A coastal flooding database from 1980 to 2018 for the continental Portuguese coastal zone

Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 A ailable online 18 Augus 2021 0143-6228/© 2021 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/). A coas al looding da abase om 1980 o 2018 o he con inen al Po uguese coas al zone Alexand e Oli ei a Ta a es a , Jos´ e Leand o Ba os b , * , Paula F ei e c , Ped o Pin o San os d , Luís Pe diz b , And ´ e Bus o Fo una o c a Ea h Sciences Depa men and Cen e o Social S udies, Uni e sidade de Coimb a. Rua Síl io Lima, P´ olo II, 3030-790, Coimb a, Po ugal b Cen e o Social S udies, Uni e sidade de Coimb a, Po ugal. Col´ egio de S. Je ´ onimo, Apa ado 3087 3000-995, Coimb a, Po ugal c Es ua ine and Coas al Zones Uni /Na ional Ci il Enginee ing Labo a o y, A . do B asil 101, 1700-075, Lisboa, Po ugal d Cen e o Geog aphical S udies, Ins i u e o Geog aphy and Spa ial Planning, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisboa. Edi ício IGOT, Rua B anca Edm´ ee Ma ques, Cidade Uni e si ´ a ia, 1600-276, Lisboa, Po ugal ARTICLE INFO Keywo ds: Coas al zone Coas al looding Da abase Impac s Occu ences ABSTRACT Con inen al Po ugal p esen s an ex ensi e and di e si ied coas al zone which concen a es he main public and p i a e in as uc u es o he di e en economic sec o s, as well as he main c i ical in as uc u es. This a ea is also cha ac e ized by a high popula ion densi y, being a di e en ia ed e i o y in geophysical, biological and landscape e ms. The wa e egime is highly ene ge ic, and s o ms a e equen . In he las decades, he coas o con inen al Po ugal has been a ec ed nume ous imes by o e opping and coas al looding p ocesses. Iden i- ying he c i ical coas al ypologies a ec ed by looding can con ibu e o a comp ehensi e lood isk manage- men amewo k o he Po uguese coas al zones. Hence, a his o ical da abase o coas al looding occu ences was c ea ed o he pe iod 1980–2018 based on na ional and egional newspape s. Fo his pe iod 650 occu - ences we e iden i ied as well as 1708 impac s associa ed wi h hem. In e ms o impac s, he ypologies asso- cia ed wi h public a eas, human impac s, he na u al sys em, en i onmen al deg ada ion and buildings s and ou . Resul s p o ide ele an empo al and spa ial in o ma ion abou coas al his o ical lood occu ences ela ed o ex eme s o m e en s and associa ed impac s, and con ibu e o he design o a isk amewo k. 1. In oduc ion Coas al looding and i s associa ed impac s ha e become a g owing conce n in ecen decades, as a esul o he inc easing exposu e and changes in he haza d o ce s h oughou he 20 h and 21s cen u ies (Nicholls & Cazena e, 2010; Weisse e al., 2014; Sil a e al., 2017). Among o he na u al haza ds, coas al looding is esponsible o some o he wo s human and economic losses wo ldwide (K on, 2013). Ac- co ding o he In e go e nmen al Oceanog aphic Commission o UNESCO (IOC/UNESCO e al.,), 40% o he wo ld’s popula ion and mos economic ac i i ies a e loca ed wi hin 100 km om he coas line, while in he Eu opean Union (EU) 86 million people (19%) li e wi hin 10 km o he coas line (EEA, 2006). In Po ugal, he coas al zone s ands ou as an ex emely impo an a ea, whe e ¾ o he popula ion and 80% o G oss Domes ic P oduc (GDP) a e loca ed (San os e al., 2017), and whe e he isk o sea-le el ise (SLR) is high (Veloso-Gomes e al., 2004; An unes & Tabo da, 2009; Rocha e al., 2020). All he p ojec ions o he In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC, 2014) p edic he con inuous ise o he mean sea le el and he wo ldwide inc ease in s o miness. This ac pu s se e al coas al zones a high isk o looding, including densely popula ed and economically i al a eas. Howe e , coas al a eas ace no only an in- c ease in SLR bu also a ange o non-clima e-change ela ed ac o s ha con ibu e o he inc ease o hei agili y. Among hem, na u al and a i icial ac o s s and ou , such as: s o m su ges, sedimen de ici , sho eline e ea ; inc ease in an h opogenic p essu e ansla ed by he cons uc ion o di e en ypes o a i icial in as uc u e such as ha - bou s, de ence s uc u es, u baniza ion and ou is ic a eas and land use change. The ac o s men ioned abo e, combined wi h he g ow h o mig a ion o coas al a eas, indus ializa ion, u baniza ion p ocesses, and wi h he inc ease in he in ensi y and equency o ex eme e en s ela ed o clima e change (Be in e al., 2013), enhances he exposu e * Co esponding au ho . Col´ egio de S. Je ´ onimo, Apa ado 3087 3000-995, Coimb a, Po ugal. E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (A.O. Ta a es), [email p o ec ed] (J.L. Ba os), [email p o ec ed] (P. F ei e), [email p o ec ed] (P.P. San os), [email p o ec ed] (L. Pe diz), [email p o ec ed] (A.B. Fo una o). Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec Applied Geog aphy jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/apgeog h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.apgeog.2021.102534 Recei ed 22 Sep embe 2020; Recei ed in e ised o m 13 May 2021; Accep ed 5 Augus 2021 Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 2 and suscep ibili y o coas al looding (IPCC, 2014; Neumann e al., 2015; Rilo e al., 2017). Se e al au ho s ha e collec ed his o ical in o ma ion ela ed o di e en na u al haza ds om newspape s, echnical epo s and sci- en i ic a icles, in o de o analyse and e alua e pas occu ences and impac s associa ed wi h na u al haza ds, and assess u u e dynamics (Ba iendos & Rod igo. 2006; Raska & Emme , 2014; Ruocco e al., 2011; San os e al., 2014). This his o ical in o ma ion is o en subse- quen ly o ganized in da abases ha allow i s sys ema iza ion, ea men and analysis. A a global le el, he e is a wide ange o disas e da abases ha a e dis inguished by hei empo al and spa ial ac o s, as well as by he ypes o disas e s and inse ion c i e ia conside ed. Examples o global da abases include he EM-DAT om Cen e o Resea ch on Epidemiology o Disas e s (EM-DAT, 2013), he DesIn en a da abase (La Red, 2009) and he da abase om Munich Re named Na Ca SER- VICE (Munich Re, 2011). A na ional le el, some examples can also be men ioned, such as he Spanish Ca alonia lood damage da abase (Ba - nolas & Llasa , 2007), and he I alian AVI p ojec (Guzze i & Tonelli, 2004). Speci ic examples o coas al looding include a UK da abase om 1915 o 2016 gene a ed wi hin he p ojec Su geWa ch (Haigh e al., 2017), he US SURGEDAT (Needham e al., 2013) and he Aus alian Da abase (Callaghan & Powe , 2014). In Po ugal, he DISASTER hyd o-geomo phologic da abase, wi h da a be ween 1865 and 2010, s ands ou (Zˆ eze e e al., 2014). The Po uguese coas line p esen s a g ea di e si y o mo pho- sedimen a y sys ems such as es ua ies, lagoons, ba ie islands, bea- ches, dunes, and cli s (Fe ei a & Ma ias, 2013; Pon e Li a e al., 2016). This a ea is also cha ac e ized by a mul iplici y o land uses, occupa ions and ac i i ies ha make i an a ea o s a egic impo ance a he eco- nomic, social and en i onmen al le els. The g ow h o human se le- men s in he coas al zone o e he las 7 decades, combined wi h oceanog aphic and a mosphe ic o ce s and dis inc geological and mo phological con ex s con ibu es decisi ely o unde s and he e olu- ion and cu en con igu a ion o he coas al zone. The Con inen al Po uguese coas al zone is also cha ac e ized by an asymme y in e ms o wa e di ec ion and ene gy (And ade & F ei as, 2002). The A lan ic wes e n coas is cha ac e ized by high-ene ge ic wa es wi h dominan no hwes swell, con ibu ing o high sedimen a y anspo alues. The sou h coas , al hough also A lan ic, is p o ec ed om he no hwes swell and p esen s a mo e mode a e wa e ene gy (Fe ei a & Ma ias, 2013). The coas al zone is h ea ened by se e al haza ds, wi h emphasis on o e opping and coas al looding, cli ins abili y, and coas al e osion (San os e al., 2017; Veloso-Gomes, 2007). Mo i a ed by he absence o a consolida ed na ional da abase o coas al loodings and hei impac s, a his o ical da abase o he con i- nen al Po uguese coas al zone be ween 1980 and 2018 was compiled. This da abase is pa o an e o o de elop an inno a i e me hodology o suppo lood isk managemen , suppo ed by a be e abili y o o ecas o e opping and looding occu ences in di e en coas al y- pologies. The de elopmen o a loss and damage da abase ela ed o na u al disas e s is impo an o isk assessmen and egional and local managemen (F ei e e al., 2016; San os e al., 2014). Acco ding o De oli e al. (2007), he de elopmen o his kind o da abases is c ucial o isk managemen because hey allow he iden i ica ion and analysis o he ela ionship be ween occu ences o disas e s, he ulne able el- emen s, and he espec i e human and ma e ial losses. The main objec i es o his s udy a e: a) o p esen he me hodo- logical aspec s ela ed o coas al looding da a collec ion and he con- s uc ion o he MOSAIC da abase; b) o p esen and discuss he spa ial and empo al dis ibu ion o he coas al looding occu ences and associa ed impac s; c) Iden i y he main oceanog aphic condi ions along he coas , namely wa e le el and wa e condi ions. 2. MOSAIC da abase me hods The absence o a consolida ed coas al looding da abase o he Con inen al Po uguese coas , combined wi h he need o he iden i i- ca ion and selec ion o he coas al ypologies mos a ec ed by loods, led o he c ea ion and de elopmen o he da abase he e p esen ed. The heme og aphic analysis co e s he pe iod 1980–2018 in na ional and egional newspape s. The gene al me hodology ollowed o gene a e he MOSAIC da abase and i s analysis is p esen ed in Fig. 1. 2.1. Key concep s Be o e p esen ing he main me hodological aspec s unde lying he cons uc ion o he MOSAIC da abase, he main concep s ha will be p esen h oughou his s udy should be cla i ied. The haza dous p o- cesses in his da abase include coas al looding and o e opping. The concep o “occu ence” ollowed he de ini ion o Zˆ eze e e al. (2014) wi h he necessa y adap a ions. Occu ence is conside ed as a speci ic case ela ed o o e opping o coas al looding ela ed o a unique spa ial loca ion and a speci ic ime pe iod. The concep s o loss (also e e ed o as human impac s) and damage mus also be dis inguished. In his s udy, “loss” o “human impac s” ep esen s he di ec haza dous e ec s on humans, including casual ies, inju ies, missing, e acua ions, and pe - manen displacemen (San os e al., 2014); “damage” ep esen s he ma e ial consequences o any ype o acili y o p ope y, e.g. oad ne wo k, buildings, a mland (San os e al., 2014). 2.2. Da abase da a collec ion The main sou ce o in o ma ion o he MOSAIC da abase we e na- ional and egional newspape s. A da abase o his ype can be con- s uc ed using a wide ange o sou ces. Howe e , heme og aphic analysis p esen s a se o a ou able ac o s such as he b oade co e age o occu ences on a local scale and he same occu ence is, in mos cases, epo ed in di e en newspape s, allowing a mo e accu a e analysis. The ease o access o newspape a chi es, and he b oade empo al analysis due o i s g ea e co e age o e ime a e o he a ou able and p e e - en ial ac o s o he heme og aphic analysis o e o he da a sou ces (La Red, 2013). The in o ma ion aken om he heme og aphic analysis p o ides a a ied se o in o ma ion. F om he s a , i allows ob aining quan i a i e in o ma ion as o human losses and he numbe o a ec ed buildings, bu also p o ides quali a i e in o ma ion such as he ype o damage obse ed (Rilo e al., 2017). The s a ing poin was he selec ion o he di e en heme og aphic sou ces o be analysed and ha o m he basis o he da a collec ion, in o de o cons uc a coas al looding da abase o he Po uguese con- inen al coas . The selec ed newspape s ook in o accoun wo c i e ia ela ed o hei spa ial and empo al co e age: a) he newspape mus ha e been published con inuously o a leas 20 yea s and b) he selec ed newspape should gua an ee a good na ional and egional dis- ibu ion o he news. A o al o eigh newspape s we e analysed ac- co ding o sys ema ic and punc ual analysis, as desc ibed below (Table 1). Fi s , daily na ional newspape s we e selec ed. The i s newspape looked o e in a sys ema ic way – i.e., all edi ions we e consul ed, ei he o da es whe e coas al looding condi ions exis ed, o o any o he da es – was Público, which p esen s wo edi ions wi h a di e en egional scope: one ocused in he no he n Po ugal (Po o’s edi ion) and o he ocused in he cen al and sou he n Po ugal (Lisbon’s edi ion). The wo edi ions di e in ha ac each one includes a local segmen wi h speci ic in o ma ion ega ding i s e i o ial ocus. How- e e , because he Público newspape was only ounded in he ea ly 1990’s, he pe iod be ween 1980 and 1990 was sys ema ically explo ed using he Jo nal de No ícias. In he punc ual analysis (only da es om he hindcas and da es wi h occu ences esul ing om sys ema ic analysis a e analysed), one na ional and i e egional newspape s om di e en a eas we e conside ed (Table 1), published in di e en egions o he coun y, in o de o ensu e a wide egional co e age. The da es o conside in he punc ual analysis we e based on he da es aken om he sys ema ic analysis o he newspape s Público and Jo nal de No ícias, as A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 3 well as on da es in which ocean condi ions we e a ou able o he occu ence o s o ms (hindcas ). Rega ding his las c i e ion, he con- di ions we e de e mined h ough hindcas simula ions desc ibed in sec ion 2.4. The da a esul ing om he hindcas allowed he iden i i- ca ion o 67 new da es and 165 occu ences, ep esen ing 25% o o al occu ences. Du ing he punc ual analysis, e e y six yea s a sys ema ic analysis (all daily edi ions o he newspape we e consul ed) o he newspape was ca ied ou in o de o alida e he applied me hodology. F om he newspape s wi h egional co e age, one co e s he no he n coas al a ea, wo he cen e coas al a ea, and he o he wo he a ea loca ed sou h o Lisbon. In o de o alida e he heme og aphic analysis, a sea ch o occu - ences o coas al loodings in echnical epo s and scien i ic a icles was also pe o med. The esul s led o he iden i ica ion o new occu ences, p o iding accu a e in o ma ion o i s geo e e encing. All occu ences we e alida ed by c ossing he in o ma ion ob ained in mo e han one newspape , as well as in academic wo ks and echnical epo s. To ensu e he consis ency o he da abase, he p ocess o heme og aphic sea ching, inse ion o in o ma ion in he da abase and occu ences geo e e encing was ca ied ou by a single pe son. 2.3. Da abase s uc u e and empo al and spa ial incidence The MOSAIC da abase consis s o six opics subdi ided in o di e en ields ha iden i y and cha ac e ize each occu ence in i s mul iple s ands (Fig. 2). Based on he sou ces iden i ied abo e, a coas al looding da abase p esen ly con aining 650 occu ences (see de ini ion o occu ence in sec ion 2.1) was buil . The MOSAIC is an adap able and geo e e enced his o ical da abase wi h alphanume ic open and closed ields o he nume ic and ex ual ypes. Each occu ence inse ed in he da abase is subsequen ly geo e e enced using a poin shape ile, based on he in o ma ion om he analysed sou ce, using he A cGIS 10.5 so - wa e. The PT-TM06/ETRS89 p ojec ed coo dina e sys em was adop ed. Geo e e encing is based on sa elli e images p o ided by he Es i® Wo ld Image y se ice. The loca ion accu acy conside ed was di ided in o ou classes (Zˆ eze e e al., 2014): 1) loca ion wi h exac coo dina es (scale 1:1000); 2) loca ion based on local oponymy (scale 1:10,000); 3) loca ion in he cen oid o he pa ish (only used when no o he loca ion besides he pa ish is men ioned); 4) loca ion in he cen oid o he mu- nicipali y (idem ega ding he men ion o he municipali y). The empo al incidence o he MOSAIC da abase anges om 1980 o 2018. The spa ial incidence is he en i e Con inen al Po uguese coas al zone, ex ending om he mou h o he Minho Ri e , in he no hwes , o he mou h o he Guadiana Ri e in he sou heas , o alling abou 987 km (Fig. 3). Th oughou he wo k, he densi y o occu ences pe km 2 will be Fig. 1. Scheme o he me hodology used in he s udy. Table 1 Newspape s used o da a collec ion. Ti le Pe iodici y o publica ion Type o analysis pe o med Publica ion co e age Co e age pe iod Público Daily Sys ema ic Na ional 1990–2018 Jo nal de No ícias Daily Sys ema ic Na ional 1980–1989 Di´ a io de No ícias Daily Punc ual Na ional 1980–2018 Di´ a io do Minho Daily Punc ual Regional 1980–2018 Di´ a io de A ei o Daily Punc ual Regional 1985–2018 Di´ a io de Lei ia Daily Punc ual Regional 1987–2018 Di´ a io do Sul Daily Punc ual Regional 1980–2018 Se ubalense T i-weekly Punc ual Regional 1980–2018 A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 4 Fig. 2. Topics and main ields o MOSAIC da abase. Fig. 3. Loca ion o he coas al a ea co e ed by he MOSAIC da abase: a) Con inen al Po ugal; b) Popula ion densi y o Con inen al Po ugal by municipali y. (colo should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.) A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 5 calcula ed. The calcula ion is based on an a ea o 500 m de ined om he highes as onomical ide line up o 500 m inland, acco ding o he de ini ion p esen in he Na ional S a egy o he In eg a ed Manage- men o he Coas al Zone (ENGIZC, 2009). This delimi a ion has also aken in o accoun he cu en his o ic occu ence as well as he de i- ni ion o he sa egua d s ips o o e opping and coas al looding p e- sen in he app o ed POC. Fo he Land Use Land Co e (LULC), wo explo a o y analysis we e ca ied ou conside ing di e en e i o ial a eas. The i s conside s an a ea o 500 m de ined om he highes as onomical ide line up o 500 m inland ( e e ed o in he p e ious pa ag aph), called Coas al bo de . The second is called he Coas al Zone, acco ding o ENGIZC (2009) and ex ends o 2 km inland, including he Coas al bo de a ea. Bo h ana- lyses a e based on he Land Use and Occupa ion Ca og aphy o 1995, 2007, 2010, 2015, and 2018 p o ided by he Te i o y’s Gene al Di ec o a e (DGT, nd), wi h no ca og aphy o p e ious pe iods. 2.4. Hindcas o oceanog aphic a iables The in o ma ion on occu ences was complemen ed by mul i- decadal ime se ies o oceanog aphic condi ions along he coas . Time se ies we e gene a ed o bo h he wa e le el (due o ides and s o m su ges) and wa e condi ions. The ime se ies o wa e le els we e ob- ained by adding idal and su ge signals. Tides we e compu ed h ough ha monic syn hesis based on he esul s o a egional idal model (Fo - una o e al., 2016, 2019). This model simula es he gene a ion and p opaga ion o ides in he No h-Eas A lan ic Ocean. Along he Po - uguese coas , oo mean squa e e o s a e o he o de o 5 cm. Resul s we e ex ac ed a 7 ep esen a i e poin s along he wes e n Po uguese coas . Su ges we e es ima ed based on he in e se ba ome e e ec , i.e., assuming ha only a mosphe ic p essu e con ibu es o he su ge. This app oxima ion is jus i iable in he Po uguese coas (Fanjul e al., 1998) because he wind-gene a ed su ge is limi ed by he small wid h o he con inen al shel . Time se ies o a mosphe ic p essu e we e ex ac ed om he ERA-In e im eanalysis (Dee e al., 2011). The wa e cha ac e is ics along he wes e n Po uguese coas we e de e mined using he wa e model Wa eWa ch III (Tolman e al., 2009, p. 194) applied o he No h A lan ic Ocean, wi h a nes ed g id on he Po uguese shel . The model was un om 1979 o 2018, o ced by winds om he ERA-In e in eanalysis. Fu he de ails on he applica ion o he model a e p o ided in Fo una o e al. (2017). Signi ican wa e heigh s (Hs) we e s o ed a hou ly in e als. Subsequen ly, an analysis o he ime se ies o oceanog aphic con- di ions was ca ied ou , conside ing he daily maxima Hs and sea le el (Sl) o pe o m he punc ual analysis ela ed o heme og aphic esea ch and o analyse he ela ionship be ween o e opping and looding o cings and he numbe o occu ences. The pa ame e s used in he p esen s udy as ep esen a i e o he o e opping o coas al looding o cing condi ions a e: he daily sea le el maxima (Slmax) and he daily maximum signi ican wa e heigh (Hsmax). 3. Resul s 3.1. Spa ial and empo al dis ibu ion The heme og aphic analysis allowed he iden i ica ion o 650 oc- cu ences o coas al looding and o e opping be ween 1980 and 2018, wi h high empo al and spa ial a iabili y. Howe e , some geog aphic ho spo s wi h a high numbe and densi y o occu ences can be iden i- ied (Fig. 4). Two dis inc sec o s can be ecognized: he i s encom- passes all coas al municipali ies o he no h o he Tagus Ri e , which concen a es 77% o he occu ences; he second encompasses he emaining coas al municipali ies and ep esen s 23% o he occu ences. Conside ing he planning and managemen ins umen s (Spa ial Coas al Zone Plans - POC), ha di ide he coas al a ea in six di e en sec o s, esul s show ha 85% o he occu ences a e loca ed in he h ee no he nmos sec o s (Fig. 4b). The analysis also shows ha only 9 ou o 54 coas al municipali ies Fig. 4. Spa ial dis ibu ion o he occu ences: a) Con inen al Po ugal; b) Occu ences in he di e en POC. (colo should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.) A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 6 do no exhibi any occu ence (Fig. 4a). Howe e , he absence o oc- cu ences in a gi en a ea does no mean ha i is no a ec ed by looding o o e opping. This absence can be explained ei he by incomple e documen a y co e age o ce ain a eas o by he cha ac e is ics o he a ec ed a eas, namely a eas ha a e p edominan ly na u al and wi h li le an h opic occupa ion, ha ecei e less in e es in he news co e age. Fig. 5a shows he i e municipali ies wi h he highes numbe o occu ences (see loca ion in Fig. 4a), bo h in he en i e pe iod, and on each decade. Fo he pe iod be ween 1980 and 2018, excep o Almada (belonging o he POC Alcobaça-Cabo Espichel), all he municipali ies a e loca ed no h o he Mondego Ri e , belonging o he POC Caminha- Espinho (Po o and Vila No a de Gaia) and O a -Ma inha-G ande (O a and ´ Ilha o). This spa ial pa e n is p ac ically unchanged when he di e en decades a e analysed sepa a ely. The ‘80s s ands ou o p e- sen ing a g ea e spa ial a iabili y ela ed o he occu ence o looding and o e opping. Ano he ac o highligh is ela ed o he municipali y o Po o, which be ween 1980 and 2018 is he hi d municipali y wi h he highes numbe o occu ences. Howe e , hese occu ences a e essen ially concen a ed in he ‘80s and ‘90s. Since he end o he ‘90s, he numbe o occu ences in he municipali y o Po o dec eased signi ican ly, being his ac ela ed o a se o coas al de ence wo ks ca ied ou du ing he ‘90s. In con as , in he municipali ies belonging o he me opoli an a ea o Lisbon, in pa icula Almada, Cascais, and Oei as, he numbe o occu ences inc eased signi ican ly since 2000. Wi h ega d o he densi y o occu ences, wi h he excep ion o he municipali y o Almada, all o he municipali ies a e loca ed no h o he Tagus Ri e (Fig. 5b). The municipali y o Po o s ands ou as ha ing he highes densi y o occu ences (24.32 occu ences pe km 2 ). Fig. 6 shows he mon hly and annual dis ibu ion o occu ences. Rega ding he mon hly dis ibu ion, he as majo i y (93%) occu s du ing he so-called ma i ime win e ( om Oc obe o Ma ch) wi h a clea maximum o Janua y, wi h 51% o he o al occu ences (Fig. 6a). S o m He cules, which a ec ed mainland Po ugal be ween 3 and 7 Janua y 2014, was esponsible o 56% o he o al occu ences in Janua y be ween 1980 and 2018. As o he annual dis ibu ion o occu ences (Fig. 6b), he yea s 2014, 1996, and 2010 s and ou , concen a ing 56% o he o al be ween 1980 and 2018. As p e iously men ioned, in 2014 he s o m He cules was esponsible o 75% o he o al occu ences iden i ied in 2014 and o 37% in he pe iod 1980–2018. The occu ences esul ing om he s o m He cules had a g ea spa ial dispe sion wi h a special ocus on he wes coas . In 1996, mos o he occu ences e e o a pe iod o s o ms be ween he 1s and he 14 h o Janua y dispe sed h ough he wes e n and sou he n coas . As o 2010, mos o he occu ences a e due o he s o m Xyn hia (27 h – 28 h Feb ua y) as well as o a s o my pe iod ha occu ed on he 8 h o Oc obe . The i s e en caused occu ences mainly on he sou h coas , while he second ga e ise o a g ea e con- cen a ion o occu ences be ween he municipali ies o Po o and Fig- uei a da Foz. Fig. 6b shows he empo al e olu ion o he occu ences, whe e i is possible o obse e an inc ease in he numbe o occu ences be ween 1980 and 2018, wi h di e en hy hms. The ‘80s we e ma ked by g ow h and subsequen s abiliza ion in he numbe o occu ences, ep esen ing 8% o he o al. The ‘90s ep esen 27%, being a decade ma ked by an ini ial inc ease in he numbe o occu ences ollowed by a s abiliza ion pe iod ha is in e up ed by a sligh inc ease in 1994 ol- lowed by a mo e p onounced g ow h caused by 1996 s o ms. The i s decade o he 21s cen u y ep esen s 13% o he occu ences and is cha ac e ized by a pe iod wi h a sligh bu cons an inc ease, wi h 2003 s anding ou as he one wi h he highes numbe o occu ences. The las Fig. 5. Municipali ies wi h highe numbe (a) and densi y o occu ences (b) in he analysed decades. A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 7 pe iod analysed (2010–2018) less han ¼ o he da abase’s ime ame – concen a es 53% o he o al numbe o occu ences and is clea ly he pe iod cha ac e ized by a huge g ow h in he numbe o occu ences, especially in he yea s 2010 and 2014. This inc ease is ela ed o a pe iod in which he Po uguese con i- nen al coas was hi by a se o s o ms, o which Xyn hia (Feb ua y 2010), H´ e cules (Janua y 2014) and Emma (Ma ch 2018) s and ou , as well as, a se o s o my pe iods such as he beginning o Oc obe 2010 and Feb ua y 2011. This could be ela ed o he inc ease in s o miness associa ed wi h clima e change. Acco ding o San os e al. (2017), he main impac s o clima e change ha will a ec he coas al zone o mainland Po ugal will be ela ed o: a) he inc ease in he global a e age sea le el which will cause a g ea e equency o ex eme alues o sea le el; b) he o a ion o he di ec ion o he wa es on he wes coas ; c) he change in he s o m sys em wi h a possible inc ease in equency and in ensi y o ex eme wea he and clima e e en s. 3.2. Losses and damages The 650 occu ences o coas al looding and o e opping be ween 1980 and 2018 esul ed in a o al o 1708 losses and damages sp ead o e 7 ca ego ies and 56 ypologies. Fig. 7 p esen s he ca ego ies iden i ied, as well as he p opo ion ha each ypology ep esen s in each o hem in e ms o numbe o occu ences. As some ypologies ha e a esidual alue, i is impo an o highligh in each ca ego y o losses and damages he main ypes o esul ing im- pac s. Fig. 8 shows all he loss ypes, wi h he displaced and e acua ed people ep esen ing 85% o he human impac s. Rega ding he damages ela ed o he na u al sys em and en i onmen al deg ada ion, hey a e undamen ally ela ed o he sand/dune sys em (Fig. 8), ep esen ing 93% and 67% o he o al o each ca ego y, espec i ely. Damage o u ban s ee s and beach walkways accoun s o 57% o he damage in public a eas. Rega ding he in as uc u e ca ego y, coas al in as uc- u e damages s and ou (73% o he o al ca ego y). Wi h ega d o buildings, he comme cial ype s ands ou , ollowed by esiden ial and beach suppo buildings (cabine s, sani a y acili ies, ba s, e c.), which oge he accoun o 86% o he a ec ed buildings. Fig. 9 p esen s all losses and damages iden i ied and hei empo al dis ibu ion. The e is a p edominance o damages in public a eas, ol- lowed by human impac s, en i onmen al deg ada ion, and na u al sys- em damages. The empo al dis ibu ion o he losses and damages show ha he 1980s we e ma ked by damages associa ed wi h public a eas, as well as ela ed o en i onmen al deg ada ion and he in as uc u es ca ego y. The ollowing decade was cha ac e ized by a gene al inc ease Fig. 6. Tempo al dis ibu ion o occu ences: a) Mon hly dis ibu ion; b) annual dis ibu ion. A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 8 in all ca ego ies o impac s. I is a pe iod ma ked by human impac s, ha eme ge as he ca ego y wi h he highes numbe o occu ences, high- ligh ing he 73 e acua ed people iden i ied in he municipali y o O a . Also, he damage o buildings g ows signi ican ly, pa icula ly in com- me cial (23) and esiden ial (18) buildings. Be ween 2000 and 2009 he impac s dec ease ela i e o he p e ious pe iod, as well as he numbe o occu ences. This decade is ma ked by a balance be ween he di e en ca ego ies, highligh ing he damages o he na u al sys em, mainly ela ed o changes in he sand and dunes sys em. The pe iod be ween 2010 and 2018 is ma ked by a sha p g ow h in losses and damages, which ansla es in o a g ow h o 367% compa ed o he p e ious decade. Damage o public a eas is he ca ego y wi h he highes numbe o obse ed impac s, wi h pa icula emphasis on damage o walkways, u ban s ee s, and u ban u ni u e. The human impac s ca ego y should be highligh ed, whe e 121 displaced people we e egis e ed, pa icula ly in he sou he n municipali y o Olh˜ ao. These human impac s we e mos ly e i ied du ing Janua y and Feb ua y 2010, when a s o my pe iod occu ed, highligh ing he s o m Xyn hia (27 h – 28 h Feb ua y). I is also impo an o highligh he damage ela ed o he en i onmen al deg ada ion and na u al sys em, wi h emphasis on he sand and dunes sys em, causing in many cases impo - an dec eases in he sand and e ea in he dune co d. Finally, damage o buildings is highligh ed, wi h emphasis on comme cial, esiden ial, and beach suppo buildings, as well as damage o coas al p o ec ion in as uc u es. Fig. 10 p esen s he spa ial dis ibu ion o he occu ences, Fig. 7. The ca ego ies and ypologies o losses and damages di e en ia ed by colo s. The size o he polygons is p opo ional o he numbe o occu ences in each ca ego y. (colo should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.) A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 9 conside ing he di e en POC. Resul s show ha he a eas no h o Cabo Espichel (see Fig. 4b) su e mo e losses and damages han he o he a eas o he sou h. The excep ion is he POC Vilamou a-Vila Real San o An ´ onio wi h he highes numbe o human impac s (115 displaced), o which he municipali y o Olh˜ ao con ibu es he mos . In all a eas, he pe iod be ween 2010 and 2018 is he one wi h he highes numbe o losses and damages. Damages in public a eas s and ou as he ca ego y wi h he highes numbe o occu ences in almos all a eas. In Espichel- Odeceixe and Vilamou a-Vila Real San o An ´ onio damages in buildings and human impac s a e, espec i ely, he mos equen ca ego ies. In he a eas no h o Cabo Espichel, damages ela ed o he na u al sys em and en i onmen al deg ada ion a e he mos impo an . Globally, wi h he excep ion o he 2000–2009 decade, esul s show an inc ease o he losses and damages and di e si y ac oss all a eas be ween 1980 and 2018. I we ake in o accoun he municipal scale, namely he i e munic- ipali ies wi h he highes numbe o occu ences, he e a e also di e en ends (Fig. 11). In he municipali y o Po o, mos o he impac s (65%) we e obse ed be ween 1980 and 1999, wi h emphasis on he damage in public a eas and ela ed o en i onmen al deg ada ion. Howe e , du ing he He cules s o m in 2014, he human impac s, such as e acua ions and inju ies, a e he mos ele an ones. Vila No a de Gaia and ´ Ilha o show a empo al dis ibu ion o impac s di e en om he o he municipali ies, as 78% and 70%, o losses and damages, espec i ely, a ose be ween Fig. 8. P incipal losses and damages in each ca ego y. Human impac s a e exp essed by he numbe o a ec ed people. The o he ca ego ies a e exp essed by he numbe o occu ences. (colo should be used o any igu es in p in ). (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.) Fig. 9. Numbe o occu ences and a ec ed people o e e y decade (colou scale) by ca ego ies o losses and damages. Human impac s a e exp essed by he numbe o a ec ed people. The o he ca ego ies a e exp essed by he numbe o occu ences. (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.) A.O. Ta a es e al. Applied Geog aphy 135 (2021) 102534 16 ypologies iden i ied allows he de ini ion o e i o ially di e en ia ed ale s. This ma e will la e be subjec o u he analysis and s udy. The cons uc ion and de elopmen o a da abase, such as he one p esen ed in his a icle, is an impo an con ibu ion o he assessmen o e i o ial ulne abili y and coas al isk managemen . F om he s a , he esul s con ibu e o sa is y some o he equi emen s ha emana e om he EU Floods Di ec i e (Eu opean Pa liamen and Council o he Eu opean Communi ies, 2007). Among hem, i con ibu es o he collec ion o his o ical da a on coas al looding occu ences and hei associa ed impac s, e en as, he spa ial and empo al iden i ica ion o he mos a ec ed a eas. The esul s can also p o ide a wide and imp o ed empo al and spa ial knowledge abou coas al his o ical lood e en s ha can con ibu e o he alida ion o lood p edic i e models and he design o he isk amewo k. The in o ma ion om his o ical da a could also be used o he assessmen o e i o ial ulne abili y and he de ini ion o ools o he managemen o coas al looding isk, assis ing decision-make s o he es ablishmen o adap a ion and esil- ience measu es based on knowledge o pas e en s. These da a allow he unde s anding o he dynamic ela ionships exis ing be ween coas al loods and he di e en coas al communi ies, allowing he communi- ca ion and media ion be ween he local popula ion and he di e en au ho i ies. 5. Conclusions The p esen s udy demons a es he impo ance o his o ical da a- bases o na u al haza dous p ocesses om heme og aphic sou ces. The analysis o he da abase made i possible o iden i y, explo e and e al- ua e he di e en occu ences o looding and coas al o e opping, allowing he iden i ica ion o i s impac s. Consequen ly, i also allowed loca ing he mos ulne able a eas, he spa ial and empo al cha ac e - iza ion o occu ences and impac s, as well as he espec i e o ce s. The p esen da abase di e s om o he s ca ied ou in o he coun ies, due o i s ange o opics and p ima y ields ha allow he de ailed and comp ehensi e cha ac e iza ion no only o he iden i ied occu ences, bu also o he associa ed impac s and damages. The da abase p esen ed he e is s ill cha ac e ized by i s in e disciplina y na u e, consis ency, and use - iendliness. The cons uc ion o a na ional da abase o di- sas e s plays an impo an ole in isk managemen , namely h ough he p e en ion, educ ion and mi iga ion o i s consequences. The esul s om his da abase, i s c ossing wi h eal- ime o ecas ing and moni- o ing models o coas al looding o ce s, and he conside a ion o he di e en dimensions o he e i o ial ulne abili y, will allow he de elopmen o an inno a i e e e ence amewo k o suppo isk managemen . I is in ended ha he da a and esul s ob ained become known, so hey can be discussed and conside ed by he di e en s ake- holde s and o icial en i ies in o de o c ea e mo e esilien commu- ni ies, in line wi h he na ional and egional key s a egies and owa ds he Sendai F amewo k o Disas e Risk Reduc ion (UNISDR, 2015). The esul s and analysis o he p esen da abase p o ide use ul in o ma ion on he pas , p esen and u u e o coas al a eas and consequen ly o hei exposu e o coas al looding. The in o ma ion esul ing om he p esen da abase, i s in eg a ion in sea-le el ise models, can wo k as an impo an ool o he p ocess o adap a ion o coas al zone o clima e change, namely h ough p ocesses o eloca ion, accommoda ion o a i icial de ence o hese a eas. The p esen s udy in ends o p omo e and con ibu e o a isk and eme gency planning and managemen mo e ocused on he di e en ia ing cha ac e is ics o he di e en coas al ypologies ha exis in con inen al Po ugal. C edi au ho s a emen Alexand e Oli ei a Ta a es: Concep ualiza ion, Fo mal analysis, W i ing - O iginal D a , Re iew & Edi ing, Supe ision, P ojec adminis a ion, Funding acquisi ion, Supe ision. Jos´ e Leand o Ba os: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Fo mal analysis; In es iga ion, Resou ces, Da a acquisi ion, W i ing - O iginal D a , W i ing - Re iew & Edi ing, Visualiza ion. Paula F ei e: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion, W i ing - Re iew & Edi ing, Supe ision, P ojec adminis a ion, Fund- ing acquisi ion. Ped o Pin o San os: Fo mal analysis, Resou ces, W i ing - Re iew & Edi ing. Luis Pe diz: In es iga ion, Da a acquisi ion. And ´ e Bus o Fo una o: In es iga ion, W i ing - Re iew & Edi ing. Decla a ion o compe ing in e es None. Acknowledgmen s This wo k was inanced by Po uguese unds h ough FCT - Fundaç˜ ao pa a a Ciˆ encia e a Tecnologia, P ojec MOSAIC.p (PTDC/CTA-AMB/ 28909/2017). Ped o Pin o San os was inanced h ough FCT I.P., unde he p og amme o ‘S imulus o Scien i ic Employmen – Indi idual Suppo ’ wi hin he con ac CEECIND/00268/2017. Re e ences And ade, C., & F ei as, M. C. (2002). Coas al zones. G adi a, Liboa. In F. D. San os, K. Fo bes, & R. 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