas. Howe e , coas al a eas ace no only an in-
c ease in SLR bu also a ange o non-clima e-change ela ed ac o s ha
con ibu e o he inc ease o hei agili y. Among hem, na u al and
a i icial ac o s s and ou , such as: s o m su ges, sedimen de ici ,
sho eline e ea ; inc ease in an h opogenic p essu e ansla ed by he
cons uc ion o di e en ypes o a i icial in as uc u e such as ha -
bou s, de ence s uc u es, u baniza ion and ou is ic a eas and land use
change. The ac o s men ioned abo e, combined wi h he g ow h o
mig a ion o coas al a eas, indus ializa ion, u baniza ion p ocesses, and
wi h he inc ease in he in ensi y and equency o ex eme e en s
ela ed o clima e change (Be in e al., 2013), enhances he exposu e
* Co esponding au ho . Col´
egio de S. Je ´
onimo, Apa ado 3087 3000-995, Coimb a, Po ugal.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (A.O. Ta a es), [email p o ec ed] (J.L. Ba os), [email p o ec ed] (P. F ei e), [email p o ec ed] (P.P. San os),
[email p o ec ed] (L. Pe diz), [email p o ec ed] (A.B. Fo una o).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Applied Geog aphy
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/apgeog
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.apgeog.2021.102534
Recei ed 22 Sep embe 2020; Recei ed in e ised o m 13 May 2021; Accep ed 5 Augus 2021
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
2
and suscep ibili y o coas al looding (IPCC, 2014; Neumann e al., 2015;
Rilo e al., 2017).
Se e al au ho s ha e collec ed his o ical in o ma ion ela ed o
di e en na u al haza ds om newspape s, echnical epo s and sci-
en i ic a icles, in o de o analyse and e alua e pas occu ences and
impac s associa ed wi h na u al haza ds, and assess u u e dynamics
(Ba iendos & Rod igo. 2006; Raska & Emme , 2014; Ruocco e al.,
2011; San os e al., 2014). This his o ical in o ma ion is o en subse-
quen ly o ganized in da abases ha allow i s sys ema iza ion, ea men
and analysis. A a global le el, he e is a wide ange o disas e da abases
ha a e dis inguished by hei empo al and spa ial ac o s, as well as by
he ypes o disas e s and inse ion c i e ia conside ed. Examples o
global da abases include he EM-DAT om Cen e o Resea ch on
Epidemiology o Disas e s (EM-DAT, 2013), he DesIn en a da abase
(La Red, 2009) and he da abase om Munich Re named Na Ca SER-
VICE (Munich Re, 2011). A na ional le el, some examples can also be
men ioned, such as he Spanish Ca alonia lood damage da abase (Ba -
nolas & Llasa , 2007), and he I alian AVI p ojec (Guzze i & Tonelli,
2004). Speci ic examples o coas al looding include a UK da abase
om 1915 o 2016 gene a ed wi hin he p ojec Su geWa ch (Haigh
e al., 2017), he US SURGEDAT (Needham e al., 2013) and he
Aus alian Da abase (Callaghan & Powe , 2014). In Po ugal, he
DISASTER hyd o-geomo phologic da abase, wi h da a be ween 1865
and 2010, s ands ou (Zˆ
eze e e al., 2014).
The Po uguese coas line p esen s a g ea di e si y o mo pho-
sedimen a y sys ems such as es ua ies, lagoons, ba ie islands, bea-
ches, dunes, and cli s (Fe ei a & Ma ias, 2013; Pon e Li a e al., 2016).
This a ea is also cha ac e ized by a mul iplici y o land uses, occupa ions
and ac i i ies ha make i an a ea o s a egic impo ance a he eco-
nomic, social and en i onmen al le els. The g ow h o human se le-
men s in he coas al zone o e he las 7 decades, combined wi h
oceanog aphic and a mosphe ic o ce s and dis inc geological and
mo phological con ex s con ibu es decisi ely o unde s and he e olu-
ion and cu en con igu a ion o he coas al zone. The Con inen al
Po uguese coas al zone is also cha ac e ized by an asymme y in e ms
o wa e di ec ion and ene gy (And ade & F ei as, 2002). The A lan ic
wes e n coas is cha ac e ized by high-ene ge ic wa es wi h dominan
no hwes swell, con ibu ing o high sedimen a y anspo alues. The
sou h coas , al hough also A lan ic, is p o ec ed om he no hwes
swell and p esen s a mo e mode a e wa e ene gy (Fe ei a & Ma ias,
2013). The coas al zone is h ea ened by se e al haza ds, wi h emphasis
on o e opping and coas al looding, cli ins abili y, and coas al e osion
(San os e al., 2017; Veloso-Gomes, 2007).
Mo i a ed by he absence o a consolida ed na ional da abase o
coas al loodings and hei impac s, a his o ical da abase o he con i-
nen al Po uguese coas al zone be ween 1980 and 2018 was compiled.
This da abase is pa o an e o o de elop an inno a i e me hodology
o suppo lood isk managemen , suppo ed by a be e abili y o
o ecas o e opping and looding occu ences in di e en coas al y-
pologies. The de elopmen o a loss and damage da abase ela ed o
na u al disas e s is impo an o isk assessmen and egional and local
managemen (F ei e e al., 2016; San os e al., 2014). Acco ding o
De oli e al. (2007), he de elopmen o his kind o da abases is c ucial
o isk managemen because hey allow he iden i ica ion and analysis
o he ela ionship be ween occu ences o disas e s, he ulne able el-
emen s, and he espec i e human and ma e ial losses.
The main objec i es o his s udy a e: a) o p esen he me hodo-
logical aspec s ela ed o coas al looding da a collec ion and he con-
s uc ion o he MOSAIC da abase; b) o p esen and discuss he spa ial
and empo al dis ibu ion o he coas al looding occu ences and
associa ed impac s; c) Iden i y he main oceanog aphic condi ions along
he coas , namely wa e le el and wa e condi ions.
2. MOSAIC da abase me hods
The absence o a consolida ed coas al looding da abase o he
Con inen al Po uguese coas , combined wi h he need o he iden i i-
ca ion and selec ion o he coas al ypologies mos a ec ed by loods, led
o he c ea ion and de elopmen o he da abase he e p esen ed. The
heme og aphic analysis co e s he pe iod 1980–2018 in na ional and
egional newspape s. The gene al me hodology ollowed o gene a e he
MOSAIC da abase and i s analysis is p esen ed in Fig. 1.
2.1. Key concep s
Be o e p esen ing he main me hodological aspec s unde lying he
cons uc ion o he MOSAIC da abase, he main concep s ha will be
p esen h oughou his s udy should be cla i ied. The haza dous p o-
cesses in his da abase include coas al looding and o e opping. The
concep o “occu ence” ollowed he de ini ion o Zˆ
eze e e al. (2014)
wi h he necessa y adap a ions. Occu ence is conside ed as a speci ic
case ela ed o o e opping o coas al looding ela ed o a unique spa ial
loca ion and a speci ic ime pe iod. The concep s o loss (also e e ed o
as human impac s) and damage mus also be dis inguished. In his s udy,
“loss” o “human impac s” ep esen s he di ec haza dous e ec s on
humans, including casual ies, inju ies, missing, e acua ions, and pe -
manen displacemen (San os e al., 2014); “damage” ep esen s he
ma e ial consequences o any ype o acili y o p ope y, e.g. oad
ne wo k, buildings, a mland (San os e al., 2014).
2.2. Da abase da a collec ion
The main sou ce o in o ma ion o he MOSAIC da abase we e na-
ional and egional newspape s. A da abase o his ype can be con-
s uc ed using a wide ange o sou ces. Howe e , heme og aphic
analysis p esen s a se o a ou able ac o s such as he b oade co e age
o occu ences on a local scale and he same occu ence is, in mos cases,
epo ed in di e en newspape s, allowing a mo e accu a e analysis. The
ease o access o newspape a chi es, and he b oade empo al analysis
due o i s g ea e co e age o e ime a e o he a ou able and p e e -
en ial ac o s o he heme og aphic analysis o e o he da a sou ces (La
Red, 2013). The in o ma ion aken om he heme og aphic analysis
p o ides a a ied se o in o ma ion. F om he s a , i allows ob aining
quan i a i e in o ma ion as o human losses and he numbe o a ec ed
buildings, bu also p o ides quali a i e in o ma ion such as he ype o
damage obse ed (Rilo e al., 2017).
The s a ing poin was he selec ion o he di e en heme og aphic
sou ces o be analysed and ha o m he basis o he da a collec ion, in
o de o cons uc a coas al looding da abase o he Po uguese con-
inen al coas . The selec ed newspape s ook in o accoun wo c i e ia
ela ed o hei spa ial and empo al co e age: a) he newspape mus
ha e been published con inuously o a leas 20 yea s and b) he
selec ed newspape should gua an ee a good na ional and egional dis-
ibu ion o he news. A o al o eigh newspape s we e analysed ac-
co ding o sys ema ic and punc ual analysis, as desc ibed below
(Table 1). Fi s , daily na ional newspape s we e selec ed. The i s
newspape looked o e in a sys ema ic way – i.e., all edi ions we e
consul ed, ei he o da es whe e coas al looding condi ions exis ed, o
o any o he da es – was Público, which p esen s wo edi ions wi h a
di e en egional scope: one ocused in he no he n Po ugal (Po o’s
edi ion) and o he ocused in he cen al and sou he n Po ugal (Lisbon’s
edi ion). The wo edi ions di e in ha ac each one includes a local
segmen wi h speci ic in o ma ion ega ding i s e i o ial ocus. How-
e e , because he Público newspape was only ounded in he ea ly
1990’s, he pe iod be ween 1980 and 1990 was sys ema ically explo ed
using he Jo nal de No ícias. In he punc ual analysis (only da es om he
hindcas and da es wi h occu ences esul ing om sys ema ic analysis
a e analysed), one na ional and i e egional newspape s om di e en
a eas we e conside ed (Table 1), published in di e en egions o he
coun y, in o de o ensu e a wide egional co e age. The da es o
conside in he punc ual analysis we e based on he da es aken om he
sys ema ic analysis o he newspape s Público and Jo nal de No ícias, as
A.O. Ta a es e al.
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
3
well as on da es in which ocean condi ions we e a ou able o he
occu ence o s o ms (hindcas ). Rega ding his las c i e ion, he con-
di ions we e de e mined h ough hindcas simula ions desc ibed in
sec ion 2.4. The da a esul ing om he hindcas allowed he iden i i-
ca ion o 67 new da es and 165 occu ences, ep esen ing 25% o o al
occu ences. Du ing he punc ual analysis, e e y six yea s a sys ema ic
analysis (all daily edi ions o he newspape we e consul ed) o he
newspape was ca ied ou in o de o alida e he applied me hodology.
F om he newspape s wi h egional co e age, one co e s he no he n
coas al a ea, wo he cen e coas al a ea, and he o he wo he a ea
loca ed sou h o Lisbon.
In o de o alida e he heme og aphic analysis, a sea ch o occu -
ences o coas al loodings in echnical epo s and scien i ic a icles was
also pe o med. The esul s led o he iden i ica ion o new occu ences,
p o iding accu a e in o ma ion o i s geo e e encing. All occu ences
we e alida ed by c ossing he in o ma ion ob ained in mo e han one
newspape , as well as in academic wo ks and echnical epo s. To
ensu e he consis ency o he da abase, he p ocess o heme og aphic
sea ching, inse ion o in o ma ion in he da abase and occu ences
geo e e encing was ca ied ou by a single pe son.
2.3. Da abase s uc u e and empo al and spa ial incidence
The MOSAIC da abase consis s o six opics subdi ided in o di e en
ields ha iden i y and cha ac e ize each occu ence in i s mul iple
s ands (Fig. 2). Based on he sou ces iden i ied abo e, a coas al looding
da abase p esen ly con aining 650 occu ences (see de ini ion o
occu ence in sec ion 2.1) was buil . The MOSAIC is an adap able and
geo e e enced his o ical da abase wi h alphanume ic open and closed
ields o he nume ic and ex ual ypes. Each occu ence inse ed in he
da abase is subsequen ly geo e e enced using a poin shape ile, based on
he in o ma ion om he analysed sou ce, using he A cGIS 10.5 so -
wa e. The PT-TM06/ETRS89 p ojec ed coo dina e sys em was adop ed.
Geo e e encing is based on sa elli e images p o ided by he Es i® Wo ld
Image y se ice. The loca ion accu acy conside ed was di ided in o ou
classes (Zˆ
eze e e al., 2014): 1) loca ion wi h exac coo dina es (scale
1:1000); 2) loca ion based on local oponymy (scale 1:10,000); 3)
loca ion in he cen oid o he pa ish (only used when no o he loca ion
besides he pa ish is men ioned); 4) loca ion in he cen oid o he mu-
nicipali y (idem ega ding he men ion o he municipali y).
The empo al incidence o he MOSAIC da abase anges om 1980 o
2018. The spa ial incidence is he en i e Con inen al Po uguese coas al
zone, ex ending om he mou h o he Minho Ri e , in he no hwes , o
he mou h o he Guadiana Ri e in he sou heas , o alling abou 987
km (Fig. 3).
Th oughou he wo k, he densi y o occu ences pe km
2
will be
Fig. 1. Scheme o he me hodology used in he s udy.
Table 1
Newspape s used o da a collec ion.
Ti le Pe iodici y o
publica ion
Type o
analysis
pe o med
Publica ion
co e age
Co e age
pe iod
Público Daily Sys ema ic Na ional 1990–2018
Jo nal de
No ícias
Daily Sys ema ic Na ional 1980–1989
Di´
a io de
No ícias
Daily Punc ual Na ional 1980–2018
Di´
a io do
Minho
Daily Punc ual Regional 1980–2018
Di´
a io de
A ei o
Daily Punc ual Regional 1985–2018
Di´
a io de
Lei ia
Daily Punc ual Regional 1987–2018
Di´
a io do Sul Daily Punc ual Regional 1980–2018
Se ubalense T i-weekly Punc ual Regional 1980–2018
A.O. Ta a es e al.
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
4
Fig. 2. Topics and main ields o MOSAIC da abase.
Fig. 3. Loca ion o he coas al a ea co e ed by he MOSAIC da abase: a) Con inen al Po ugal; b) Popula ion densi y o Con inen al Po ugal by municipali y. (colo
should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.)
A.O. Ta a es e al.
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
5
calcula ed. The calcula ion is based on an a ea o 500 m de ined om he
highes as onomical ide line up o 500 m inland, acco ding o he
de ini ion p esen in he Na ional S a egy o he In eg a ed Manage-
men o he Coas al Zone (ENGIZC, 2009). This delimi a ion has also
aken in o accoun he cu en his o ic occu ence as well as he de i-
ni ion o he sa egua d s ips o o e opping and coas al looding p e-
sen in he app o ed POC.
Fo he Land Use Land Co e (LULC), wo explo a o y analysis we e
ca ied ou conside ing di e en e i o ial a eas. The i s conside s an
a ea o 500 m de ined om he highes as onomical ide line up o 500
m inland ( e e ed o in he p e ious pa ag aph), called Coas al bo de .
The second is called he Coas al Zone, acco ding o ENGIZC (2009) and
ex ends o 2 km inland, including he Coas al bo de a ea. Bo h ana-
lyses a e based on he Land Use and Occupa ion Ca og aphy o 1995,
2007, 2010, 2015, and 2018 p o ided by he Te i o y’s Gene al
Di ec o a e (DGT, nd), wi h no ca og aphy o p e ious pe iods.
2.4. Hindcas o oceanog aphic a iables
The in o ma ion on occu ences was complemen ed by mul i-
decadal ime se ies o oceanog aphic condi ions along he coas . Time
se ies we e gene a ed o bo h he wa e le el (due o ides and s o m
su ges) and wa e condi ions. The ime se ies o wa e le els we e ob-
ained by adding idal and su ge signals. Tides we e compu ed h ough
ha monic syn hesis based on he esul s o a egional idal model (Fo -
una o e al., 2016, 2019). This model simula es he gene a ion and
p opaga ion o ides in he No h-Eas A lan ic Ocean. Along he Po -
uguese coas , oo mean squa e e o s a e o he o de o 5 cm. Resul s
we e ex ac ed a 7 ep esen a i e poin s along he wes e n Po uguese
coas . Su ges we e es ima ed based on he in e se ba ome e e ec , i.e.,
assuming ha only a mosphe ic p essu e con ibu es o he su ge. This
app oxima ion is jus i iable in he Po uguese coas (Fanjul e al., 1998)
because he wind-gene a ed su ge is limi ed by he small wid h o he
con inen al shel . Time se ies o a mosphe ic p essu e we e ex ac ed
om he ERA-In e im eanalysis (Dee e al., 2011).
The wa e cha ac e is ics along he wes e n Po uguese coas we e
de e mined using he wa e model Wa eWa ch III (Tolman e al., 2009,
p. 194) applied o he No h A lan ic Ocean, wi h a nes ed g id on he
Po uguese shel . The model was un om 1979 o 2018, o ced by
winds om he ERA-In e in eanalysis. Fu he de ails on he applica ion
o he model a e p o ided in Fo una o e al. (2017). Signi ican wa e
heigh s (Hs) we e s o ed a hou ly in e als.
Subsequen ly, an analysis o he ime se ies o oceanog aphic con-
di ions was ca ied ou , conside ing he daily maxima Hs and sea le el
(Sl) o pe o m he punc ual analysis ela ed o heme og aphic esea ch
and o analyse he ela ionship be ween o e opping and looding
o cings and he numbe o occu ences. The pa ame e s used in he
p esen s udy as ep esen a i e o he o e opping o coas al looding
o cing condi ions a e: he daily sea le el maxima (Slmax) and he daily
maximum signi ican wa e heigh (Hsmax).
3. Resul s
3.1. Spa ial and empo al dis ibu ion
The heme og aphic analysis allowed he iden i ica ion o 650 oc-
cu ences o coas al looding and o e opping be ween 1980 and 2018,
wi h high empo al and spa ial a iabili y. Howe e , some geog aphic
ho spo s wi h a high numbe and densi y o occu ences can be iden i-
ied (Fig. 4). Two dis inc sec o s can be ecognized: he i s encom-
passes all coas al municipali ies o he no h o he Tagus Ri e , which
concen a es 77% o he occu ences; he second encompasses he
emaining coas al municipali ies and ep esen s 23% o he occu ences.
Conside ing he planning and managemen ins umen s (Spa ial Coas al
Zone Plans - POC), ha di ide he coas al a ea in six di e en sec o s,
esul s show ha 85% o he occu ences a e loca ed in he h ee
no he nmos sec o s (Fig. 4b).
The analysis also shows ha only 9 ou o 54 coas al municipali ies
Fig. 4. Spa ial dis ibu ion o he occu ences: a) Con inen al Po ugal; b) Occu ences in he di e en POC. (colo should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo
in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.)
A.O. Ta a es e al.

Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
6
do no exhibi any occu ence (Fig. 4a). Howe e , he absence o oc-
cu ences in a gi en a ea does no mean ha i is no a ec ed by looding
o o e opping. This absence can be explained ei he by incomple e
documen a y co e age o ce ain a eas o by he cha ac e is ics o he
a ec ed a eas, namely a eas ha a e p edominan ly na u al and wi h
li le an h opic occupa ion, ha ecei e less in e es in he news
co e age.
Fig. 5a shows he i e municipali ies wi h he highes numbe o
occu ences (see loca ion in Fig. 4a), bo h in he en i e pe iod, and on
each decade. Fo he pe iod be ween 1980 and 2018, excep o Almada
(belonging o he POC Alcobaça-Cabo Espichel), all he municipali ies
a e loca ed no h o he Mondego Ri e , belonging o he POC Caminha-
Espinho (Po o and Vila No a de Gaia) and O a -Ma inha-G ande (O a
and ´
Ilha o). This spa ial pa e n is p ac ically unchanged when he
di e en decades a e analysed sepa a ely. The ‘80s s ands ou o p e-
sen ing a g ea e spa ial a iabili y ela ed o he occu ence o looding
and o e opping. Ano he ac o highligh is ela ed o he municipali y
o Po o, which be ween 1980 and 2018 is he hi d municipali y wi h
he highes numbe o occu ences. Howe e , hese occu ences a e
essen ially concen a ed in he ‘80s and ‘90s. Since he end o he ‘90s,
he numbe o occu ences in he municipali y o Po o dec eased
signi ican ly, being his ac ela ed o a se o coas al de ence wo ks
ca ied ou du ing he ‘90s. In con as , in he municipali ies belonging
o he me opoli an a ea o Lisbon, in pa icula Almada, Cascais, and
Oei as, he numbe o occu ences inc eased signi ican ly since 2000.
Wi h ega d o he densi y o occu ences, wi h he excep ion o he
municipali y o Almada, all o he municipali ies a e loca ed no h o he
Tagus Ri e (Fig. 5b). The municipali y o Po o s ands ou as ha ing he
highes densi y o occu ences (24.32 occu ences pe km
2
).
Fig. 6 shows he mon hly and annual dis ibu ion o occu ences.
Rega ding he mon hly dis ibu ion, he as majo i y (93%) occu s
du ing he so-called ma i ime win e ( om Oc obe o Ma ch) wi h a
clea maximum o Janua y, wi h 51% o he o al occu ences (Fig. 6a).
S o m He cules, which a ec ed mainland Po ugal be ween 3 and 7
Janua y 2014, was esponsible o 56% o he o al occu ences in
Janua y be ween 1980 and 2018.
As o he annual dis ibu ion o occu ences (Fig. 6b), he yea s
2014, 1996, and 2010 s and ou , concen a ing 56% o he o al be ween
1980 and 2018. As p e iously men ioned, in 2014 he s o m He cules
was esponsible o 75% o he o al occu ences iden i ied in 2014 and
o 37% in he pe iod 1980–2018. The occu ences esul ing om he
s o m He cules had a g ea spa ial dispe sion wi h a special ocus on he
wes coas . In 1996, mos o he occu ences e e o a pe iod o s o ms
be ween he 1s and he 14 h o Janua y dispe sed h ough he wes e n
and sou he n coas . As o 2010, mos o he occu ences a e due o he
s o m Xyn hia (27 h – 28 h Feb ua y) as well as o a s o my pe iod ha
occu ed on he 8 h o Oc obe . The i s e en caused occu ences
mainly on he sou h coas , while he second ga e ise o a g ea e con-
cen a ion o occu ences be ween he municipali ies o Po o and Fig-
uei a da Foz. Fig. 6b shows he empo al e olu ion o he occu ences,
whe e i is possible o obse e an inc ease in he numbe o occu ences
be ween 1980 and 2018, wi h di e en hy hms. The ‘80s we e ma ked
by g ow h and subsequen s abiliza ion in he numbe o occu ences,
ep esen ing 8% o he o al. The ‘90s ep esen 27%, being a decade
ma ked by an ini ial inc ease in he numbe o occu ences ollowed by a
s abiliza ion pe iod ha is in e up ed by a sligh inc ease in 1994 ol-
lowed by a mo e p onounced g ow h caused by 1996 s o ms. The i s
decade o he 21s cen u y ep esen s 13% o he occu ences and is
cha ac e ized by a pe iod wi h a sligh bu cons an inc ease, wi h 2003
s anding ou as he one wi h he highes numbe o occu ences. The las
Fig. 5. Municipali ies wi h highe numbe (a) and densi y o occu ences (b) in he analysed decades.
A.O. Ta a es e al.
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
7
pe iod analysed (2010–2018) less han ¼ o he da abase’s ime ame –
concen a es 53% o he o al numbe o occu ences and is clea ly he
pe iod cha ac e ized by a huge g ow h in he numbe o occu ences,
especially in he yea s 2010 and 2014.
This inc ease is ela ed o a pe iod in which he Po uguese con i-
nen al coas was hi by a se o s o ms, o which Xyn hia (Feb ua y
2010), H´
e cules (Janua y 2014) and Emma (Ma ch 2018) s and ou , as
well as, a se o s o my pe iods such as he beginning o Oc obe 2010
and Feb ua y 2011. This could be ela ed o he inc ease in s o miness
associa ed wi h clima e change. Acco ding o San os e al. (2017), he
main impac s o clima e change ha will a ec he coas al zone o
mainland Po ugal will be ela ed o: a) he inc ease in he global
a e age sea le el which will cause a g ea e equency o ex eme alues
o sea le el; b) he o a ion o he di ec ion o he wa es on he wes
coas ; c) he change in he s o m sys em wi h a possible inc ease in
equency and in ensi y o ex eme wea he and clima e e en s.
3.2. Losses and damages
The 650 occu ences o coas al looding and o e opping be ween
1980 and 2018 esul ed in a o al o 1708 losses and damages sp ead
o e 7 ca ego ies and 56 ypologies. Fig. 7 p esen s he ca ego ies
iden i ied, as well as he p opo ion ha each ypology ep esen s in
each o hem in e ms o numbe o occu ences.
As some ypologies ha e a esidual alue, i is impo an o highligh
in each ca ego y o losses and damages he main ypes o esul ing im-
pac s. Fig. 8 shows all he loss ypes, wi h he displaced and e acua ed
people ep esen ing 85% o he human impac s. Rega ding he damages
ela ed o he na u al sys em and en i onmen al deg ada ion, hey a e
undamen ally ela ed o he sand/dune sys em (Fig. 8), ep esen ing
93% and 67% o he o al o each ca ego y, espec i ely. Damage o
u ban s ee s and beach walkways accoun s o 57% o he damage in
public a eas. Rega ding he in as uc u e ca ego y, coas al in as uc-
u e damages s and ou (73% o he o al ca ego y). Wi h ega d o
buildings, he comme cial ype s ands ou , ollowed by esiden ial and
beach suppo buildings (cabine s, sani a y acili ies, ba s, e c.), which
oge he accoun o 86% o he a ec ed buildings.
Fig. 9 p esen s all losses and damages iden i ied and hei empo al
dis ibu ion. The e is a p edominance o damages in public a eas, ol-
lowed by human impac s, en i onmen al deg ada ion, and na u al sys-
em damages. The empo al dis ibu ion o he losses and damages show
ha he 1980s we e ma ked by damages associa ed wi h public a eas, as
well as ela ed o en i onmen al deg ada ion and he in as uc u es
ca ego y. The ollowing decade was cha ac e ized by a gene al inc ease
Fig. 6. Tempo al dis ibu ion o occu ences: a) Mon hly dis ibu ion; b) annual dis ibu ion.
A.O. Ta a es e al.
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
8
in all ca ego ies o impac s. I is a pe iod ma ked by human impac s, ha
eme ge as he ca ego y wi h he highes numbe o occu ences, high-
ligh ing he 73 e acua ed people iden i ied in he municipali y o O a .
Also, he damage o buildings g ows signi ican ly, pa icula ly in com-
me cial (23) and esiden ial (18) buildings. Be ween 2000 and 2009 he
impac s dec ease ela i e o he p e ious pe iod, as well as he numbe
o occu ences. This decade is ma ked by a balance be ween he di e en
ca ego ies, highligh ing he damages o he na u al sys em, mainly
ela ed o changes in he sand and dunes sys em.
The pe iod be ween 2010 and 2018 is ma ked by a sha p g ow h in
losses and damages, which ansla es in o a g ow h o 367% compa ed
o he p e ious decade. Damage o public a eas is he ca ego y wi h he
highes numbe o obse ed impac s, wi h pa icula emphasis on
damage o walkways, u ban s ee s, and u ban u ni u e. The human
impac s ca ego y should be highligh ed, whe e 121 displaced people
we e egis e ed, pa icula ly in he sou he n municipali y o Olh˜
ao.
These human impac s we e mos ly e i ied du ing Janua y and Feb ua y
2010, when a s o my pe iod occu ed, highligh ing he s o m Xyn hia
(27 h – 28 h Feb ua y). I is also impo an o highligh he damage
ela ed o he en i onmen al deg ada ion and na u al sys em, wi h
emphasis on he sand and dunes sys em, causing in many cases impo -
an dec eases in he sand and e ea in he dune co d. Finally, damage
o buildings is highligh ed, wi h emphasis on comme cial, esiden ial,
and beach suppo buildings, as well as damage o coas al p o ec ion
in as uc u es.
Fig. 10 p esen s he spa ial dis ibu ion o he occu ences,
Fig. 7. The ca ego ies and ypologies o losses and damages di e en ia ed by colo s. The size o he polygons is p opo ional o he numbe o occu ences in each
ca ego y. (colo should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o
his a icle.)
A.O. Ta a es e al.
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
9
conside ing he di e en POC. Resul s show ha he a eas no h o Cabo
Espichel (see Fig. 4b) su e mo e losses and damages han he o he
a eas o he sou h. The excep ion is he POC Vilamou a-Vila Real San o
An ´
onio wi h he highes numbe o human impac s (115 displaced), o
which he municipali y o Olh˜
ao con ibu es he mos . In all a eas, he
pe iod be ween 2010 and 2018 is he one wi h he highes numbe o
losses and damages. Damages in public a eas s and ou as he ca ego y
wi h he highes numbe o occu ences in almos all a eas. In Espichel-
Odeceixe and Vilamou a-Vila Real San o An ´
onio damages in buildings
and human impac s a e, espec i ely, he mos equen ca ego ies. In
he a eas no h o Cabo Espichel, damages ela ed o he na u al sys em
and en i onmen al deg ada ion a e he mos impo an . Globally, wi h
he excep ion o he 2000–2009 decade, esul s show an inc ease o he
losses and damages and di e si y ac oss all a eas be ween 1980 and
2018.
I we ake in o accoun he municipal scale, namely he i e munic-
ipali ies wi h he highes numbe o occu ences, he e a e also di e en
ends (Fig. 11). In he municipali y o Po o, mos o he impac s (65%)
we e obse ed be ween 1980 and 1999, wi h emphasis on he damage in
public a eas and ela ed o en i onmen al deg ada ion. Howe e , du ing
he He cules s o m in 2014, he human impac s, such as e acua ions and
inju ies, a e he mos ele an ones. Vila No a de Gaia and
´
Ilha o show a
empo al dis ibu ion o impac s di e en om he o he municipali ies,
as 78% and 70%, o losses and damages, espec i ely, a ose be ween
Fig. 8. P incipal losses and damages in each ca ego y. Human impac s a e exp essed by he numbe o a ec ed people. The o he ca ego ies a e exp essed by he
numbe o occu ences. (colo should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he
Web e sion o his a icle.)
Fig. 9. Numbe o occu ences and a ec ed people o e e y decade (colou scale) by ca ego ies o losses and damages. Human impac s a e exp essed by he numbe
o a ec ed people. The o he ca ego ies a e exp essed by he numbe o occu ences. (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is
e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.)
A.O. Ta a es e al.
Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534
16
ypologies iden i ied allows he de ini ion o e i o ially di e en ia ed
ale s. This ma e will la e be subjec o u he analysis and s udy.
The cons uc ion and de elopmen o a da abase, such as he one
p esen ed in his a icle, is an impo an con ibu ion o he assessmen
o e i o ial ulne abili y and coas al isk managemen . F om he s a ,
he esul s con ibu e o sa is y some o he equi emen s ha emana e
om he EU Floods Di ec i e (Eu opean Pa liamen and Council o he
Eu opean Communi ies, 2007). Among hem, i con ibu es o he
collec ion o his o ical da a on coas al looding occu ences and hei
associa ed impac s, e en as, he spa ial and empo al iden i ica ion o
he mos a ec ed a eas. The esul s can also p o ide a wide and
imp o ed empo al and spa ial knowledge abou coas al his o ical lood
e en s ha can con ibu e o he alida ion o lood p edic i e models
and he design o he isk amewo k. The in o ma ion om his o ical
da a could also be used o he assessmen o e i o ial ulne abili y and
he de ini ion o ools o he managemen o coas al looding isk,
assis ing decision-make s o he es ablishmen o adap a ion and esil-
ience measu es based on knowledge o pas e en s. These da a allow he
unde s anding o he dynamic ela ionships exis ing be ween coas al
loods and he di e en coas al communi ies, allowing he communi-
ca ion and media ion be ween he local popula ion and he di e en
au ho i ies.
5. Conclusions
The p esen s udy demons a es he impo ance o his o ical da a-
bases o na u al haza dous p ocesses om heme og aphic sou ces. The
analysis o he da abase made i possible o iden i y, explo e and e al-
ua e he di e en occu ences o looding and coas al o e opping,
allowing he iden i ica ion o i s impac s. Consequen ly, i also allowed
loca ing he mos ulne able a eas, he spa ial and empo al cha ac e -
iza ion o occu ences and impac s, as well as he espec i e o ce s. The
p esen da abase di e s om o he s ca ied ou in o he coun ies, due
o i s ange o opics and p ima y ields ha allow he de ailed and
comp ehensi e cha ac e iza ion no only o he iden i ied occu ences,
bu also o he associa ed impac s and damages. The da abase p esen ed
he e is s ill cha ac e ized by i s in e disciplina y na u e, consis ency,
and use - iendliness. The cons uc ion o a na ional da abase o di-
sas e s plays an impo an ole in isk managemen , namely h ough he
p e en ion, educ ion and mi iga ion o i s consequences. The esul s
om his da abase, i s c ossing wi h eal- ime o ecas ing and moni-
o ing models o coas al looding o ce s, and he conside a ion o he
di e en dimensions o he e i o ial ulne abili y, will allow he
de elopmen o an inno a i e e e ence amewo k o suppo isk
managemen . I is in ended ha he da a and esul s ob ained become
known, so hey can be discussed and conside ed by he di e en s ake-
holde s and o icial en i ies in o de o c ea e mo e esilien commu-
ni ies, in line wi h he na ional and egional key s a egies and owa ds
he Sendai F amewo k o Disas e Risk Reduc ion (UNISDR, 2015). The
esul s and analysis o he p esen da abase p o ide use ul in o ma ion
on he pas , p esen and u u e o coas al a eas and consequen ly o hei
exposu e o coas al looding. The in o ma ion esul ing om he p esen
da abase, i s in eg a ion in sea-le el ise models, can wo k as an
impo an ool o he p ocess o adap a ion o coas al zone o clima e
change, namely h ough p ocesses o eloca ion, accommoda ion o
a i icial de ence o hese a eas. The p esen s udy in ends o p omo e
and con ibu e o a isk and eme gency planning and managemen mo e
ocused on he di e en ia ing cha ac e is ics o he di e en coas al
ypologies ha exis in con inen al Po ugal.
C edi au ho s a emen
Alexand e Oli ei a Ta a es: Concep ualiza ion, Fo mal analysis,
W i ing - O iginal D a , Re iew & Edi ing, Supe ision, P ojec
adminis a ion, Funding acquisi ion, Supe ision.
Jos´
e Leand o Ba os: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Fo mal
analysis; In es iga ion, Resou ces, Da a acquisi ion, W i ing - O iginal
D a , W i ing - Re iew & Edi ing, Visualiza ion.
Paula F ei e: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion,
W i ing - Re iew & Edi ing, Supe ision, P ojec adminis a ion, Fund-
ing acquisi ion.
Ped o Pin o San os: Fo mal analysis, Resou ces, W i ing - Re iew &
Edi ing.
Luis Pe diz: In es iga ion, Da a acquisi ion.
And ´
e Bus o Fo una o: In es iga ion, W i ing - Re iew & Edi ing.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
None.
Acknowledgmen s
This wo k was inanced by Po uguese unds h ough FCT - Fundaç˜
ao
pa a a Ciˆ
encia e a Tecnologia, P ojec MOSAIC.p (PTDC/CTA-AMB/
28909/2017). Ped o Pin o San os was inanced h ough FCT I.P., unde
he p og amme o ‘S imulus o Scien i ic Employmen – Indi idual
Suppo ’ wi hin he con ac CEECIND/00268/2017.
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