sus ainabili y
A icle
A Sum o Inciden als o a S uc u al P oblem?
The T ue Na u e o Food Was e in he Me opoli an
Region o Ba celona
Raquel Diaz-Ruiz 1,* , Mon se a Cos a-Fon 2, Feliu López-i-Gela s 1,3 and JoséM. Gil 1
1Cen e o Ag o-Food Economy and De elopmen (CREDA-UPC-IRTA), C/Es e e Te ades 8,
08860 Cas ellde els, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (F.L.-i.-G.); [email p o ec ed] (J.M.G.)
2Land Economy, En i onmen and Socie y Resea ch G oup, Sco land’s Ru al College (SRUC),
Wes Mains Road, Edinbu gh EH9 3JG, UK; [email p o ec ed]
3
Chai o Ag oecology and Food Sys ems, Uni e si y o Vic - Cen al Uni e si y o Ca alonia, 08500 Vic, Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-935-521-208
Recei ed: 5 Sep embe 2018; Accep ed: 15 Oc obe 2018; Published: 17 Oc obe 2018
Abs ac :
Add essing he gene a ion o ood was e is a majo challenge nowadays. An inc easing
in e es in s udying ood was e gene a ion has eme ged o e he las decade. Howe e , li le a en ion
has been de o ed o unde s anding he oo o he p oblem by ca ying ou a whole-supply-chain
analysis and applying mul idimensional app oaches. The aim o his pape was o iden i y he causes
o ood was e in he me opoli an egion o Ba celona along he ood supply chain, conside ing he
ele an s akeholde s’ pe cep ions. Mo eo e , we examined he ci cums an ial o s uc u al na u e
o he iden i ied causes. We conduc ed a quali a i e s udy consis ing o 24 in-dep h in e iews
o key s akeholde s in he egion along he ood supply chain om Oc obe 2014 o Janua y 2015.
The in e iews we e analyzed by con en analysis, and he main esul s a e p esen ed he e. We used
a concep ual amewo k ha di e en ia es among mic o, meso, and mac o causes o disen angle he
na u e o he causes. The esul s om his s udy show he g ea in e es o egional s akeholde s in
he issue o he gene a ion o ood was e and p o ide a comple e map o he causes o ood was e in
he me opoli an egion. F om ou s udy, we ad oca e ha ood was e is no only a sum o inciden als
bu i a s uc u al p oblem.
Keywo ds:
ood was e; s akeholde s; causes; ood supply chain; in e iews; Ba celona me opoli an egion
1. In oduc ion
Finding al e na i es o de elop mo e sus ainable ood sys ems is a majo challenge ha
socie y is acing oday. Mul iple e o s a e being de o ed o be e unde s and such ood sys ems,
and consequen ly, o de elop mo e sus ainable al e na i es (e.g., [
1
–
4
]). In his con ex , ood was e
has eme ged as one o he mos ele an domains o he cu en unsus ainabili y [
5
]. The es ima es
o he Food and Ag icul u al O ganiza ion o he Uni ed Na ions (FAO) sugges ha one- hi d o he
ood p oduced globally is being los o was ed along he ood supply chain [
6
]. In Eu ope, a ecen
es ima ion has indica ed ha 88 million ons o ood a e was ed annually [
7
]. The magni ude o he
numbe s has os e ed wide and g owing ag eemen ega ding he necessi y o u gen ly add essing
he issue o ood was e gene a ion. The Uni ed Na ions ag eed in 2015, wi hin he de ini ion o i s
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals, o hal e ood was e and educe ood losses by 2030 [
8
]. In Eu ope,
he Eu opean Union’s (EU) ecen ly app o ed Ci cula Economy Package has alloca ed a key ole o
ood was e p e en ion and educ ion [9].
The inc easing awa eness o he impo ance o he ood was e challenge has g own in pa allel
wi h he numbe o publica ions de o ed o be e unde s anding his phenomenon, especially du ing
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730; doi:10.3390/su10103730 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 2 o 19
he las decade [
10
]. Such publica ions ha e been pa icula ly ocused on he consump ion s age [
11
].
The esea ch on ood was e has been di e se. To da e, he ele an publica ions ha e mainly been
ocused on unde s anding consume beha io (e.g., [
12
–
15
]) o quan i ying he gene a ed olume
o ood was e (e.g., [
16
–
18
]) and i s associa ed en i onmen al o economic impac (e.g., [
16
,
19
–
21
]).
Howe e , he e is s ill conside able oom o ad ancemen . Nume ous gaps s ill p e ail conce ning
he unde lying ac o s o ood was e gene a ion [
10
,
22
]. Despi e e o s o s anda dize ood was e
quan i ica ions (e.g., he Food Loss and Was e p o ocol [
23
] and he Food Use o Social Inno a ion by
Op imising Was e P e en ion S a egies (FUSIONS) p o ocol [
24
]), he e is s ill no single ag eed-upon
de ini ion o ood was e, nei he in e na ionally no in Eu ope [
22
,
25
,
26
]. The disc epancies in he
mo e adequa e me hodologies o unde aking he sound quan i ica ion o ood was e make i di icul
o compa e esul s om di e en s udies [
10
,
26
,
27
]. The complexi y o he phenomenon sugges s he
necessi y o aking a s ep back and examining he oo s o he ood was e phenomenon.
Despi e he apidly inc easing body o li e a u e dealing wi h he ood was e issue, only a ew
s udies ha e a emp ed o ocus on analyzing whe e he oo s o he p oblem lie, ha is, he causes o
he phenomenon. A g ea di e si y o s udies, ad hoc epo s, pape s, and books ha e been published
in he las decade (see Table 1). They undamen ally employed seconda y da a o iden i y he causes
o ood was e a di e en geog aphical scales, anging om wo ldwide o egional le els o analysis.
Mos o hese s udies used a pa ial iew app oach, ha is, hey included only speci ic s ages o he
supply chain in he analysis. On he o he hand, hose conside ing all he s ages o he ood supply
chain deal wi h seconda y da a. To ou knowledge, he e is only one s udy—by Göbel e al. [
28
]— ha
has used p ima y da a, which was collec ed by means o expe in e iews along he whole ood
supply chain in he egion o No h Rhine-Wes phalia in Ge many o examine he causes o ood was e
using whole-supply-chain analysis.
Table 1. Re iew o s udies analyzing he causes o ood was e.
Re e ences Type o Documen Type o Da a * Geog aphical Scope
Fa m
Indus y
Wholesale
Re ail
Consump ion
WRAP e al., 2007 [29] Repo 1 Uni ed Kingdom (UK)
WRAP and Ques ed, 2009 [30] Repo 2 UK
S ua , 2009 [31] Book 2 Wo ldwide
Pa i e al., 2010 [32] Pape 2 Wo ldwide
Bio In elligence Se ice, 2010 [33] Repo 2 Eu ope
Mena e al., 2011 [34] Pape 1 UK and Spain
HISPACOOP, 2012 [35] Repo 1 Spain
ARC and UAB, 2011 [36] Repo 1 + 2 Ca alonia, Spain
Buzby and Hyman, 2012 [16] Pape 2 Uni ed S a es
Be e a e al., 2013 [37] Pape 1 Swi ze land
Eu opean Union, 2013 [38] Repo 2 Eu ope
S e an e al., 2013 [39] Pape 1 Romania
FAO, 2013 [40] Repo 1 + 2 Wo ld
Ga one e al., 2014 [41] Pape 1 I aly
Mag ama, 2014a [42] Repo 1 Spain
Mag ama, 2014b [43] Repo 1 Spain
Mag ama, 2014c [44] Repo 1 Spain
Mena e al., 2014 [45] Pape 1 UK
HLPE, 2014 [22] Repo 2 Wo ldwide
Mon agu and Gascón, 2014 [46] Book 2 Wo ldwide
Pa izeau e al., 2015 [47] Pape 1 Guelph, On a io, Canada
Göbel e al., 2015 [28] Pape 1 No h Rhine-Wes phalia, Ge many
De qui e al., 2016 [48] Pape 1 Spain
Thybe g and Tonjes, 2016 [49] Pape 2 Wo ldwide
Canali e al., 2017 [50] Pape 2 Wo ldwide
Heb ok and Boks, 2017 [51] Pape 2 Wo ldwide
No e: * 1 means p ima y da a, and 2 means seconda y da a.
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 3 o 19
As shown in Table 1, he g ea majo i y o he exis ing wo ks dealing wi h he causes o
ood was e pa ially examine he issue. Thus, he e is a need o implemen app oaches be e
sui ed o cap u e he inhe en complexi y o he occu ence o ood was e. In his con ex , he e is
also a g owing conce n among he leading o ganiza ions abou he impo ance o implemen ing
mul idimensional and whole-supply-chain app oaches o mo e adequa ely examine he ood was e
phenomenon [5,22,46,52–56].
The geog aphical scope o he analysis is also ele an when add essing ood was e. The scale
de e mines he go e nance o all he agen s implica ed in he design o al e na i es o he iden i ied
p oblems [
57
]. Global ecipes a e o en dissemina ed o add ess ood was e a di e en le els:
he in e na ional, Eu opean, coun y-speci ic, egional, o municipal le el. Ne e heless, ecen
e idence has sugges ed ha cul u al and egional cha ac e is ics could be, o a ce ain ex en , key
de e minan s o ood was e gene a ion [
58
,
59
]. In his con ex , he Resou ce Cen es on U ban
Ag icul u e and Food Secu i y (RUAF) Founda ion and FAO ha e ad oca ed o he use o Ci y
Regions Food Sys ems as an app op ia e app oach ha p o ides a aluable and use ul scope o
unde s anding ood was e occu ence wi hin a ood sys em [
5
,
60
]. Mo eo e , as a esul o he Milan
U ban Food U ban Pac , ood was e has become one o he p io i y a eas o he sus ainabili y o
ci ies [61].
Thus, conside ing bo h he lack o mul idimensional and whole-supply-chain app oaches and he
key ole egions will ha e o play in he igh agains ood was e, he e, we aimed o ill his oid by
conduc ing a holis ic analysis o he causes o ood was e in a pa icula egion, he me opoli an egion
o Ba celona. The objec i e o his wo k was wo old: i s , o iden i y he causes o ood was e in he
me opoli an egion o Ba celona; and second, o examine he ci cums an ial o s uc u al na u e o he
causes o he ood was e. In doing so, we examined he pe cep ions o key s akeholde s along he ood
supply chain in he me opoli an egion o Ba celona h ough in-dep h in e iews. All he in e iews
we e analyzed by con en analysis, and he main causes iden i ied by he egional s akeholde s we e
classi ied acco ding o a speci ic amewo k based upon he p e ious li e a u e.
2. The Case S udy: The Me opoli an Region o Ba celona
The me opoli an egion o Ba celona is one o he mos popula ed a eas o Eu ope, loca ed on
he Medi e anean coas in he au onomous communi y o Ca alonia, in Spain. I has a popula ion o
mo e han 4.8 million people in an a ea o 3236 km
2
[
62
]. The ag i- ood sec o is highly ele an in
he me opoli an egion h ough all s ages o he ood supply chain. A pe i-u ban ag icul u al pa k
is loca ed in he egion, wi h mo e han 2800 p oduce s (Baix Llob ega Ag icul u al Pa k). The land
alloca ed o ag icul u al p oduc ion is no e y la ge, ye , he ag icul u al pa k has con ibu ed o
p ese ing he a ming sec o in he pe i-u ban en i onmen [
63
]. The indus ial ag i- ood sec o is
he second mos impo an economic sec o in Ca alonia. Mul iple na ional and in e na ional ood
companies’ cen al headqua e s a e loca ed in he egion [
64
]. The Ba celona cen al wholesale ma ke
is one o he main ood clus e s in sou hwes e n Eu ope. Mo eo e , Ba celona ci y is known o
i s hospi ali y sec o ’s b oad o e ings and esh ood local ma ke s. Rega ding was e gene a ion,
he ood indus y is he majo gene a o o ons o indus ial was e, which ep esen ed 25% o he o al
indus ial was e in Ca alonia in 2013 [
65
]. A he municipal le el, 475 kg o was e pe pe son pe yea
was collec ed in 2013—bio-was e was he main con ibu o [66].
Du ing ecen yea s, di e en ini ia i es o p e en and educe ood was e ha e been s a ed in
Spain. They a e la gely led by g ass oo s mo emen s and NGOs (e.g., “Yo no despe dicio” [
67
] and
“No i es la comida” [
68
]), bu also by o he di e en agen s, such as public bodies (e.g., “Mas alimen o
menos despe dicio” [
69
] and “Som gen de p o i ” [
70
]) and p i a e companies (e.g., “La alimen ación no
iene despe dicio, ap o echala” [
71
]). Howe e , i should be no ed ha , in Spain, he au ho i y o egula e
was e and ood has been ans e ed o au onomous egions since he 1980s. Consequen ly, each
au onomous egion migh show a di e en le el o engagemen in he ood was e challenge. Ca alonia
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 4 o 19
concen a es mos o i s ini ia i es o ood was e p e en ion and educ ion in he me opoli an egion
in pa icula .
In spi e o his g owing in e es , he scien i ic li e a u e on ood was e in Spain is sca ce (e.g., ecen
publica ions [34,48,72]). The dissemina ion o esea ch esul s has been p ima ily conduc ed h ough
ou each documen s and epo s. In any case, mos o he s udies ha e been ocused on one
single s age o he ood supply chain—whe he p ima y p oduc ion [
42
], he ood indus y [
44
],
he supplie – e aile in e ace [
34
], ood dis ibu ion and ood se ice [
43
,
48
], o he consump ion
s age [
35
,
59
,
73
]. In Ca alonia, a speci ic quan i ica ion o ood was e om dis ibu ion o households
was ca ied ou in 2010 [
36
]. Addi ionally, mos o he s udies ha e used di e en ood was e concep ual
amewo ks and scopes, i any, which makes i di icul o make compa isons be ween hem o e en
wi h o he s udies ab oad. In he me opoli an egion o Ba celona, he e has been no speci ic s udy on
ood was e, apa om s udies add essed o be e unde s and consume s’ beha io in ela ion o ood
was e [74,75].
3. Concep ual F amewo k o Dis inguish S uc u al and Ci cums an ial Causes
Acco ding o he High Le el Panel o Expe s (HLPE) on Food Secu i y and Nu i ion [
22
],
he causes o ood was e a e complex and can be classi ied in o h ee le els—mic o, meso,
and mac o—acco ding o hei complexi y and ela ionship wi h o he d i e s, as ollows:
•Mic o causes: speci ic causes o ood was e occu ing a each s age o he ood supply chain due
o he ac ions o inac ions o agen s a he same s age. They a e no necessa ily linked o o he
causes. Mic o causes a e no in luenced by he beha io o agen s a o he s ages.
•
Meso causes: seconda y o s uc u al causes ha can be ound in ano he s age. They occu
because o he in e ac ion be ween agen s o because o he exis ing in as uc u es whe e ood is
p oduced, dis ibu ed, sold, and so o h.
•
Mac o causes: hose oo ed in he ood sys em dynamics as a whole. These a e sys emic issues
a ec ing he wo p e ious le els (mic o and meso), such as he policy condi ions in e ms o
egula ion o he unc ioning o he ood sys em; ha is, “mac o causes a o he eme gence o all
he o he causes o ood loss and was e” [22].
Dis inguishing be ween hese h ee g oups o causes is use ul o e alua e he magni ude and
he na u e o he p oblem posed by ood was e in each case. This classi ica ion helps o di e en ia e
be ween he ci cums an ial na u e o he causes o ood was e, aligned wi h he mic o causes, and he
s uc u al na u e o he causes o ood was e, aligned wi h he meso and mac o causes.
Al e na i e li e a u e has sugges ed o he classi ica ions as well, o disen angle he ue na u e
o he di e en causes. In his s udy, we will use such classi ica ions o be e desc ibe he iden i ied
causes. Thus, he causes o ood was e wi hin each le el (mic o, meso, and mac o) can be subdi ided
in o ou addi ional ca ego ies: (1) echnological causes [
50
,
76
], which a e ela ed o echnical
ine iciencies o ailu es a di e en s ages o he ood supply chain; (2) economic and business
managemen causes
[28,49,50,76]
, linked o he business s a egies o he di e en ac o s along
he ood chain: con ac s anda ds, ope a ional ac ions, and he comme cial ela ionships o he
s akeholde s in he ood chain; (3) egula o y and policy causes
[28,50,76]
, which a e oo ed in no ms
and egula ions ha a ec he ood sec o , such as u ban was e o ood egula ions, which may a ec
ood was e gene a ion; and (4) app ecia ion and enhancemen causes
[28,49,76]
(also known as alues,
in o ma ion, and skills in o he s udies), which a e ela ed o awa eness, in o ma ion, o speci ic
habi s. This classi ica ion helps o iden i y he domains whe e ood was e occu s and o an icipa e he
skills (p o iles) and con ex s ha would be equi ed o sol e such d i e s. These ou domains we e
p oposed by Canali e al. [
50
] based on consul a ions wi h expe s and an ex ensi e li e a u e e iew.
Mo eo e , a simila
classi ica ion is used in o he publica ions such as Göbel e al. [
28
] o Thybe g and
Tonjes [
49
]. Finally, he speci ic s ages o he ood supply chain whe e he iden i ied causes apply a e
also ele an o analyzing he ood was e conund um.
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 5 o 19
4. Ma e ials and Me hods
To achie e he objec i es o his esea ch, we conduc ed quali a i e esea ch o map he causes
o he ood was e along he ood supply chain and o unde s and he pe cep ions o s akeholde s
ega ding ood was e. In-dep h in e iews o membe s o a panel o key s akeholde s om he case
s udy egion ( he me opoli an egion o Ba celona) we e implemen ed. The ea e , we analyzed
he esul s conside ing he concep ual amewo k desc ibed abo e. We explain he p ocedu e o he
in e iews and he cha ac e is ics o he panel below.
4.1. In-Dep h In e iew P ocedu e
Semi-s uc u ed in e iews we e conduc ed o 24 key s akeholde s along he ood supply chain
in he me opoli an egion o Ba celona o elici hei pe cep ions on ood was e and i s causes along
he ood supply chain and a all s ages. Semi-s uc u ed in e iews—in which he esea che makes
use o an in e iew guide, which is no ixed—a e a use ul ool o ga he ing in-dep h insigh s.
Resea che s can modi y he ques ion low and adap i o he answe s o he in e iewee, who, on he
o he hand, answe s all he ques ions wi hou any limi a ion. This me hod is especially app op ia e in
explo a o y s udies. One o i s weaknesses, howe e , is ha i is ime consuming, and hence, cos ly [
77
].
The in e iew guide included di e en ques ions abou he impo ance o ood was e,
he in e iewee’s in e es in he p e en ion o ood was e, an e alua ion o ood was e concep ual
amewo ks, he in e iewee’s knowledge abou he cu en olume o ood was e along he ood
supply chain, he alloca ion o esponsibili ies o he olume o gene a ed ood was e, and he causes
o he gene a ion o he olume o ood was e along he ood supply chain. The in e iew also included
ques ions abou possible solu ions o ood was e, which we e discussed a he end o he in e iew.
This pa o he in e iew was beyond he scope o his pape and is he e o e no included. The su ey
ocused on he si ua ion in he me opoli an egion o Ba celona. Due o he ma u i y o he ood
was e phenomenon, we did no es ic he concep o ood was e o a speci ic de ini ion; ins ead, we
discussed i in a e y b oad sense ( ood was e was unde s ood as ood ha had been h own away).
I is wo h no ing ha all he s akeholde s pa icipa ed in he iden i ica ion o he causes a di e en
s ages o he supply chain ega dless o hei ield o ac i i y.
The in e iews we e conduc ed om Oc obe 2014 o Janua y 2015. They las ed om 45 o
100 min and we e eco ded and e ba im ansc ibed. Subsequen ly, he meaning o he ex s was
examined h ough quali a i e con en analysis. This consis ed o ho oughly analyzing he ansc ip s
o each pa icipan s o iden i y he hemes and opics. This is an i e a i e p ocess o analysis and
classi ica ion and e-classi ica ion in o b oade ca ego ies. The concep s a e coded and classi ied
acco ding o he discussion guide, endencies, and obse ed pa e ns [
77
,
78
]. In ou case, we analyzed
each in e iew, iden i ying he causes o ood was e and he s akeholde s’ pe cep ion abou ood was e.
A e ha ing an ex ensi e lis o causes om each pa icipan , b oade ca ego ies o causes a ose,
and we ollowed he p ocess o classi ica ion mul iple imes un il we had a comple e map o he causes.
The ea e , we classi ied
and summa ized he causes ollowing h ee c i e ia: (1) he le el (mic o, meso,
and mac o); (2) he na u e ( echnological, economic and business managemen , egula o y and policy,
and app ecia ion and enhancemen ); and (3) he s ages o he ood chain in ol ed.
4.2. Sampling
The main objec i e o he s udy, o map he causes o ood was e, equi ed us o cap u e he
di e si y o pe spec i es a he han iden i ying he impo ance o each iden i ied d i e . Hence, ha ing
as di e se a panel o s akeholde s as possible was key. We used he in en ional sampling echnique,
which is commonly used in quali a i e s udies whe e expe s’ judgmen s a e necessa y. I is a
non-p obabilis ic me hod in which he selec ion o he pa icipan s is based on subjec i e c i e ion
ela ed o he aim o he s udy [
79
]. The alue o each esponden is ela ed o his/he pa icula
unde s anding o he phenomenon s udied; no on his/he ep esen a i i y. The e o e, mo e han
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 6 o 19
he numbe o in e iews, i was impo an ha he sample ep esen s all he pe spec i es abou he
phenomenon. We used he snowball echnique; indi iduals om ini ial in e iews iden i ied new
pa icipan s. The sampling was inished when he in e iewees did no o e al e na i e answe s in
explaining he phenomenon.
We ob ained a inal sample o 24 key s akeholde s om along he ood supply chain and wi h
di e en p o iles (see Table 2). The sample included a o al o 4 ep esen a i es om he p ima y
p oduc ion sec o (a egional public body, a me opoli an body, a a me s’ o ganiza ion, and an
ecologic a me s‘ coope a i e), 2 membe s o he ood indus y (a ep esen a i e om a ood indus y
associa ion and a ood indus y g oup), 2 om he wholesale ma ke (1 wholesale cen al ma ke
body and a small wholesale ), 4 dis ibu ion pa icipan s (3 om supe ma ke s o di e en sizes and
1 local ood ma ke s o ganiza ion), 2 om consume associa ions, 2 om edis ibu ion en i ies (a ood
bank and a local ood pan y), 1 om a social en e p ise wi h a gleaning edis ibu ion and a ood
ans o ma ion model, 1 expe on ood was e om he uni e si y, 1 en i onmen al NGO, 1 om a
eegans o ganiza ion, 3 ep esen a i es o egional public bodies (in ood sa e y, was e managemen ,
and consump ion), and 1 om he municipali y en i onmen al depa men .
Table 2. Sample cha ac e is ics.
O ganiza ion ( ole)
Food supply chain
Fa m
P ocessing
Wholesale
Re ail
Redis ibu ion
Consume s
Educa ion
Social En e p ise “ escue” ood (manage ial posi ion)
Food sa e y egional body (manage ial posi ion)
Was e managemen egional body (manage ial posi ion)
En i onmen al municipali y ( echnician posi ion)
Regional consump ion body ( echnician posi ion)
P ima y p oduc ion me opoli an body (manage ial posi ion)
Ag i- ood egional body (manage ial posi ion)
Fa me s’ o ganiza ion ( ep esen a i e and a me )
Fa me s’ ecologic coope a i e (manage ial posi ion and p oduce )
Indus y associa ion ( ood was e p ojec manage )
Indus y (en i onmen al depa men echnician posi ion)
Wholesale cen al ma ke body (manage ial posi ion)
Small wholesale (manage ial posi ion)
Re aile (Social Responsibili y and En i onmen depa men posi ion)
Re aile (ins i u ional ela ionship depa men posi ion)
Re aile (en i onmen al depa men manage ial posi ion)
Local Ma ke s body (manage ial posi ion)
Cha i y Food pan y (manage ial posi ion)
Cha i y Food Bank (p ojec manage )
Local Popula dinning “ eegans” (ac i is and membe o he g oup)
Consume associa ion (manage ial posi ion)
Consume associa ion (manage ial posi ion)
Expe academia (was e and ood was e esea che )
En i onmen al NGO (p ojec manage s and manage ial posi ion)
5. Resul s and Discussion
The in-dep h in e iews we e analyzed h ough exhaus i e con en analysis o ge insigh s in o
he egional s akeholde s’ pe cep ions on ood was e, hei knowledge abou he olume o ood was e,
hei iews ega ding who is esponsible o i s gene a ion, and hei ood was e concep ualiza ion.
Fu he mo e, we collec ed all he po en ial causes o ood was e ha eme ged du ing he in e iews
using he HLPE amewo k (mic o, meso, and mac o) [
22
]. In he ollowing sec ion, we show he main
esul s and compa e hem wi h he indings in he p e ious li e a u e.
5.1. S akeholde s’ Pe cep ions
The s akeholde s showed in e es in he p oblem o ood was e despi e he ac ha i was
no a p io i y in hei daily ac i i ies. Those in ol ed di ec ly in he ood supply chain ( ood
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 7 o 19
ope a o s) p io i ized hei own business managemen , logis ics, knowledge o consume demand,
and mode niza ion o e ood was e minimiza ion. Fo he es o he s akeholde s—ins i u ions,
consume s’ associa ions, and so o h— ood was e was becoming ele an as a was e managemen
and ood secu i y issue. All he pa icipan s demons a ed an inc easing in e es in he ood was e
phenomena du ing he las se e al yea s, especially due o he economic c isis and i s isible impac
on socie y. I is wo h men ioning ha he impac o he Spanish economic c isis, which s a ed in 2008,
was isible in socie y a he ime o he in e iews in 2015 (e.g., an unemploymen a e o 22% and,
an AROPE a e o 28.6 [
80
]). The AROPE a e ep esen s people a isk o po e y o social exclusion,
which is conside ed o be he case when hey ace a leas h ee isks ou o a ba e y o nine, such as
s uggling o eed hemsel es adequa ely, being la e on paymen s on hei home, o being unable o
hea hei homes in win e [80].
Despi e hei ecogni ion o he g ea impo ance o he p oblem, we obse ed a gene alized
lack o knowledge abou he olume o ood was e along he ood supply chain. The pa icipan s
we e eluc an o quan i y he magni ude o he p oblem ei he in olume o as a pe cen age. On he
con a y, hey we e mo e open o discussing who was esponsible o he olume o ood was e.
The pa icipan s ecognized ha he esponsibili y could no be assigned o a single ood supply chain
agen , bu a he i should be dis ibu ed among all agen s. In gene al, hey a ibu ed he esponsibili y
o he gene a ed ood was e in e e y s age o he main s akeholde in ha s age. This was ue in
all ood supply s ages excep o a he a m le el, whe e a sha ed esponsibili y among a me s,
e aile s, and indus y agen s was associa ed wi h a m ood was e olumes. Conside ing he en i e
ood alue chain, a me s we e seen as he leas esponsible o he olume o gene a ed ood was e.
Mo eo e , public ins i u ions we e also seen as ha ing a ce ain esponsibili y o he olume o ood
was e, al hough hey a e no di ec ly in ol ed wi h ood handling. The key ole o public bodies in
he ma e o ood was e was also iden i ied in he Flash Eu oba ome e 425, when asking consume s
abou he ole o di e en ac o s in p e en ing ood was e [
81
]. The sha ed esponsibili y o he inding
is impo an and ein o ces HLPE’s idea [
22
] o dis inguishing be ween he s age whe e he olume o
ood was e is ound and he esponsibili ies associa ed wi h ha olume.
I is impo an o no e ha we did no ind a single concep ual amewo k o ood was e wi hin
ou panel o s akeholde s. Many di e en wo ds we e used when e e ing o ood was e and ood loss,
including concep s such as su plus, was age, byp oduc s, and so on. Despi e he di e si y o concep s
and pe spec i es, all o he s akeholde s had in mind he same b oad idea abou wha ood was e
was in o de o exp ess hei pe cep ions abou he causes. The gene al unde s anding o ood was e
was ha i is ood in ended o human consump ion ha was no ul ima ely used o his pu pose.
Finding di e en pe spec i es and ocabula ies is common in he ood was e deba e, as he p e ious
li e a u e has also shown [
27
,
82
,
83
]. This migh be caused by mul iple ac o s such as he no el y
o he opic and he coexis ence o mul iple pe spec i es. The ood was e deba e has eme ged om
di e en ields— ood secu i y, was e managemen , and nu i ion, among o he s—which in ol e, pe
se, mul iple concep ual app oaches.
5.2. Causes o Food Was e
The in e iews allowed us o iden i y an ex ensi e map o causes o ood was e in he me opoli an
egion o Ba celona. Despi e he no el y o he ood was e deba e o some o he s akeholde s, hey
demons a ed a g ea deal o knowledge o and luidi y in explaining he dynamics in he egional
ood sys em in he egion ha ul ima ely p o oked he h owing away o ood, no ma e how hey
named i . They explained mul iple ci cums ances and beha io s ha ha e been syn he ized and
classi ied acco ding o he concep ual amewo k explained in Sec ion 2. We classi ied he causes
in o h ee main g oups, mic o, meso, and mac o causes. In he ollowing sec ions, each g oup is
explained in mo e de ail by subdi iding he causes acco ding o hei na u e ( echnological, economic
and business, egula o y and policy, and app ecia ion and enhancemen ) and he s age o s ages o
he ood supply chain in which he cause was iden i ied o apply ( a m, wholesale ma ke , indus y,
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 8 o 19
e ail, o consump ion). We obse ed he g ea in e es o he s akeholde s in ood edis ibu ion and
all he di icul ies ela ed o edis ibu ing ood no sold h ough ma ke ing channels. Consequen ly,
we included an addi ional sec ion o explain he issue o ood edis ibu ion below. We compa e he
causes iden i ied in ou case s udy wi h he causes in p e ious s udies. Each able iden i ies whe he
he cause om he me opoli an egion has been ound be o e by p o iding i s e e ence.
5.2.1. Mic o Causes
The s akeholde s desc ibed di e en inciden als occu ing a di e en s ages ha can be iden i ied
as mic o causes. Mos o hem we e loca ed downs eam, a he wholesale ma ke , he ood indus y,
he e aile s, and households. We classi ied he causes as echnological, economic and business and
app ecia ion- and enhancemen -o ien ed (see Table 3).
Technological
A se o echnological- ela ed causes we e iden i ied in di e en s ages wi hou any connec ion o
he highe -le el dynamics. Mos o hem ha e been ex ensi ely desc ibed in he p e ious li e a u e as
shown in Table 3. Technical ine iciencies du ing he p ocessing and manipula ion o ood p oduc s
ake place a di e en s ages o he ood chain. The in e iewees highligh ed ha in he wholesale
ma ke , he lack o a p ope p ese a ion and s o age sys em could in luence ood was e gene a ion.
This is a commonly men ioned cause o ood was e in he li e a u e [
16
,
32
–
34
,
37
]. A second cause
o ood was e was ela ed o logis ics, mainly when ood p oduc s ha e o be anspo ed o e long
dis ances. In such ci cums ances, he likelihood o unexpec ed si ua ions and handling p oblems
ha lead o ood was e may inc ease, which was also ci ed in he wo k o Canali e al. [
50
] and
HLPE [
22
]. In he ood indus y, he s akeholde s iden i ied ood packaging as a key issue, e e ing
o ei he mis akes wi h he labeling o i s poo quali y. Packaging ailu es can esul in wi hd awal
o p oduc s ha a e unable o be sold o be consumed. Such ailu es we e iden i ied in he indus y
du ing anspo a ion and a he e ail s age. These di icul ies wi h packaging ha e been ex ensi ely
documen ed in he li e a u e [
22
,
32
,
34
,
37
,
41
,
45
,
50
,
84
]. The imp ope use o ood echnology, men ioned
also in Buzby e al. [
85
] and Gus a sson e al. [
6
], was ele an o ou s akeholde s as well. The lack o
ood was e p e en ion in manu ac u ing p ocesses was also aised as an issue, ha is, no ein oducing
o he manu ac u ing line, sh inkages and su pluses ha may occu du ing he manu ac u ing o ood.
Economic and Business Managemen
Conce ning he comme cial dynamics, he s akeholde s pinpoin ed he d i e s o ood was e a
he ood indus y, e ail, and household le els. The lack o sales planning, which is widely ci ed in
p e ious s udies [
6
,
22
,
32
–
34
,
50
], was also iden i ied as one o he main d i e s o ood was e a he
wholesale ma ke and e ail le els. The agen s a hese s ages we e acknowledged o ha e he endency
o wo k on a daily basis. Mo eo e , possible mis akes when o de ing p oduc s o be sold can c ea e
ood was e a he selling poin s. Wi hin he indus y, no using he bes a ailable echniques wi hou
en ailing excessi e cos s, was men ioned as a d i e o he indus y’s ood was e.
A he e ail le el, he s akeholde s di e en ia ed be ween he dynamics o small s o es and hose
o supe ma ke s and hype ma ke s. In small s o es, he size o he business and he p o isioning
sys em used (mainly pu chases a he wholesale ma ke ) we e singled ou as possible d i e s o ood
was e. Fo ins ance, some in e iewees explained a common p ac ice among small s o e manage s,
who buy p oduc s on p omo ion a he wholesale —usually an o e wi h a e y sho pe ishabili y
imespan—which inc eases he likelihood o ha ing he ood spoil la e on a he s o e. This is no he
case wi h supe ma ke s, in which he p o isioning sys em is mo e sys ema ized. Howe e , he con ac
wi h he clien is less di ec in supe ma ke s han in small s o es, which c ea es speci ic di icul ies
wi h ela ion o ood was e. Fo ins ance, some s akeholde s explained ha supe ma ke s lack a good
mechanism o adap ing a e aile ’s supply o consume demand pa e ns, which is a possible d i e
o ood was e. This is c ucial o a oid disappoin ing sales expec a ions and o encou age he success ul
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 9 o 19
accep ance o a new p oduc elease o p omo ion, he ailu e o which could esul in la ge quan i ies
o ood was e in he s o e a a gi en momen . Mo eo e , in supe ma ke s, esh ood, especially ui s
and ege ables, a e isible and accessible o consume s who some imes inco ec ly manipula e hem.
This manipula ion migh esul in damage o he ui s and ege ables, which mus hen be emo ed
om sale.
App ecia ion and Enhancemen
A gene alized lack o knowledge and awa eness ega ding ood was e among he di e en ac o s
o he ood supply chain was equen ly poin ed ou du ing he in e iews. On he comme cial side o
he supply chain, he in e iewees highligh ed ha business s a egies a e mo e ocused on economic
p o i s han on en i onmen al o social conside a ions. Ne e heless, he issue o ood was e is gaining
in e es in he ood sec o , and his si ua ion could po en ially change in he nea u u e h ough
co po a e social esponsibili y ac ions. The in e iewees no ed a widesp ead lack o awa eness abou
he olume each ac o gene a es in hei own ac i i y ( om p ocesso s o households), which was
also poin ed ou by Pa izeau e al. [
47
]. The s akeholde s o e ed di e en a gumen s o explain such
ci cums ances. Some o hem belie ed ha was e managemen was no iden i ied as a p io i y in
company s a egies, and his o ically, i has been e y di icul o quan i y i co ec ly. O he s belie ed
ha companies seem o be eluc an o wo k on was e educ ion.
Consume s we e also singled ou o hei lack o knowledge ega ding ood was e and
he poo managemen o ood a home, which has been ex ensi ely co e ed in p e ious s udies
(e.g.,
[16,22,32,33]
). The in e iewees unde lined he exis ence o my hs abou ood sa e y ha in luence
consume s’ managemen o ood. They claimed ha consume s simply h ow away wha hey hink i
is no good o ea . In his con ex , he lack o knowledge abou expi a ion and bes be o e da es was
he main eason o he gene a ion o ood was e in he household. Fu he mo e, he s akeholde s
men ioned some inco ec pu chasing habi s (e.g., pu chases o ien ed o p omo ions, shopping ou ines
and pa e ns, and bad pu chasing planning) and cooking habi s (e.g., cooking mo e quan i y han
needed, damaging ood while cooking, and he lack o knowledge on how o p ese e ood and
le o e s), oge he wi h a possible lack o in e es in cooking p ope ly as some o he mo e signi ican
causes o ood was e in he home.
Table 3. Mic o causes o ood was e.
F W I R C
Technological
– Insu icien p ese a ion sys ems [16,32–34,37]
– P oblems wi h anspo a ion and handling [22,50]
– Mis akes in labeling
– Di icul ies e-in oducing su pluses in he manu ac u ing line [6,85]
– Poo quali y o packaging [22,32,34,37,41,45,50,84]
Economic and
business
– E o s du ing pu chasing wi hin companies
– Lack o sales planning [6,22,32–34,50]
– No using he bes a ailable echniques
– Lack o adap abili y o he consume demand pa e n
– Response ime and capabili y o selling ood abou o expi e
– Failed sales expec a ions
– Nega i e esponse o clien s o a new p omo ion
– Clien s inco ec ly manipula ing ood a he s o e
App ecia ion
and
enhancemen
– P imacy o economic p o i s
– Di icul ies o quan i ying ood was e
– Was e managemen no being a p io i y in he business sec o
– Companies’ daily dynamics making i di icul o be awa e o he ine iciencies
– Companies’ eluc ance o wo k on was e educ ion
– Lack o awa eness o he olume o ood was e [47]
– Lack o knowledge o consume s ( ood, da e labeling)
– Poo managemen o ood a home [16,22,32,33]
No e: F: a m; W: wholesale ma ke ; I: indus y; R: e ail (supe ma ke s, small s o es); and C: consump ion. Causes
iden i ied in p e ious li e a u e a e iden i ied acco dingly.
Sus ainabili y 2018,10, 3730 16 o 19
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, R.D.-R. and M.C.-F.; Da a cu a ion, R.D.-R. and M.C.-F.;
Fo mal analysis, R.D.-R.; Me hodology R.D.-R.; Supe ision, M.C.-F. and J.M.G.; Valida ion, F.L.-i.-G.;
W i ing—o iginal d a , R.D.-R. and F.L.-i.-G.; W i ing— e iew & edi ing, R.D.-R., M.C.-F., F.L.-i.-G. and J.M.G.
All ou au ho s ead and app o ed he inal pape .
Funding:
This wo k was pa ially unded by he Was e P e en ion Depa men o he Me opoli an A ea o
Ba celona. Raquel Diaz-Ruiz was unded by he P e-Doc o al eaching ellowship (FPU 13/06077) awa ded by he
Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e and Spo .
Acknowledgmen s:
We acknowledge all he s akeholde s pa icipa ing in he esea ch o hei ime and hei
indispensable con ibu ion.
Con lic s o In e es :
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he design o he
s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip , o in he decision o
publish he esul s.
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