O ganiza ional Fo ge ing and i s Causes: an Empi ical Resea ch
Full name: Vicenc Fe nandez
A ilia ion: Uni e si a Poli ecnica de Ca alunya
E-mail: icenc. [email p o ec ed]
In e na ional add ess: Colom, 11, 08222 – Te assa (SPAIN)
Telephone: +34 93 739 80 25 - Fax: +34 93 739 81 01
Biog aphy: Vicenc Fe nandez is lec u e in he Depa men o Managemen a Technical
Uni e si y o Ca alonia. He ecei ed a Ph.D. in o ganiza ional abso p i e capaci y. He has
been a isi ing esea che a Newcas le Uni e si y, UK. His esea ch in e es s include
o ganiza ional knowledge, o ganiza ional communica ion and decision making.
Full name: Albe Sune
A ilia ion: Uni e si a Poli ecnica de Ca alunya
E-mail: albe [email protected]
In e na ional add ess: Colom, 11, 08222 – Te assa (SPAIN)
Telephone: +34 93 739 80 25 - Fax: +34 93 739 81 01
Biog aphy: Albe Sune is lec u e in he Depa men o Managemen a Technical Uni e si y
o Ca alonia. He holds a Ph.D. deg ee in o ganiza ional lea ning. He has been a isi ing
esea che a INCAE Business School, CR. His esea ch in e es s include o ganiza ional
lea ning and o ge ing.
O ganiza ional Fo ge ing and i s Causes: an Empi ical Resea ch
Abs ac
Pu pose – To de e mine he impac o o ganiza ional o ge ing on knowledge-in ensi e i ms
and he ci cums ances in which he loss o dis inc i e knowledge akes place.
Design/me hodology/app oach – The empi ical esea ch consis ed o a quali a i e p oposal
based on wo case s udies in Highe Educa ion in ol ing si ua ions o o ganiza ional
o ge ing.
Findings – A amewo k o concep ualising o ganiza ional o ge ing. Mo eo e , he esul s
o he case s udy analysis include a ca ego iza ion o o ganiza ional o ge ing and a se o
p oposi ions abou hei causes.
O iginali y/ alue – Scien i ic esea ch on knowledge managemen has ocused on he
p ocesses o knowledge c ea ion, use and ans e , bu has de o ed li le a en ion o he
p ocesses o knowledge deg ada ion and des uc ion.
A icle Type: Resea ch pape
Keywo d(s): O ganiza ional unlea ning; O ganiza ional o ge ing; Knowledge des uc ion;
Knowledge change; Knowledge s ocks and lows
In oduc ion
The knowledge-based iew holds ha a i m can be concep ualized as an ins i u ion o
in eg a ing knowledge (G an , 1996). Based on wo ks by Die ickx and Cool (1989),
DeCa olis and Deeds (1999) and o he s, o ganiza ional knowledge can be ep esen ed as
s ocks o knowledge ha g ow h ough lows o inc easing knowledge (o ganiza ional
lea ning) and sh ink h ough lows o dep ecia ing knowledge (o ganiza ional o ge ing).
Scien i ic esea ch on knowledge managemen has ocused on he p ocesses o knowledge
c ea ion, use and ans e , bu has de o ed li le a en ion o he p ocesses o knowledge
deg ada ion and des uc ion.
Since he 1970s and 1980s, he subjec o o ganiza ional o ge ing has been s udied by a
small numbe o esea che s wo king in he a eas o ope a ions and o ganiza ion heo y. This
di e gence has engende ed wo dispa a e and by no means he e ogeneous academic s eams
on he phenomenon o o ganiza ional o ge ing. A s udy o he li e a u e on he subjec leads
o wo ques ions: wha causes he p ocesses o o ganiza ional o ge ing? and unde wha
ci cums ances does i occu ?
Fi s ly, ou pape compiles and uni ies he li e a u e p oduced by he wo academic s eams o
p o ide a new s a ing poin o esea ch in o he phenomenon o o ganiza ional o ge ing.
Secondly, he pape se s ou an empi ical s udy based on he analysis o wo cases in he ield
o uni e si y educa ion. As a esul o his s udy, we p opose a ca ego iza ion o ou ypes o
o ganiza ional o ge ing based on he codi iabili y o knowledge (Zande and Kogu , 1995)
and he in en ionali y o he o ge ing p ocess (Ma in and Phillips, 2003). Finally, he esul s
o ou esea ch p o ide a se o p oposi ions ha may explain he possible causes o
o ganiza ional o ge ing.
Theo e ical amewo k
Knowledge s ocks and lows
O ganiza ional knowledge may be concep ualized as s ocks o knowledge and lows o
knowledge o in o ma ion (Die ickx and Cool, 1989; DeCa olis and Deeds, 1999). This
concep is based pa ly on p io esea ch in o in o ma ion p ocessing and o ganiza ional
design (e.g. Galb ai h, 1973). Since hen, bo h elemen s (s ocks and lows o knowledge) ha e
been cen al issues in nume ous esea ch a eas, such as he esou ce-based iew (Ba ney
2001), he examina ion o capabili ies (Eisenha d and Ma in, 2000; Zande and Kogu ,
1995), he in o ma ion iew o new p oduc de elopmen (Ancona and Caldwell, 1992) and
o ganiza ional lea ning (Bon is, C ossan and Hulland, 2002; Hube , 1991).
S ocks o knowledge a e desc ibed as he accumula ion o knowledge asse s wi hin a i m,
while lows o knowledge ep esen he s eams o knowledge ha mo e be ween di e en
pa s o a i m, o be ween ex e nal agen s and he i m, and ha can be assimila ed and
ans o med in o s ocks o knowledge (DeCa olis and Deeds, 1999). The e a e al e na i e
de ini ions o he concep o knowledge low, such as hose pu o wa d by Da , A go e and
Epple (1995), Szulanski (1996) and Schulz (2001), al hough hey all link he low o
knowledge o he mo emen and use o he s ock o knowledge. Flows o knowledge ha e
been classi ied as (1) ho izon al o e ical (Gup a and Go inda ajan, 2000; Schulz, 2001); (2)
in e nal o ex e nal (Ky iakopoulos and Ruy e , 2004); and (3) inpu o ou pu (Gup a and
Go inda ajan, 2000).
Die ickx and Cool (1989) in oduced a di e en classi ica ion o knowledge lows using he
ba h ub me apho . Acco ding o his example, he s ock o wa e is indica ed by he le el o
wa e in he ub and i s le el will depend on he lows o wa e in o he ub ( h ough he ap)
and he lows o wa e ou o he ub ( h ough a leak). Using his me apho , Die ickx and Cool
(1989) posi ha a i m’s s ock o knowledge can be inc eased by lows o addi ional
knowledge o diminished by dep ecia ing knowledge lows, ha is, lows o o ganiza ional
o ge ing.
O ganiza ional o ge ing
O ganiza ional o ge ing has been de ined as he in en ional o unin en ional loss o
o ganiza ional knowledge a any le el (Ma in and Phillips, 2003). The ea lies con ibu ions
by Wickelg en (1976) and Ande son (1985) we e de eloped in he a ea o ope a ions and
based on he s udy o he deg ada ion o knowledge due o in e up ions in he p oduc ion
p ocess. In he ield o o ganiza ion heo y, esea che s de eloped he concep o unlea ning
as an in en ional p ocess o disca ding obsole e and misleading knowledge (Hedbe g, 1981:3).
O he au ho s conside ed unlea ning as a equi ed p ocess o e ase domina ing ideas in o de
o become ecep i e o new ones. “Be o e o ganiza ions will y new ideas, hey mus unlea n
old ones by disco e ing hei inadequacies and hen disca ding hem” (Nys om and S a buck,
1984: 53). Following hese ini ial con ibu ions, o ganiza ional o ge ing has been s udied
mainly om wo s andpoin s. The i s s andpoin sees acciden al o unwan ed o ge ing as a
deg ada ion o he s ocks o o ganiza ional knowledge. The second s andpoin conside s
o ge ing as an in en ional p ocess o unlea ning p eceding o ganiza ional lea ning.
In he i s academic s eam, he esea ch ca ied ou by Smun and Mo on (1985) and Smun
(1987) easse ed ha he “ o ge ing” o he dep ecia ion o knowledge has a - eaching
implica ions on p oduc ion p og amming and planning. The quan i a i e s udy by A go e,
Beckman and Epple (1990) on he modelling o lea ning cu es b oke wi h he assump ion

ha expe ience accumula ed inde ini ely (assessed as accumula ed uni s p oduced), and
con i med empi ically ha knowledge acqui ed in p oduc ion dep ecia es quickly. La e
esea ch has quan i ied he alue o he dep ecia ion o knowledge in p oduc ion, wi h widely
a ying esul s. Da , A go e and Epple (1995) concluded ha jus 47.4% o he s ock o
knowledge a he beginning o he mon h was main ained a he end o he mon h in pizza
anchises. Epple, A go e and Mu phy (1996) ga e simila esul s in he au omo i e indus y.
Benka d (2000) ound ha 61% o he s ock o expe ience o a i m ha manu ac u ed
ai planes was e ained in he cou se o one yea . O he expe ien ial s udies in he au omo i e
indus y analysed longi udinally he lea ning esul s o imp o emen p og ammes (Ca mona
and G önlund, 1998). They ound ha eams ini ial lea ning was suppo ed by in insic
mo i a ion bu when i disappea ed, o ganiza ional lea ning became o ganiza ional o ge ing.
The o e all conclusion was ha o ge ing has a nega i e impac on p oduc ion capaci y,
p oduc i i y o p oduc quali y and ha i should he e o e be p e en ed.
By con as , he second academic s eam examines in en ional o ge ing as a p elimina y s ep
o o ganiza ional lea ning: “lea ning o en canno occu un il a e he e has been unlea ning”
(S a buck, 1996). This iew a gues ha ce ain ou ines, ules, asks, oles, policies, alues
and s a egies need o be o go en be o e new o ganiza ional knowledge can be acqui ed and
assimila ed (Lei, Slocum and Pi s, 1999). Fo ge ing is hus iewed as a necessa y p ocess o
he managemen o change (Akgün e al., 2007). Acco ding o Ma in and Phillips (2003), he
o ge ing p ocess is jus as impo an as he o ganiza ional lea ning p ocess o achie ing a
sus ainable compe i i e ad an age. Se e al ways o o ge ing in en ionally we e desc ibed in
p e ious s udies. Nys om and S a buck (1984: 58) sugges ha he way o unlea n du ing an
o ganiza ional c isis is by emo ing op manage s as a g oup. This is because op manage s
a e bols e ed by p e ious successes and adaman ly cling o hei belie s and pe cep ions
he e o e a ionalizing hei o ganiza ions’ ailu es. Change in owne ship is o en ano he
igge o o ge ing (Ma koczy, 1994). When an o ganiza ion is acqui ed by ano he , some
es uc u ing in he acqui ed company akes place in o de o align i s ou ines and p ocesses.
Finally, Ma in and Phillips (2004), desc ibe pu pose ul modes o o ganiza ional o ge ing
ela ed o in e na ional alliances in he ou ism indus y. In his ield esea ch he au ho s
desc ibe se e al examples o olun a y o ge ing di ec ly ansc ibed om in e iews.
Me hodology
Theo y-building esea ch using cases ypically answe s esea ch ques ions ha add ess “how”
and “why” in unexplo ed esea ch a eas. To de e mine he impac o o ganiza ional o ge ing
and he ci cums ances in which his akes place, we used quali a i e da a due o i s abili y o
explica e he complex social p ocesses in ol ed. Mul iple cases c ea e mo e obus heo y
because he p oposi ions a e mo e deeply g ounded in a ied empi ical e idence (Eisenha d
and G aebne , 2007). To his end, we p oposed an explo a o y s udy based on wo case
s udies in Highe Educa ion in ol ing si ua ions o o ganiza ional o ge ing.
The cases consis o a longi udinal s udy o wo Enginee ing deg ee subjec s, which we e
augh a a Eu opean Public Uni e si y. These subjec s we e selec ed o hei ep esen a ion
in he deg ee, o he easy access o he s a ha de eloped hese subjec s and o he la ge
amoun o seconda y sou ces o in o ma ion ha hey o e ed. Subjec A was a compulso y
subjec wo h 4.5 c edi s (45 class hou s) aken du ing he i s yea o an Enginee ing deg ee
cou se, augh on a semi-dis ance basis du ing he all semes e . Subjec B was a compulso y
subjec wo h 6 c edi s (60 class hou s) aken du ing he second yea o an Enginee ing
cou se, which was augh on a ace- o- ace basis du ing he sp ing semes e . Bo h subjec s
in ol ed 8 lec u e s and a housand o s uden s du ing he esea ch pe iod. The da a we e
ga he ed in he las semes e o 2006 and cen ed in he o ge ing p ocesses ha had aken
place om hei c ea ion in 1998 o 2006.
The in o ma ion equi ed o ca y ou a s udy o his na u e was no eadily a ailable om
seconda y sou ces. We he e o e collec ed in o ma ion om p ima y sou ces h ough se e al
ocused in e iews on di e en in e es g oups. Be o e collec ing hese da a, we analyzed
some seconda y in o ma ion sou ces (e.g. he lec u e assignmen ables and he cou se
guides) in o de o iden i y e e yone ha had been in ol ed in he wo cases du ing he
esea ch pe iod. Mo eo e , we ca ied ou wo pilo in e iews o an open-ended na u e wi h a
coo dina o and a lec u e which allowed us o build he s uc u e and he main opics o he
in e iews ( he s a , eaching ma e ials, s uden s, me hodologies used, he lea ning ools, and
he equi ed knowledge o ca y ou he cou se) and a se o ques ions o he ollowing
in e iews. Bo h esponden s also sugges ed o he people o in e iew (e.g. o me
coo dina o s and some speci ic s uden s and he Vice-P esiden o Academic Inno a ion),
and some o he seconda y sou ces o e idence (e.g. documen a ion abou s uden s’
complain s). The ollowing in e iews we e pe sonal and p i a e, ollowing a semi-s uc u ed
sc ip , whe e we asked hem o a sho pe iod o ime – a ound an hou – abou he e olu ion
and he de elopmen o he subjec acco ding o he p e ious opics, as well as hei opinions
abou hese e en s. To inc ease he eliabili y o in e iews and obse a ional e idence, bo h
au ho s ca ied ou he in e iews oge he . Finally, we in e iewed wel e lec u e s and
p o esso s in ol ed in bo h cases du ing he analyzed pe iod, ou cou se coo dina o s, he
Vice-P esiden o Academic Inno a ion and a sample o selec ed s uden s acco ding o some
lec u e s' sugges ions. In some cases, we had o in e iew in o man s on se e al occasions due
o con lic ing e en s (e.g. he easons o modi ying some cou se eaching ma e ials) and new
e en s ha we iden i ied a e he i s in e iew (e.g. ime dedica ed o p epa e a session). We
ealized ha some in o man s had no de ec ed loss o knowledge up o he in e iew due o
he ac ha hey had no conside ed i be o e.
We collabo a ed in e iews da a wi h in o ma ion om o he seconda y sou ces in o de o
a oid bias, poo ecall and poo o inaccu a e a icula ion. Mo eo e , hese seconda y sou ces
allowed us o complemen , o some deg ee, he lack o in o ma ion ob ained om he
in e iews (e.g. some changes in cou se eaching ma e ials). Finally, we ga he ed in o ma ion
om he ollowing his o ical documen s: eaching guides, cou se guides, cou se e alua ion
ques ionnai es, lec u e s assigna ion ables, s uden s’ complain s, slide collec ions and
eaching handbooks. These documen s allowed us o iden i y, mainly, changes in eaching
ma e ials and he goals o he subjec s (e.g. a new e sion o he ex book and new opics in
he cou se con en s). These seconda y sou ces o in o ma ion we e used o iangula e he
alidi y o ou indings (Eisenha d , 1989).
Analysis
We ga he ed a huge amoun o da a om he p e ious in o ma ion sou ces, so we educed and
p ocessed i ollowing he s a egies p oposed by Miles and Hube man (1994). The educ ion
o he da a was made by means o successi e codi ica ions o he collec ed da a om he
in e iews and he his o ical ma e ials. This codi ica ion pe mi ed us o educe his la ge
amoun o da a in o a smalle numbe o analy ic uni s. The p ocess used o educe he da a
ollowed a wo-le el schema. Fi s ly, we buil a gene al accoun ing scheme o codes in o de
o s uc u e he ga he ed da a. This scheme, which ollowed he sugges ions o Lo land
(1971), was made up by ac s (e.g. change o he ex book), ac i i ies (e.g. eaching
me hodologies), meanings (e.g. commen s abou he esul s o he cou se), pa icipa ion (e.g.
s uden s and eache s’ beha iou ), ela ionships (e.g. wo king a mosphe e), se ings (e.g. kind
codi ied knowledge. The use o new s anda d p ocedu es is an example o his ype o
o ganiza ional o ge ing. I in ol es he elimina ion o old p ocedu e handbooks (no mally
codi ied on pape ) and hei eplacemen by new p ocedu e handbooks. A pa o he
o ganiza ion’s s ock o codi ied knowledge mus be elimina ed o in oduce a new s ock o
knowledge. Examples o he i s ype o o ge ing in he case s udies a e change o
eplacemen o eaching ma e ials like ex book, case s udies, slides and p esen a ions,
decided o be eplaced o upda ed by lec u e s.
The second ype o o ganiza ional o ge ing comp ises he unin en ional loss o he s ock o
codi ied knowledge. Examples o his ype o o ge ing would be he loss o documen s in a
compu e by mis ake o b eakdowns, o he loss o pa o he codi ied knowledge held by
employees when hey a e dismissed. In he i s case, he w i en o codi ied documen s a e
los due o easons beyond he o ganiza ion’s con ol. Howe e , in he second example a
decision ela ing o people managemen indi ec ly in ol es he loss o codi ied knowledge
ha employees may ha e had on hei compu e s o iles, and which hey had no ye sha ed
wi h hei ellow wo ke s. While he i s example o a loss o he s ock o knowledge is due
o a ci cums ance beyond he lec u e ’s con ol (e.g. closu e o a eaching in ane and
opening o a new one due o a new so wa e policy, and he eplacemen o old eaching
ma e ials o adap o he cha ac e is ics o he new in ane ), in he second example he loss o
he s ock o knowledge was caused by a publishe decision o eplace he ex book wi h a new
edi ion. Examples in his ca ego y a e he loss o eaching ma e ials and lea ning ools
( eaching in ane ) imposed by ou side s o by o me lec u e s who le he subjec wi hou
ha ing sha ed hei codi ied esou ces.
The in en ional loss o a s ock o non-codi ied knowledge is he hi d ype o o ganiza ional

o ge ing. An example o his ype o o ganiza ional o ge ing occu s in o ganiza ions in
which an a emp is made o change he co po a e cul u e; o example, by inc easing he
deg ee o employee in ol emen . In hese si ua ions, wo ke s ha e ce ain belie s as o hei
ole in he o ganiza ion ha a e e lec ed in hei conduc and in ce ain o ganiza ional
ou ines. This conduc and hese ou ines a e no de ined o codi ied in any o m and he e o e
hey a e di icul o iden i y. Howe e , in o de o a ain a mo e pa icipa o y cul u e, exis ing
belie s and ou ines mus be elimina ed, so ha hey can be eplaced by new belie s, new
conduc s and new o ganiza ional ou ines. Examples o he hi d ype o o ge ing in he case
s udies a e he e olu iona y changes in me hodologies and lec u e s skills o imp o e he
subjec s.
Las ly, he ou h ype o o ganiza ional o ge ing in ol es he unin en ional loss o a s ock
o non-codi ied knowledge. In his si ua ion, aca ion pe iods o he esigna ion o a
salespe son om an o ganiza ion may in ol e his ype o o ganiza ional o ge ing. Wo ke s
on p oduc ion lines acqui e habi s and ou ines h ough daily expe ience ha allow hem o
imp o e hei pe o mance; howe e , aca ion pe iods esul in a educ ion o ha non-
codi ied knowledge and, consequen ly, a poo e pe o mance by wo ke s e u ning om hei
aca ions. The esigna ion by a salespe son also in ol es a loss o non-codi ied knowledge,
since he salespe son may be amilia wi h ce ain peculia i ies abou cus ome s ha a e no
eco ded in any documen and, consequen ly, a o me salespe son may be mo e e icien han
a new salespe son who lacks his knowledge. We also ound se e al examples o his ca ego y
in he case s udies. Some echnical knowledge, p ocesses, ou ines, skills and me hodologies
embodied in lec u e s, we e los in unexpec ed si ua ions. Fo example, when a lec u e o a
coo dina o le he subjec unexpec edly hey ook hei knowledge wi h hem. Mo eo e ,
when he eaching eam emains, knowledge seemed o deg ade and lec u e s had o de o e a
lo o ime o eco e los knowledge h ough p epa ing sessions and emembe ing wha hey
ha e augh be o e. In addi ion, changes in he ex e nal en i onmen u ned some knowledge
o eaching skills obsole e and lec u e s had o adap o he new si ua ion, and o ge p e ious
ways o pe o ming.
Resul s and discussion
In o de o ca y ou a gene ali ion o ex apola ion, we de eloped a se o p oposi ions om
he empi ical esul s o he wo case s udies and he exis ing li e a u e on o ganiza ional
o ge ing. I ’s necessa y o men ion ha ou goal was no o make an in e ence abou a
popula ion (o uni e se), bu o make gene aliza ions o heo e ical p oposi ions (Yin, 2003).
We p esen hese p oposi ions in he ollowing pa ag aphs.
Se e al examples o o ganiza ional o ge ing show ha in e nal inno a ion (inno a ion
d i en by agen s who belong o he amewo k o analysis) is one o he main ac o s leading
o he in en ional loss o s ocks o codi ied in o ma ion. The eplacemen o all o a pa o he
eaching ma e ials o upda e he speci ic echnical knowledge on he cou se (OF5, OF13,
OF15 and OF16) o o educe he dispe sion o eaching ma e ials (OF17) a e examples o
inno a ion ini ia ed and managed by he lec u e s eaching he subjec .
P oposi ion 1a: The p ocess o in en ional o ge ing o codi ied knowledge is se in
mo ion by he p esence o in e nal inno a ion.
Ano he ac o causing he in en ional loss o s ocks o codi ied knowledge is he
obsolescence o knowledge. Fo example, he p ess a icles used in Subjec B (OF14) we e
disca ded because hey we e no longe up- o-da e and, consequen ly, could no ul il hei
pu pose, which was o show how he con en o he subjec could be used o explain he
e en s occu ing in socie y a he ime. F om he s andpoin o he academic yea , he p ojec s
and p esen a ions submi ed by he s uden s we e also disca ded (OF19) a he end o he yea ,
since hei pu pose was o he s uden s o lea n while p epa ing he ma e ials a he han
gaining om he esul s hemsel es.
P oposi ion 1b: The p ocess o in en ional o ge ing o codi ied knowledge is se in
mo ion by he obsolescence o he knowledge.
As ound in he p eceding si ua ion, one o he main ac o s leading o he unin en ional loss
o a s ock o codi ied knowledge is inno a ion, al hough in his case i was ini ia ed om
ou side he amewo k o analysis. We ha e gi en h ee examples o o ganiza ional o ge ing
ha e lec his ac (OF8, OF10 and OF18) in he cases analyzed. The eplacemen o he
eaching in ane (a decision aken om ou side he cou se) led o he eplacemen o pa o
he eaching ma e ials in use due o hei incompa ibili y wi h he o me in ane . In Subjec
B, he ex book was eplaced because a new e sion had been published.
P oposi ion 2a: The p ocess o unin en ional o ge ing o codi ied knowledge is se in
mo ion by he p esence o inno a ion om ou side.
In Subjec A, he unplanned depa u e o he coo dina o caused he loss o all he eaching
ma e ials used o he cou se (OF4) because he only copy o hese ma e ials exis ed on he
coo dina o ’s compu e , o which he eplacemen did no ha e access. The ac ha all he
eaching ma e ials we e loca ed in jus one place mean ha a small change ga e ise o loss
o he ull s ock o knowledge in he o m o eaching ma e ials and he need o gene a e his
ull s ock knowledge once again om sc a ch. The e o e, he unin en ional loss o a codi ied
s ock o knowledge is sensi i e o he e ec i eness o he o ganiza ional memo y (Oli e a,
2000).
P oposi ion 2b: The p ocess o unin en ional o ge ing o codi ied knowledge is se in
mo ion by he loss o he eposi o y o he s ock o knowledge i i is highly
cen alized.
The main cause o he in en ional loss o a s ock o non-codi ied knowledge is he deg ee o
in e nal inno a ion, acco ding o he cases s udied. Two examples o o ganiza ional o ge ing
con i m his asse ion (OF1 and OF12), and bo h a e ela ed o changes in he eaching
me hodology due o in e nal decisions ha a ec each o he cou ses. Gi en he semi-dis ance
na u e o Subjec A, he coo dina o decided o eplace class oom eaching skills wi h o he
skills o adap he s uden s’ lea ning p ocess o he cha ac e is ics o he cou se. In he o he
case, he changes made o he eaching me hodology o Subje B led o he eplacemen o
ce ain lec u ing skills (2002–03 academic yea ) and ce ain pa icipa ion skills (2005–06
academic yea ) as a esul o an in e nal change o he cou se coo dina o .
P oposi ion 3: The p ocess o he in en ional o ge ing o non-codi ied knowledge is
se in mo ion by he p esence o in e nal inno a ion.
The inno a ion, ini ia ed by he uni e si y, which in ol ed eplacing he eaching in ane ,
mean ha he eaching skills de eloped up un il ha ime had o be eplaced by new eaching
skills based on g oup lea ning (OF9) in Subjec A. In his case, he inno a ion is conside ed
ex e nal o he cou se because he decision was aken wi hou he pa icipa ion o i s agen s.
On he basis o his example, we adduce ha ex e nal inno a ion is a cause o he
unin en ional loss o he s ock o non-codi ied knowledge, whe e he eaching skills ha we e
eplaced ep esen his s ock o knowledge.
P oposi ion 4a: This p ocess o he unin en ional o ge ing o non-codi ied
knowledge is se in mo ion by he p esence o ex e nal inno a ion.
Ano he cause o he unin en ional loss o a s ock o non-codi ied knowledge occu s when
his knowledge is loca ed in jus one pe son who lea es he o ganiza ion. The skills ela ing o
he managemen o Subjec A (OF3) we e los due o he unplanned depa u e o i s
coo dina o and he loss o he speci ic echnical knowledge embodied in he coo dina o s and
lec u e s o he wo cases s udied (OF2 and OF11).
P oposi ion 4b: The p ocess o unin en ional o ge ing o non-codi ied knowledge is
se in mo ion by he pe son who embodies ha knowledge on lea ing he o ganiza ion,
i he s ock o knowledge is highly cen alized.
Two examples o o ganiza ional o ge ing show ha he epe i ion equency in he use o
knowledge is a possible cause o he unin en ional loss o a s ock o non-codi ied knowledge.
The excessi e ime spen p epa ing class oom sessions (OF6) due o he ac ha hey a e
epea ed only once yea ly helps o illus a e his ac . We can assume ha in si ua ions in
which a class o explana ion mus be epea ed se e al imes o e a sho pe iod, he
p epa a ion ime will g adually dec ease. The ongoing non-imp o emen o class oom
sessions in Subjec A (OF7) is ano he example ha upholds his p oposi ion. In his case, he
lea ning achie ed by a lec u e in a class oom session had no e ec on he ollowing

academic yea , since his knowledge de e io a ed o e ime. The solu ion a i ed a by he
coo dina o was o con e i in o codi ied knowledge by means o eco d shee s, so ha i s
in equen use would no con ibu e o i s loss.
P oposi ion 4c: The p ocess o he unin en ional o ge ing o non-codi ied knowledge
is se in mo ion by a low equency o epe i ion in he use o he knowledge.
Table II: P oposi ions on he causes o o ganiza ional o ge ing
In en ional Unin en ional
Codi ied P op.1a: In e nal inno a ion
P op.1b: Obsolescence o
knowledge
P op.2a: Ex e nal inno a ion
P op.2b: Loss o a knowledge
eposi o y
Non-
codi ied
P op.3: In e nal inno a ion P op.4a: Ex e nal inno a ion
P op.4b: Pe sons who embody
he knowledge lea e he
o ganiza ion
P op.4c: Low equency o use
Conclusions
Ou esea ch is based on he p emise ha he s ock o knowledge held by o ganiza ions is in a
s a e o ongoing change a he han an inc easing esou ce. F om a heo e ical s andpoin , his
change can be a ibu ed, on he one hand, o lows o lea ning ha inc ease he s ock o
knowledge and, on he o he hand, o lows o o ge ing ha educe he s ock o knowledge.
The p e ious li e a u e has de ined he concep o o ganiza ional unlea ning (e.g. Hedbe g,
1981) and o ganiza ional o ge ing (e.g. Smun , 1987); some au ho s ha e e en a emp ed o
uni y hese wo ini ial academic ends (e.g. Ma in de Holan and Phillips, 2004). I has also
desc ibed di e en examples and ways o o ge a an o ganiza ional le el (e.g. Ca mona and
G önlund, 1998; Nys om and S a buck, 1984). Finally, some s udies ha e quan i ied he
amoun o los knowledge h ough o ge ing cu es (e.g. Da , A go e and Epple, 1995).
Howe e , he exis ing li e a u e has paid li le a en ion o he causes o o ganiza ional
o ge ing, as he low numbe o longi udinal ield s udies show. In o de o iden i y and
classi y he causes o o ganiza ional o ge ing, we ha e ca ied ou an empi ical s udy in
highe educa ion. This s udy p esen s an in eg a ed amewo k ha gi es ise o a se o
p oposi ions abou he causes o o ganiza ional o ge ing.
On he basis o ou analysis, we conclude ha o ge ing is closely ela ed o inno a ion.
When inno a ion is in e nal, he ype o o ge ing gene a ed will be in en ional, since he
speci ic pu pose o inno a ion is o abandon he use o p io knowledge. The quan i y o
knowledge ha is enewed is de e mined by he speed o inno a ion. This speed can be slow
i he in en ion is an exploi a ion o he s ock o knowledge, o as i he in en ion is o gi e
p io i y o he explo a ion o new knowledge. In bo h case s udies, we obse ed ha he speed
o inno a ion in Highe Educa ion depends on he coo dina o o he subjec . In o he
con ex s, his dependence would co espond o he eam leade .
When inno a ion is ex e nal, he ype o o ge ing gene a ed will be unin en ional. This is he
case wi h a ype o inno a ion ha is no managed in e nally by he empi ical amewo k, bu
ins ead imposed om ou side. The a i ude o he agen s in ol ed in an ex e nal inno a ion
can be p oac i e o eac i e. In he analyzed cases, when he a i ude was p oac i e, he agen s
adop ed he inno a ion and gene a ed a majo o ge ing and subsequen lea ning. When he
a i ude was eac i e, he agen s ied o o ge he minimal s ock o exis ing knowledge,
adap ing pa ially o he inno a ion, and unde used i .
In addi ion o ex e nal inno a ion, he loss o he knowledge eposi o y and he in equen use
o knowledge a e iden i ied as o he causes o unin en ional o ge ing. The na u e o he
knowledge eposi o y will di e , depending on whe he he s ock o knowledge is codi ied
(e.g. a compu e ile o w i en documen ) o non-codi ied (e.g. employees o o ganiza ional
ou ines). The in e iewees e alua ed he cos o o ge ing caused by he o a ion o a lec u e
in wo academic yea s. In addi ion, i was obse ed in ou esea ch ha i he pe son who
lea es he cou se is he coo dina o o eam leade , he speed o in e nal inno a ion is also
a ec ed.
The possible limi a ions o ou wo k, gi en i s na u e as a piece o induc i e esea ch, a e
mainly connec ed o he ac ha a small numbe o cases we e s udied. Wi h he aim o
enhancing he ma u a ion o he esea ch, we selec ed wo case s udies, which epo ed
nine een pieces o e idence, belonging o he same o ganiza ion. To esol e his limi a ion,
we sugges ha he s udy sample be b oadened o include o he empi ical amewo ks and
o he business ac i i ies. In addi ion, i is impo an o highligh ha he e is no o ge ing
in ol ed in all change p ocesses. We ound some examples o change whe e o ge ing did
no ake place (e.g. in oduc ion o podcas ing in subjec A); howe e , we did no men ion i
because ou s udy has ocused only on ac s ela ed o o ganiza ional o ge ing.
Fu u e lines o esea ch could make use o he esul s in his pape o in es iga e some
unanswe ed ques ions abou o ganiza ional o ge ing. Fo example, wha is he knowledge
li e cycle like? Which s a egies o o ganiza ional o ge ing make sense in a p ocess o
o ganiza ional change? Which ac ions may be aken o o ge selec i ely? Wha is he cos o
unin en ional o ge ing? These esea ch ques ions seem o us o be su icien ly sugges i e as
much in he academic con ex as in business.
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