Traditional and modern methods of construction: comparative study of the sustainability of single-family homes

ARTICLE
T adi ional and mode n me hods o cons uc ion:
Compa a i e s udy o he sus ainabili y o
single- amily homes
I ene Josa
1
| Albe de la Fuen e
2
1
The Ba le School o Sus ainable
Cons uc ion, Uni e si y College London
(UCL), London, UK
2
Depa men o Ci il & En i onmen al
Enginee ing, Uni e si a Poli ècnica de
Ca alunya (UPC), Ba celona, Spain
Co espondence
Albe de la Fuen e, Depa men o
Ci il & En i onmen al Enginee ing,
Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca alunya
(UPC), Ba celona, Spain.
Email: albe .de.la. uen [email protected]
Abs ac
Mode n cons uc ion me hods, such as addi i e manu ac u ing, a e aimed o
enhance he e iciency and quali y o cons uc ion p ocesses while po en ially
educing was e gene a ion and ma e ial use, hus con ibu ing o sus ainabili y
pe o mance (SP). Howe e , comp ehensi ely unde s anding he sus ainabili y
ade-o s associa ed wi h hese me hods is c ucial o guiding bo h esea ch and
p ac ical applica ions owa d sus ainable de elopmen . This s udy aims a quan i-
ying he SP o a ious cons uc ion me hods o housing, including adi ional,
p e ab ica ed, and addi i e manu ac u ing app oaches. A sus ainabili y index,
in eg a ing economic, en i onmen al, social, and echnological c i e ia, is u ilized
o assess di e en al e na i es. Findings e eal p omising aspec s o 3D p in ing
echnologies, such as po en ial cos educ ions h ough scale inc ease and p ocess
op imiza ion, minimized ma e ial was e gene a ion, c ea ion o skilled employ-
men oppo uni ies, and enhanced cons uc ion lexibili y and ease. Ne e heless,
challenges pe sis , no ably signi ican g eenhouse gas emissions and limi ed
supplie a ailabili y. Add essing hese challenges is impe a i e o ad ancing
he sus ainable implemen a ion o addi i e manu ac u ing in cons uc ion.
KEYWORDS
economic impac , en i onmen al impac , housing, LCA, social impac , sus ainabili y,
sus ainable de elopmen
1|INTRODUCTION
The cons uc ion indus y is unde going a ans o ma i e
phase wi h he ad en o mode n echnologies, such as he
eme gence o conc e e 3D p in ing in cons uc ion.
1,2
The
abili y o ab ica e complex s uc u es laye by laye is chal-
lenging adi ional me hods and is a ac ing in e es due o
i s po en ial o e olu ionize he cons uc ion landscape.
The use o conc e e 3D p in ing in he cons uc ion
sec o has been popula in di e en applica ions, includ-
ing cons uc ion elemen s, o mwo ks and on-si e s uc-
u es.
3
One pa icula ly p omising applica ion is 3D
conc e e p in ing o houses. Pionee ing p ojec s ha e
al eady demons a ed he easibili y o his echnology,
wi h s uc u es like he wo ld's alles 3D-p in ed build-
ing in Riyadh,
4
wi h a heigh o 9.9 m.
Recei ed: 17 June 2024 Re ised: 17 Sep embe 2024 Accep ed: 21 Oc obe 2024
DOI: 10.1002/suco.202400802
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed and is no used o comme cial pu poses.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). S uc u al Conc e e published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o In e na ional Fede a ion o S uc u al Conc e e.
S uc u al Conc e e. 2024;1–19. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/suco 1
Howe e , 3D conc e e p in ing o houses is s ill in i s
ea ly s ages. Technical limi a ions emain, such as he
need o ein o cemen which can complica e he p in -
ing p ocess and educe o e all e iciency.
3
Addi ionally, a
lack o s anda dized egula ions and he ini ial high cos s
associa ed wi h his eme ging echnology pose challenges
o widesp ead adop ion in he cons uc ion ma ke .
5
As socie ies con on he u gen need o sus ainable
de elopmen , he cons uc ion sec o is compelled o eassess
i s me hods and ma e ials. Sus ainabili y in cons uc ion
ex ends beyond me ely en i onmen al conside a ions. To
ensu e posi i e impac s and a oid unin ended consequences,
aholis icapp oachisimpe a i e. This necessi a es a comp e-
hensi e e alua ion encompassing economic e iciency, en i-
onmen al impac , social implica ions, and echnological
aspec s. A nuanced unde s anding o hese dimensions can
help make in o med decisions ha balance he need o p o-
g ess wi h he impe a i e o sus ainabili y.
A he same ime, adi ional me hods such as s eel
s uc u es and in-si u conc e e con inue o be equen ly
used as hey demons a e p o en eliabili y and economic
easibili y.
6,7
In his con ex , and ecognizing he complexi y o sus-
ainabili y in cons uc ion, mul i-c i e ia e alua ion
me hodologies a e use ul o in eg a e se e al pa ame e s
(e.g., economic, en i onmen al, and social) in o a single
assessmen . Un il he p esen , se e al such me hodolo-
gies ha e been de eloped, including he In eg a ed Value
Me hod o he Assessmen o Sus ainabili y (MIVES).
MIVES has been applied as a mul iple-c i e ia decision-
making ool in a ious ields like buildings and
s uc u es,
8–10
unnels,
11,12
elec ici y gene a ion
sys ems,
13
and pos -disas e housing managemen .
14
No ably, MIVES has also been employed o e alua e he
sus ainabili y o 3D-p in ed s uc u es.
5
In ligh o he abo e, he objec i e o his s udy is o
assess he sus ainabili y o 3D-p in ed conc e e housing
al e na i es in compa ison o adi ional and p e ab ica ed
cons uc ion me hods. Th ough a mul i-c i e ia analysis
based on economic, en i onmen al, social, and echnologi-
cal conside a ions, he a icle discusses he ad an ages and
disad an ages o 3D-p in ed conc e e housing, adi ional
me hods, and p e ab ica ed cons uc ion. The s udy's ind-
ings hold he po en ial o in o m indus y p ac ices, guide
policy decisions, and con ibu e o he ongoing discou se
on sus ainable cons uc ion p ac ices.
2|MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 |MIVES
The me hodology employed in his s udy is MIVES.
15,16
MIVES is a mul ic i e ia decision-making me hodology ha
allows o he es ima ion o he sus ainabili y index (SI) o
each o he al e na i es o a de ined gene ic p oblem. Wi hin
his me hodology, o ob ain he SI o each al e na i e, a
decision ee is de eloped which is usually s uc u ed in
h ee le els— equi emen s, c i e ia, and indica o s. These
le els ange om mos gene ic o mos speci ic, being he
las le el (i.e., indica o s) he i ems ha a e quan i ied. Indi-
ca o s a e selec ed in such a way ha hey a e ep esen a i e
o he sys ems assessed and independen o each o he .
In MIVES, indica o s a e hen no malized using alue
unc ions, which con e indica o alues in o a 0- o-1
scale. These unc ions ha e i e adjus able pa ame e s
ha con ol how sensi i e hey a e o di e en pa s o
he indica o 's da a dis ibu ion. The indica o s com-
monly used o his ype o sus ainabili y analysis and
decision-making p ocesses a e modeled by means o con-
ca e, con ex, linea , and S-shaped cu es.
The unc ion is de ined by i e key pa ame e s (X
min
,
X
max
,C
i
,K
i
,P
i
) de ailed in Equa ion (1).
Vind ¼B1exp Ki
XiXmin
jj
Ci

Pi
!"#
,ð1Þ
In his equa ion, X
min
ep esen s he minimum alue
possible o he indica o s being e alua ed; X
i
e e s o
he speci ic alue o he indica o being assessed; C
i
is a
pa ame e ha app oxima es he x-coo dina e (abscissa)
o he unc ion's in lec ion poin ; K
i
is a alue ha in lu-
ences he unc ion's beha io nea he in lec ion poin ,
ending owa d a speci ic alue; and P
i
is a “shape ac o ”
ha de e mines he cu e's shape. I is less han 1 o
conca e cu es, g ea e han 1 o con ex, equal o
1 o linea , and has a mo e complex beha io o
S-shapes (see Re e ence [16]). Las ly, he pa ame e B
helps no malize he indica o alue wi hin he 0- o-1
ange o he inal ou pu , as shown in Equa ion (2).
B¼1exp Ki
Xmax Xmin
jj
Ci

Pi
!"#
1
:ð2Þ
Once indica o s ha e been no malized, each b anch
o he ee is agg ega ed using weigh s.
2.2 |Decision-making model
The h ee essen ial equi emen s commonly associa ed
wi h sus ainabili y a e economic, en i onmen al, and
social impac s. In he case o he p esen s udy, in addi-
ion o hese h ee aspec s, he echnological componen
is also conside ed o in eg a e and conside aspec s
ela ed o inno a ion, lexibili y, and o he ele an
2JOSA and DE LA FUENTE
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ac o s associa ed wi h each echnology ha impac
decision-making. No e ha his app oach has been
ecommended in cases whe e echnologies assessed a e
newly de eloped o eme ging and di e conside ably
om he adi ional cons uc ion (see, o ins ance, Re e -
ence [5]), bu is no necessa ily equi ed in all sus ain-
abili y assessmen s. Thus, he ee is o med by ou main
equi emen s (R). These equi emen s a e di ided in o
eigh c i e ia (C) and 14 indica o s (I).
Fo his s udy, he decision-making ee de eloped
oge he wi h i s componen s is p esen ed in Tables 1and
2, p esen s he alue unc ions assigned o each indica o .
Complemen a ily o Table 2, Figu e A1 in he appendix
shows he shapes o each alue unc ion.
The de ini ion o he indica o s and he shapes o he
assigned alue unc ions was based on li e a u e in s ud-
ies o simila na u e (i.e., compa ison o a 3D-p in ed o
inno a i e al e na i e wi h mo e adi ional cons uc ion
TABLE 1 Decision-making ee.
Requi emen s C i e ia Indica o s
R
1
Economic 25% C
1
Cos s 100% I
1
P oduc ion and assembly cos 50%
I
2
Main enance cos 50%
R
2
En i onmen al 25% C
2
Emissions 50% I
3
G eenhouse gas emissions 100%
C
3
Resou ce consump ion 50% I
4
Ene gy consump ion 50%
I
5
Ma e ial consump ion 50%
R
3
Social 25% C
4
Inno a ion 33% I
6
Gene a ion o skilled jobs 50%
I
7
B and bene i s 50%
C
5
Wo king condi ions 33% I
8
Occupa ional Risk Index (ORI) 50%
I
9
Employmen gene a ion 50%
C
6
Thi d-pa y e ec s 33% I
10
Local nuisance 100%
R
4
Technological 25% C
7
Adap abili y 25% I
11
Design lexibili y 50%
I
12
Ease o cons uc ion 50%
C
8
A ailabili y 25% I
13
A ailabili y o p o ide s 50%
I
14
A ailabili y o egula ions 50%
No e: In he sensi i i y analysis scena ios de ined in his s udy, he ange o weigh s o each equi emen a e he ollowing. R
1
: 20%–60%, R
2
: 20%–60%, R
3
:
10%–25%, R
4
: 10%–25%.
TABLE 2 Value unc ions o he indica o s.
Indica o Uni s Shape X
min
X
max
CKP
I
1
P oduc ion and assembly cos €DS 75,000 0 32,500 0.15 4
I
2
Main enance cos €DS 20,000 0 10,000 0.15 4
I
3
G eenhouse gas emissions kgCO
2
-eq DCx 20,000 0 10,000 0.9 0.75
I
4
Ene gy consump ion MJ DCx 200,000 0 100,000 0.9 0.75
I
5
Ma e ial consump ion Scale (3–9) IL 3 9 4 0 1
I
6
Gene a ion o skilled jobs Numbe IL 1 3 2 0 1
I
7
B and bene i s Scale (1–5) IL 1 3 2 0 1
I
8
Occupa ional Risk Index (ORI) Hou s pe son DL 100 0 50 0 1
I
9
Employmen gene a ion Numbe IL 0 1500 2 0 1
I
10
Local nuisance Scale (1–5) DL 0.3 0 0.25 0 1
I
11
Design lexibili y Scale (1–5) IL 0 0.5 0.25 0 1
I
12
Ease o cons uc ion Scale (1–5) IL 0 0.3 0.25 0 1
I
13
A ailabili y o p o ide s Scale (1–5) IL 0 0.5 0.25 0 1
I
14
A ailabili y o egula ions Scale (1–5) IL 1 3 2 0 1
Abb e ia ions: DL, dec easing linea ; DS, dec easing S-shape, DCx, dec easing con ex; IL, inc easing linea .
JOSA and DE LA FUENTE 3
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al e na i es).
5,17
The weigh s we e de e mined a e dis-
cussion wi h indus y expe s (see he appendix o mo e
in o ma ion ega ding he expe s consul ed). While hese
discussions esul ed in all indica o s wi hin he decision-
making ee being assigned he same weigh —
ep esen ing a s ic pe spec i e o sus ainabili y— he
sensi i i y analysis p esen ed in Sec ion 2.4.1 allows us o
e alua e he esul s when hese weigh s a e no e enly
dis ibu ed.
Fu he indica o s we e also iden i ied (e.g., inish-
ing's quali y, echnology socials' accep abili y). None-
heless, hese indica o s we e ound no o be
su icien ly ele an in compa ison wi h he o he s ha
compose he decision-making ee. In his ega d,
should o he decision-make s conside o he se s o
indica o s as mo e ep esen a i e, hese could be inco -
po a ed acco dingly ollowing he app oach p esen ed
in Sec ion 2.1 in o de o main ain bo h consis ency
and cohe ence. Equi alen ly, he weigh s' se could
also be adap ed o o he con ex s and s akeholde s'
p e e ences.
No e ha a summa y o da a sou ces o each indica-
o can be ound in Table A2.
2.2.1 | Economic equi emen
The economic equi emen is composed o a single c i e-
ion, C
1
, which in u n con ains wo di e en indica o s:
p oduc ion cos s and main enance cos s.
•P oduc ion cos s (I
1
). These include ma e ial cos s,
labo , machine y, equipmen , and auxilia y ele-
men s necessa y o he p oduc ion and assembly o
housing. These cos s we e calcula ed wi h da a om
CYPE Ingenie os.
18
This da abase allows ob aining
cons uc ion cos s adjus ed o he ma ke . I
includes bo h manu ac u e p oduc s and gene ic
p oduc s.
•Main enance cos s (I
2
). These include he ma e ial
cos s, labo , machine y, equipmen , and auxilia y ele-
men s necessa y o gua an ee he se ice capaci y and
unc ionali y o he housing h oughou i s use ul li e.
Da abase in CYPE Ingenie os
18
was used o calcula e
his indica o 's alues.
2.2.2 | En i onmen al equi emen
The en i onmen al equi emen is composed o wo dis-
inc c i e ia. The i s (C
2
) e e s o emissions, while he
second (C
3
) is ela ed o esou ces consump ion, includ-
ing ene gy and ma e ials.
The emissions c i e ion (C
2
) is composed o he ol-
lowing indica o s:
•G eenhouse gas emissions (I
3
). This indica o accoun s
o all g eenhouse gas emissions, which a e essen ial o
conside as hey ha e a di ec ela ionship wi h em-
pe a u e inc eases on Ea h and, consequen ly, in
e ms o clima e change. Da a o his indica o con-
sis ed o emissions ac o s, which we e ob ained om
Ca alonia Ins i u e o Cons uc ion Technology—
ITeC.
19
The esou ces c i e ion (C
3
) is composed o he ol-
lowing wo indica o s:
•Ene gy consump ion (I
4
). This indica o includes da a
on ene gy consumed in he conside ed li e cycle p o-
cesses, conside ing enewable and non- enewable
ene gy sou ces. Ene gy consump ion ac o s o calcu-
la e his indica o we e ob ained om Ca alonia Ins i-
u e o Cons uc ion Technology—ITeC.
19
•Ma e ial consump ion (I
5
). Fo his indica o , bo h
enewable ma e ials (such as wood) and non-
enewable ma e ials (e.g., cemen and agg ega es) used
in housing cons uc ion a e conside ed. This indica o
was measu ed using he scale p esen ed in Table 3. Fo
each o he elemen s (ma e ial sca ci y, use po en ial o
ecycled ma e ials, end o li e ecycling po en ial), a
sco e was assigned (see Tables A3–A6, o de ails).
A e wa d, he sco es we e added in a way ha he
indica o may ange be ween 3 and 9.
2.2.3 | Social equi emen
The social equi emen is composed o h ee c i e ia:
inno a ion (C
4
), wo king condi ions (C
5
), and hi d-pa y
e ec s (C
6
). Fi s , in inno a ion (C
4
), wo indica o s a e
TABLE 3 I ems conside ed in
indica o I
5
.
Ma e ials sca ci y Use po en ial o ecycled ma e ials EoL ecycling po en ial
1 Sca ce 1 Low 1 Low
2 Mode a e 2 Mode a e 2 Mode a e
3 Abundan 3 High 3 High
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conside ed: he gene a ion o skilled jobs (I
6
) and b and
bene i s (I
7
). Table 4shows he de ails o he scale used in
each o he indica o s. Values we e assigned upon discus-
sion wi h expe s.
•Gene a ion o skilled jobs (I
6
). This indica o is in ended
o assess he numbe o skilled jobs gene a ed du ing
he design, p oduc ion, and cons uc ion p ocesses.
Skilled jobs a e hose ha equi e highe educa ion
and equi e a minimum le el o expe ience.
•B and bene i s (I
7
). I e alua es he echnology's con i-
bu ion o inc easing he epu a ion o he cons uc ion
company and/o hose wi h knowledge/indus ial/
exploi a ion p ope y igh s.
Fo wo king condi ions (C
5
), he wo indica o s e alu-
a ed a e he ollowing:
•Occupa ional Risk Index (I
8
). This index measu es he
isks associa ed wi h ac i i ies ela ed o housing con-
s uc ion, as well as he p obabili y o acciden s occu -
ing in any phase o execu ion. Da a needed o
calcula e his indica o (i.e., ime spen in each con-
s uc ion ac i i y, numbe o wo ke s) was ob ained
om CYPE Ingenie os.
18
•Job gene a ion (I
9
). This indica o e alua es he o al
numbe o jobs gene a ed du ing he design and con-
s uc ion p ocesses. I was measu ed using he scale
shown in Table 5.
Las ly, o hi d-pa y e ec s (C
6
), he indica o is
de ined as ollows.
•Local nuisance (I
10
). Conside s dis u bances o he
neighbo hood due o land occupa ion and he gene a-
ion o noise, dus , and a ic, among o he s.
This indica o was e alua ed using analy ic hie a chy
p ocess (AHP),
22
which allowed pe o ming pai wise
compa isons be ween he al e na i es ega ding local
nuisance.
2.2.4 | Technological equi emen
In addi ion o he h ee pilla s o sus ainabili y (economy,
en i onmen , and socie y), his s udy also conside s he
echnological componen o he al e na i es unde analy-
sis. In his equi emen , wo aspec s a e conside ed:
adap abili y (C
7
) and a ailabili y (C
8
).
Fi s ly, he adap abili y c i e ion (C
7
) is ela ed o
design lexibili y and ease o cons uc ion:
•Design lexibili y (I
11
). Conside s adap abili y and ee-
dom o design, including complex geome ies. This
indica o was e alua ed using AHP.
22
•Ease o cons uc ion (I
12
). E alua es he simplici y o
he p oduc ion and cons uc ion p ocesses o each
al e na i e. This indica o was e alua ed using AHP.
22
C i e ion a ailabili y (C
8
) is composed o wo indica-
o s as de ailed below. Bo h indica o s we e e alua ed
using AHP
22
wi h he scale shown in Table 6.
•Supplie a ailabili y (I
13
). Allows conside ing he a ail-
abili y o echnology supplie s (equipmen and/o
ma e ials).
•A ailabili y o egula ions (I
14
). Takes in o accoun he
a ailabili y o egula ions and policies, which is espe-
cially ele an in his case because new echnologies
a e some imes no ini ially egula ed.
TABLE 4 Scale used o indica o s
I
6
and I
7
.Gene a ion o skilled jobs B and bene i s
1 Low (less han 2) 1 No signi ican impac on epu a ion
2 Mode a e (be ween 2 and 4) 2 Mode a e impac on epu a ion
3 High (mo e han 5) 3 Signi ican impac on epu a ion
TABLE 5 Scale used o indica o I
9
.
Job gene a ion
1 Low (less han 2)
2 Mode a e (be ween 2 and 4)
3 High (mo e han 5)
TABLE 6 Scale used o he AHP o indica o s I
13
and I
14
.
A ailabili y o supplie s/ egula ions
1 Same a ailabili y
3 Sligh ly highe a ailabili y
5 Mode a ely highe a ailabili y
7 Signi ican ly highe a ailabili y
9 Ex emely highe a ailabili y
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2.3 |Case s udy
The loo plan o he house assessed is shown in Figu e 1.
I is a one- loo house and, as i can be obse ed, i con-
sis s o a li ing oom, ki chen, wo ba h ooms and h ee
bed ooms. Gi en he s udy's ocus on he supe s uc u e's
ma e ials and s uc u al ypologies, he analysis was
es ic ed o e ical elemen s, namely walls and ames.
2.3.1 | Scena ios analyzed
A e analyzing he li e a u e,
10
he mos common and
ep esen a i e s uc u al ypologies o conside in his
s udy we e de ined. They a e p esen ed in Table 7and
ep esen ed in Figu e 2.
Fo he design o he al e na i es, Robo S uc u al
®
was used. De ails o he sec ions and ma e ials conside ed
can be ound in Table A1 in he appendix.
2.3.2 | Assump ions
The unc ional uni conside ed in his s udy is he com-
ple e s uc u e o he housing, conside ing only he
supe s uc u e (i.e., he s uc u e wi hou conside ing
ounda ion se ices and ope a ion). The assumed se ice
li e o he unc ional uni is 50 yea s.
FIGURE 1 Floo plan o he house assessed.
TABLE 7 Technologies conside ed
in his s udy o housing cons uc ion.
P ocess Ma e ial S uc u al ypology Code
P e ab ica ion (PREF) Conc e e (C) F ame (F) PREF-C-F
Bea ing walls (BW) PREF-C-BW
S eel (S) F ame (F) PREF-S-F
Timbe (T) F ame (F) PREF-T-F
In si u (SITU) Conc e e (C) F ame (F) SITU-C-F
Bea ing walls (BW) SITU-C-BW
3D P in ing (3D) SITU-C-3D
Mason y (M) Bea ing walls (BW) SITU-M-BW
6JOSA and DE LA FUENTE
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The e a e se e al s ages du ing he li e cycle o a
housing uni ha a e ele an o conside and ha e an
impac on he li e cycle assessmen esul s and, conse-
quen ly, on he SI. In his s udy, he ollowing li e cycle
s ages a e conside ed as ep esen a i e: p oduc ion s age
( aw ma e ial supply, anspo a ion, manu ac u ing),
cons uc ion p ocess s age ( anspo a ion, cons uc ion/
ins alla ion p ocess), and use s age (main enance). These
s ages co espond o hose de ined by EN 15978:2011.
23
Al hough i is gene ally accep ed ha he use phase o a
FIGURE 2 Al e na i e building ypologies analyzed in he s udy, namely (a) PREF-C-F, (b) PREF-C-BW, (c) PREF-S-F, (d) PREF-T-F,
(e) SITU-C-F, ( ) SITU-C-BW, (g) SITU-C-3D, (h) SITU-M-BW Design de ails a e no shown.
JOSA and DE LA FUENTE 7
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housing uni has he mos signi ican en i onmen al
impac s, i is no included in his case, as he ocus o his
s udy is on he impac s in he p oduc and cons uc ion
s ages and, pa icula ly, o quan i y he SI o he 3D-
p in ed conc e e cons uc ion app oach and o compa e
i s sus ainabili y pe o mance wi h he pee s. I was
assumed ha app op ia e measu es a e aken o ensu e
he same le el o insula ion (acous ic and he mal) o
each al e na i e, and, consequen ly, he consump ion
and emissions associa ed wi h achie ing he same le el o
in e nal com o du ing he use phase a e independen o
he al e na i e. The impac on he sus ainabili y pe o -
mance o di e en insula ion echniques could be aken
in o accoun by quan i ying he economic, en i onmen-
al, and social e ec s and inco po a ing hese in o he el-
e an sus ainabili y indica o s.
Rega ding anspo a ion, he anspo dis ances o
he conside ed ma e ials and componen s we e de ined
based on he a e age dis ances ypically in ol ed in
anspo ing he ma e ials and equipmen equi ed
be ween main ac o ies and p oduc ion poin s in Spain,
and he building si e o he case s udy o each ypology.
Table 8p esen s he dis ances conside ed in he
esul s. Howe e , sensi i i y analyses ega ding anspo
dis ances a e p esen ed a he end o his documen ,
whe e sensi i i y indices a e calcula ed based on al e na-
i e assump ions ega ding dis ances.
Apa om conside a ions ela ed o anspo dis-
ances, o he ele an aspec s mus be aken in o accoun
ega ding he p ocesses included wi hin he sys em
bounda ies.
Fi s , in his analysis, he speci ic cha ac e is ics o
he housing oo s we e no conside ed. While oo s can
play a signi ican ole in e ms o insula ion, ene gy e i-
ciency, and sus ainabili y, hei exclusion in his s udy
does no a ec he anking o esul s among he analyzed
al e na i es, as all housing designs analyzed do no
include a oo (and i included, i would be he same).
Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha oo s can in luence
he o e all sus ainabili y o a house when absolu e alues
a e sough , no jus ela i e ones.
Addi ionally, i was assumed ha he main enance
cos o houses does no inc ease o e ime. Al hough
main enance cos s can a y o e he li espan o a house
due o wea and ea , epai s, and o he ac o s, hese
changes a e minimal and would no signi ican ly impac
he inal esul s o his analysis.
Finally, ce amic b ick was used as he e e ence ma e-
ial o he enclosu es o hose al e na i es ha do no
ha e he enclosu e inco po a ed in o he s uc u al
design. Howe e , i is impo an o highligh ha he
ma e ial o enclosu es can a y and adap o he main
s uc u al ma e ial used in each al e na i e.
2.4 |Sensi i i y analysis
Pe o ming sensi i i y analyses is con enien in mul i-
c i e ia decision-making as i helps assess he impac o
changes in inpu alues o c i e ia weigh s, allowing
decision-make s o unde s and he obus ness o hei
decisions and iden i y key ac o s in luencing he ou -
comes. In his s udy, h ee ypes o sensi i i y analyses
we e pe o med: sensi i i y o he weigh ing sys em, sen-
si i i y o he anspo a ion dis ance, and sensi i i y o
he numbe o housing uni s.
2.4.1 | Sensi i i y o weigh s
The decision-making ee p esen ed ea lie was based on
a se o assigned weigh s conside ing equal impo ance
o each pa o he ee. Howe e , his se o weigh s
may no be ep esen a i e o all decision-making
con ex s, as hey can change o e ime, geog aphical
loca ion, cul u e, and so o h. The e o e, his
sec ion p esen s a sensi i i y analysis in which a ious
weigh s a e modi ied, examining he impac o hese
changes on sus ainabili y indices.
The wo de ined scena ios a e p esen ed in Table 9
and a e: (1) highe en i onmen al weigh han he o he
wo equi emen s, and (2) highe economic weigh han
he o he wo equi emen s.
2.4.2 | Sensi i i y o anspo a ion dis ance
In o de o quan i y he impac o anspo a ion (ma e-
ials and componen s) on he emissions associa ed wi h
he execu ion o each al e na i e, a sensi i i y analysis
has been conduc ed. Fo his analysis, minimum and
maximum anspo dis ances ha e been de ined o he
di e en al e na i es (see Table 10).
TABLE 8 T anspo dis ances o ma e ials conside ed o each
al e na i e.
Al e na i e Dis ance (km)
PREF-C-F 200
PREF-C-BW 200
PREF-S-F 25
PREF-T-F 25
SITU-C-F 30
SITU-C-BW 30
SITU-C-3D 190
SITU-M-BW 25
8JOSA and DE LA FUENTE
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2.4.3 | Sensi i i y o he numbe o
housing uni s
In o de o quan i y he impac on he economic equi e-
men o he numbe o housing uni s o he 3D p in ed
al e na i e, a s udy has been conduc ed whe e he a i-
able cons uc ion cos has been a ied o accoun o he
cons uc ion o 1, 3, 7, 10, 25, 50, and 100 housing uni s.
3|RESULTS
In his sec ion, he esul s ob ained o each indi idual
equi emen a e p esen ed, and subsequen ly, he agg e-
ga ed esul s (co esponding o he o e all SI) a e p o ided.
Raw alues o each indica o can be ound in
Table A6 in he appendix, p esen ed in ela i e e ms
wi h e e ence o he SITU-C-F al e na i e.
3.1 |Sus ainabili y index
Resul s o he ou equi emen s a e p esen ed in
Figu e 3.
3.1.1 | Economic equi emen
I can be obse ed ha SITU-M-BW, PREF-C-BW,
SITU-C-3D, and PREF-C-F yield he lowes alues o he
economic SI (be ween 0.01 and 0.59).
The mason y al e na i e (SITU-M-BW) yields ela-
i ely high cos s (and he e o e a low SI) due o he use o
ubble mason y in he design, which is a cos ly ma e ial
o p oduce and ob ain.
18
Also, i exhibi s no ably high
main enance cos s, which is due o he in ensi e and
cos ly main enance equi ed o mason y due o i s com-
posi ion and cons uc ion echniques.
Bo h PREF-C-BW and PREF-C-F show signi ican
main enance cos s, which is due o he ac ha p e ab i-
ca ed conc e e s uc u es po en ially equi e egula
main enance o p ese e hei unc ionali y and es he ic
appea ance o he case s udy he e.
SITU-C-3D has he highes p oduc ion cos s, which
a e expec ed in echnology in i s ea ly de elopmen al
s ages.
3,5
I needs o be no ed ha , in his s udy, he cos
does no include he p in e 's dep ecia ion pe cen age.
Howe e , i conside ed, he o al cos conside ed he e
would dec ease wi h he numbe o houses (see
Sec ion 3.2.3). Howe e , i has lowe main enance cos s
compa ed o p e ab ica ed conc e e s uc u es, as i does
no ha e join s.
The o he al e na i es ha e compa a i ely lowe cos s
and he e o e highe sus ainabili y indices (be ween 0.75
and 0.89), which is common o mo e adi ional and
consequen ly mo e op imized cons uc ion p ocesses.
No ably, he s eel s uc u e (PREF-S-F) demons a es el-
a i ely low p oduc ion cos s and medium main enance
cos s acco ding o he da a collec ed. Also, he imbe
s uc u e (PREF-T-F) has a mode a e main enance cos ,
as i equi es p ope main enance o p o ec i om mois-
u e, insec s, and o he en i onmen al ac o s. Las ly, he
onsi e conc e e s uc u es (SITU-C-F and SITU-C-BW)
a e adi ional cons uc ion ma e ials and me hods ha
end o p o ide bene i s in he o m o low p oduc ion
cos s.
3.1.2 | En i onmen al equi emen
Fo emissions, he lowes sa is ac ion is ob ained by PREF-
C-BW (index o 0.02), ollowed by PREF-C-F and SITU-
C-BW (index o 0.32). These esul s a e expec ed because
he conc e e p oduc ion p ocess is ca bon-in ensi e due o
TABLE 9 Scena ios de ined in he
sensi i i y analysis o he weigh s. Weigh scena io
Requi emen s Re e ence En i onmen al Economic
R
1
Economic 25% 20% 60%
R
2
En i onmen al 25% 60% 20%
R
3
Social 25% 10% 10%
R
4
Technological 25% 10% 10%
TABLE 10 Scena ios de ined in he sensi i i y analysis o he
anspo a ion dis ances.
T anspo a ion dis ance
Al e na i es Min Max
PREF 25 km 500 km
SITU-C 10 km 50 km
SITU-C-3D 0 500 km
O he s 0 50 km
JOSA and DE LA FUENTE 9
17517648, 0, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/suco.202400802 by Readcube (Lab i a Inc.), Wiley Online Lib a y on [22/11/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
15. Boix-Co s D, Pa do-Bosch F, Blanco A, Aguado A, Pujadas P. A
sys ema ic e iew on MIVES: a sus ainabili y-o ien ed mul i-
c i e ia decision-making me hod [ e iew]. Build En i on. 2022;
223:109515. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.builden .2022.109515
16. Josa I, Pons O, Fuen e A d l, Aguado A. Mul i-c i e ia decision-
making model o assess he sus ainabili y o gi de s and
usses: case s udy o oo s o spo s halls. J Clean P od. 2020;
249:119312. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jclep o.2019.119312
17. Asensio J, Josa I, Monse a A, de la Fuen e A. 3D-p in ed con-
c e e oo b idges: an app oach o assess he sus ainabili y pe -
o mance. S uc Conc . 2023;24(6):7705–25. h ps://doi.o g/10.
1002/suco.202201227
18. CYPE Ingenie os. Gene ado de p ecios de la cons ucci
on.
España: CYPE Ingenie os, SA; 2023.
19. Ca alonia Ins i u e o Cons uc ion Technology—ITeC.
BEDEC - Banco Cons ucci
on. 2023.
20. Hegge M, Auch-Schwelk V, Fuchs M, Rosenk anz T. Con-
s uc ion ma e ials manual. Basel: Bi khause ; 2013.
21. Casano as M d M, A mengou J, Ramos G. Occupa ional isk
index o assessmen o isk in cons uc ion wo k by ac i i y.
J Cons Eng Manage. 2014;140(1):04013035. h ps://doi.o g/
10.1061/(asce)co.1943-7862.0000785
22. Saa y TL. Fundamen als o decision making and p io i y
heo y. Pi sbu gh, PA: RWS Publica ions; 2001.
23. CEN/TC 350. EN 15978:2011—sus ainabili y o cons uc ion
wo ks—assessmen o en i onmen al pe o mance o
buildings—calcula ion me hod. B ussels: Eu opean Commi ee
o S anda diza ion; 2011.
24. B oadben C. S eel's ecyclabili y: demons a ing he bene i s o
ecycling s eel o achie e a ci cula economy [a icle]. In J Li e
Cycle Assess. 2016;21(11):1658–65. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/
s11367-016-1081-1
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
I ene Josa, The Ba le School o
Sus ainable Cons uc ion, Uni e -
si y College London, Uni ed King-
dom. Email: [email p o ec ed].
Albe de la Fuen e, Depa men
o Ci il & En i onmen al Enginee -
ing, Uni e si a Poli ècnica de Ca a-
lunya (UPC), Spain. Email: albe .
[email p o ec ed].
How o ci e his a icle: Josa I, de la Fuen e A.
T adi ional and mode n me hods o cons uc ion:
Compa a i e s udy o he sus ainabili y o single-
amily homes. S uc u al Conc e e. 2024. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1002/suco.202400802
16 JOSA and DE LA FUENTE
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APPENDIX A
FIGURE A1 Shapes o he alue unc ions o each indica o .
JOSA and DE LA FUENTE 17
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TABLE A2 Summa y o in en o y da a sou ces.
Indica o Da a sou ce De ails
I
1
P oduc ion and assembly cos , I
2
Main enance
cos
CYPE Ingenie os
18
Da abase codes consul ed: EPS010, EPV010, FFX010,
EPM010, EAS010, EAV010, EMS020, EHS010,
EHV010, and EHM010, ECM010
I
3
G eenhouse gas emissions, I
4
Ene gy
consump ion
Ca alonia Ins i u e o
Cons uc ion Technology—
ITeC
19
; Hegge e al.
20
Da abase codes consul ed: E4P14795, G4415115,
K4F1E15N, and K4G211V9
I
5
Ma e ial consump ion, I
6
Gene a ion o skilled
jobs, I
7
B and bene i s, I
9
Employmen
gene a ion, I
14
A ailabili y o egula ions
Li e a u e and expe
consul a ion
Li e a u e: Asensio e al.
17
; Josa e al.
16
; Pons-
Vallada es e al.
5
Expe s consul ed: junio obo ics and au oma ion
enginee (>5 yea s expe ience), senio obo ics and
au oma ion enginee (>10 yea s expe ience), digi al
business manage and sma socie y enginee
(>10 yea s expe ience), enginee ing inno a ion
manage (>10 yea s expe ience)
I
10
Local nuisance, I
11
Design lexibili y, I
12
Ease
o cons uc ion, I
13
A ailabili y o p o ide s
AHP based on discussion
wi h expe s
Expe s consul ed: see abo e
I
8
Occupa ional Risk Index (ORI) Casano as e al.
21
; CYPE
Ingenie os
18
Risks conside ed: alls o pe sons o a di e en le el
due o winch wi h mo able a m, con en ional
o mwo k a heigh , sho ing, wo k on oo s; di ec o
indi ec elec ical con ac due o elec ic conc e e
mixe ; shock o en apmen due o mo emen o
de achmen o loads when handling loads by
mechanical means (i.e., c anes and o kli s); blows o
he uppe o lowe ex emi ies due o manual
handling o loads; cu s, wounds and blows due o
welding, oxyace ylene cu ing and adhesion o asphal
shee ing o he subs a e by o ch; a ic acciden due
o anspo o elemen s and ma e ials o he
cons uc ion si e
TABLE A1 Design de ails o each al e na i e.
Al e na i e Design de ails
PREF-C-F Conc e e HA-25, Pilla s: 25 25 cm,
Beams: 25 50 cm
PREF-C-BW Conc e e HA-25, Wall's dep h: 30 cm,
Beams: 25 50 cm
PREF-S-F S eel S275JR, Pilla s: HEA140,
Beams: IPE240
PREF-T-F Timbe C40, Pilla s: 25 25 cm,
Beams: 25 25 cm
SITU-C-F Conc e e HA-25, Pilla s: 25 25 cm,
Beams: 25 50 cm
SITU-C-BW Conc e e HA-25, Wall's dep h: 30 cm,
Beams: 25 50 cm
SITU-C-3D To al conc e e olume: 5.4 m
3
SITU-M-BW Wall's dep h: 50 cm
TABLE A3 Ma e ial sca ci y sco ing o indica o I
5
.
Ma e ial Sco e
Conc e e 2
Conc e e (3D) 1
S eel 2
Timbe 2
S one 2
TABLE A4 Use po en ial o ecycled ma e ials sco ing o
indica o I
5
.
Ma e ial Sco e
Conc e e 2
Conc e e (3D) 1
S eel 3
Timbe 1
S one 2
18 JOSA and DE LA FUENTE
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TABLE A6 Quan i ica ion o indica o s (gi en in ela i e e ms wi h espec o he al e na i e SITU-C-F).
Indica o PREF-
C-F
PREF-
C-BW
PREF-
S-F
PREF-
T-F
SITU-
C-F
SITU-
C-BW
SITU-
C-3D SITU-M-BW
I
1
P oduc ion and
assembly cos 1.629 2.164 1.006 0.876 1.000 0.802 6.013 4.412
I
2
Main enance cos 2.089 3.232 0.744 1.692 1.000 0.752 0.752 5.704
I
3
G eenhouse gas emissions 1.817 2.813 1.142 0.490 1.000 1.841 1.396 0.355
I
4
Ene gy consump ion 0.917 1.757 1.249 0.745 1.000 1.194 1.683 0.239
I
5
Ma e ial consump ion 1.000 1.000 1.333 0.833 1.000 1.000 0.667 1.000
I
6
Gene a ion o skilled jobs 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 3.000 2.000
I
7
B and bene i s 2.000 2.000 2.000 2.000 1.000 1.000 3.000 1.000
I
8
Occupa ional Risk Index
(ORI)
0.149 1.503 0.573 0.328 1.000 0.995 0.020 4.598
I
9
Employmen gene a ion 0.704 0.714 0.909 0.804 1.000 0.670 2.112 4.579
I
10
Local nuisance 0.663 0.531 1.863 1.264 1.000 0.794 0.711 0.414
I
11
Design lexibili y 1.039 0.563 1.859 0.405 1.000 0.473 2.932 0.346
I
12
Ease o cons uc ion 3.253 5.586 2.705 2.710 1.000 1.504 6.118 0.622
I
13
A ailabili y o p o ide s 0.273 0.325 0.510 0.129 1.000 0.659 0.067 0.206
I
14
A ailabili y o egula ions 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.667 1.000 1.000 0.333 1.000
TABLE A5 EoL ecycling po en ial sco ing o indica o I
5
.
Ma e ial Sco e
Conc e e 2
Conc e e (3D) 2
S eel 3
Timbe 2
S one 2
JOSA and DE LA FUENTE 19
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