Full leng h a icle
Assessing he po en ial impac s o loa ing O sho e Wind Fa ms on
policy- ele an species: A case s udy in he Gul o Roses,
NW Medi e anean
Paul Waw zynkowski
a,b,*
, Climen Molins
c
, Josep Llo e
d
a
Ins i u e o Aqua ic Ecology, Uni e si y o Gi ona, C/ Ma ia Au elia Capmany 69, Gi ona 17003, Spain
b
Facul y o Ea h Sciences, Uni e si y o Ba celona, C/ Ma í i F anqu´
es s/n, Ba celona 08028, Spain
c
Depa men o Ci il and En i onmen al Enginee ing, Uni e si a Poli `
ecnica de Ca alunya, C/ Jo di Gi ona, 1–3, Ba celona 08034, Spain
d
Ins i u de Ci`
encies del Ma (CSIC), Passeig Ma í im de la Ba celone a 37–49, Ba celona 08003, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Floa ing o sho e wind a m
Gene alized Impac Assessmen
Policy- ele an species
Ecosys em managemen
Ma ine Biodi e si y
ABSTRACT
Ou s udy in es iga es o he i s ime how loa ing O sho e Wind Fa ms (OWFs) echnologies could impac
policy- ele an Medi e anean species, ocusing on planned OWFs in he Cape C eus/Gul o Roses (Spain, NW
Medi e anean). Using he Gene alized Impac Assessmen amewo k, we iden i ied p essu e on di e se axo-
nomic g oups. Ou species selec ion p io i ized species unde Eu opean policy (Bi ds and Habi a s Di ec i es)
and in e na ional/local con en ions p o ec ing lo a and auna, as hey a e i al biodi e si y indica o s. Ou
analysis iden i ied 135 policy- ele an species suscep ible o OWF-induced s esso s, no ably ma ine mammals,
seabi ds, elasmob anchs, and ben hic mac oin e eb a es a he highes isk. Among he di e en s esso s, noise
and ib a ion, along wi h habi a loss, pose he g ea es po en ial impac s. While deca bonizing ene gy p o-
duc ion is c ucial o add essing clima e change, p ese ing ocean biodi e si y is equally i al. Ou s udy pio-
nee s he assessmen o eme ging OWFs po en ial impac s on Medi e anean species, o e ing aluable insigh s
o decision-make s du ing OWF planning.
1. In oduc ion
The In e go e nmen al Panel on Clima e Change (IPCC) has high-
ligh ed he c ucial ole o ansi ioning owa ds enewable ene gy
sou ces, such as O sho e Wind Fa ms (OWFs), in limi ing global
wa ming [123]. This u gen need o enewable ene gy sou ces in he
ace o he clima e c isis is widely acknowledged, as hey ha e he po-
en ial o signi ican ly educe g eenhouse gas emissions [100]. Howe -
e , as we de elop and expand hese echnologies, i is impe a i e o
conside hei po en ial impac s on ma ine biodi e si y, in on o he
biodi e si y c isis we a e also acing. As essen ial ou comes o COP
Clima e Change Con e ences, we need o ensu e ha clima e adap ed
solu ions also co-deli e o Na u e [126]. The biodi e si y c isis has
b ough o he o e on he c i ical need o p o ec and conse e ma ine
ecosys ems and hei biodi e si y [139]. OWFs ha e been shown o ha e
he po en ial o dis up ma ine ecosys ems and ha m ulne able species
and habi a s [76]. The e o e, s iking a balance be ween ou ene gy
needs and he heal h and i ali y o ou oceans is essen ial [35]. By
conduc ing ho ough e alua ions o he po en ial impac s o OWFs on
ma ine biodi e si y, we can help a oid o mi iga e nega i e e ec s and
ensu e ha ma ine enewable ene gy p oduc ion can be deli e ed in a
sus ainable manne ha also sa egua ds ma ine ecosys ems [46].
The Medi e anean egion has po en ial o he de elopmen o
o sho e wind ene gy, bu he indus y is s ill in i s ea ly s ages. In
con as o o he pa s o Eu ope, such as he No h Sea and he Bal ic
Sea, whe e o sho e wind has been ope a ing o mo e han a decade, he
Medi e anean is lagging behind [84]. Howe e , he abundan wind
esou ces p esen in some egions and p oximi y o high-ene gy demand
a eas make i an a ac i e loca ion o he de elopmen o loa ing
OWFs [120,129]. I is wo h no ing ha loa ing o sho e wind ech-
nology is a new de elopmen compa ed o ixed o sho e u bines [7],
which ha e been ope a ing o mo e han a decade in no he n Eu opean
seas. As he u gency o ansi ion o a low-ca bon economy g ows, he e
is an oppo uni y o he Medi e anean egion o accele a e he de el-
opmen o i s o sho e wind ene gy po en ial using he la es echnolo-
gies, such as loa ing o sho e wind, con ibu ing o he deca boniza ion
* Co esponding au ho a : Ins i u e o Aqua ic Ecology, Uni e si y o Gi ona, C/ Ma ia Au elia Capmany 69, Gi ona 17003, Spain.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (P. Waw zynkowski).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Ma ine Policy
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ma pol
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ma pol.2024.106518
Recei ed 25 Janua y 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 4 No embe 2024; Accep ed 14 No embe 2024
Ma ine Policy 172 (2025) 106518
A ailable online 22 No embe 2024
0308-597X/© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license (
h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/ ).
o he economy.
This pape conduc s an impac assessmen o loa ing OWF ech-
nologies wi hin he Medi e anean Sea, wi h a speci ic ocus on hei
po en ial implica ions o policy- ele an species. In he con ex o his
s udy, policy- ele an species a e de ined as hose o high conse a ion
p io i y due o hei ulne abili y and popula ion s a us. These species
a e explici ly co e ed by in e na ional, na ional, o egional egula ions,
speci ically Eu opean, Spanish, and Ca alan laws, as well as non-binding
ag eemen s such as con en ions aimed a species p o ec ion. Policy-
ele an species play a c ucial ole in conse a ion e o s, as hey a e
cen al o legal and egula o y amewo ks [74]. Recognizing and
add essing hei signi icance is essen ial o he o mula ion o e ec i e
and sus ainable en i onmen al policies. By comp ehensi ely unde -
s anding how di e en OWF echnologies impac he esponse and
ulne abili ies o hese species, we can de elop a holis ic pe spec i e
ha acili a es he assessmen o OWF impac s on ma ine biodi e si y.
This knowledge becomes pa icula ly pi o al in s a egic planning o
he de elopmen o OWFs, especially when hese in as uc u es ha e
he po en ial o a ec ma ine p o ec ed a eas (MPAs) ha ha bo
policy- ele an species [76].
To illus a e hese impac s, he pape uses he example o a la ge
loa ing OWF p oposed o be buil in he Cos a B a a egion o he
no he n Ca alan Sea, in he wa e s o Cape C eus/Gul o Roses (Spain,
NW Medi e anean). This egion is known o i s high biodi e si y and
he p esence o ulne able species [24], and he de elopmen o an OWF
in his a ea could ha e signi ican en i onmen al impac s on i [76]. The
pape e iews ele an li e a u e and scien i ic s udies o e alua e he
exis ing knowledge and esea ch on he opic, and o iden i y po en ial
gaps in ou unde s anding o he impac s o OWFs on policy- ele an
species in he Medi e anean.
The ou comes o his esea ch a e poised o enhance ou comp e-
hension o how OWF de elopmen may impac he Medi e anean’s
en i onmen . They will play a c ucial ole in de ising e ec i e s a egies
o manage and alle ia e hese e ec s, sa egua ding he long- e m well-
being o he egion’s ma ine ecosys ems. These insigh s ca y signi ican
weigh wi hin he con empo a y conse a ion landscape. The Kunming-
Mon eal Global Biodi e si y F amewo k [22] aspi es o expand ma ine
p o ec ed a eas o 30 % by 2030. Co espondingly, he Eu opean
Union’s Na u e Res o a ion Law [39] aims o es o e 20 % o deg aded
habi a s by 2020, wi h a ocus on eco e ing Na u a 2000 p o ec ed
a eas by 2050. These commi men s unde sco e he p essing need o
coun e ac human-induced damage o ecosys ems and biodi e si y.
Howe e , hese aspi a ions migh collide wi h he de elopmen o
o sho e wind ene gy unless me iculous planning minimizes ad e se
impac s on he delica e Medi e anean habi a s and species [87].
No ably, he join conclusions o he IPCC and In e go e nmen al
Science-Policy Pla o m on Biodi e si y and Ecosys em Se ices (IPBES)
emphasize he impe a i e need o add ess bo h clima e and biodi e si y
c ises concu en ly, ensu ing ha he solu ions implemen ed do no
exace ba e he issues hey aim o esol e [108]. I is impe a i e o adop
measu es ha ha monize OWFs wi h he conse a ion o i al Medi-
e anean ecosys ems.
2. Me hodology
2.1. Case s udy
The e a e cu en ly no ope a ional comme cial OWFs in he Medi-
e anean Sea. Howe e , he Eu opean Union’s ene gy policy ad oca es
he ins alla ion o OWFs and has es ablished a ge s o 2030 in
collabo a ion wi h membe coun ies. Addi ionally, he Spanish go -
e nmen , in i s Ma i ime Plan O dina ion o 2023 [91], has iden i ied
speci ic "Zones o high po en ial o o sho e wind ene gy" (ZAPER -
Zonas de al o po encial pa a el desa ollo de la ene gía e´
olica ma ina). These
zones a e deemed sui able o he de elopmen o comme cial o sho e
wind ene gy in as uc u e. Ou s udy has been conduc ed in one such
a ea, known as LEBA 1 (o LE an ino BAlea 1) in Cape C eus/Gul o
Roses (Spain, NW Medi e anean, Fig. 1), which is cha ac e ized by i s
high biodi e si y and he p esence o se e al MPAs o di e en ca e-
go ies including Na u a 2000 si es [76]. Addi ionally, his a ea is clas-
si ied as "High-po en ial zone o biodi e si y conse a ion" [91]. This
egion, along wi h he p oposed loa ing OWF, se es as a case s udy o
assess po en ial ecological impac s o such acili ies in he Medi e a-
nean Sea.
In he LEBA 1 a ea, he e a e six p oposed comme cial p ojec s and
one p oposed expe imen al pla o m designa ed o esea ch pu poses.
Ou analysis o he documen a ion submi ed du ing hei En i on-
men al Impac Assessmen p ocedu es by he de elope s has enabled us
o iden i y he echnologies and componen s planned o ins alla ion.
Fo cla i y, we ha e ca ego ized hem based on di e en phases o he
OWF’s li e cycle, including explo a ion and planning, ins alla ion and
commissioning, and ope a ion and main enance. Decommissioning and
epowe ing s ages we e no speci ically assessed, gi en limi ed esea ch
a ailable on hese phases. This is pa icula ly ue o loa ing OWFs due
o hei ela i ely ecen de elopmen . Consequen ly, he e is a signi i-
can knowledge gap ega ding he en i onmen al impac s associa ed
wi h hese s ages, necessi a ing mo e long- e m s udies and da a.
2.2. Species selec ion
We i s iden i ied he mac o-species wi hin ou s udy a ea h ough
he u iliza ion o he Spanish Node o he Global Biodi e si y In o ma-
ion Facili y (GBIF.ES, h ps://www.gbi .es/). This p ocess in ol ed
documen ing all obse ed species wi hin he ma ine egion o ou s udy.
Nex , we adap ed he species selec ion p ocess de ailed in Llo e e al.
[75] o iden i y policy- ele an species suscep ible o he impac s o
OWFs in an Eu opean amewo k. This app oach comp ised h ee main
s eps. Ini ially, we encompassed all species p o ec ed by he Habi a s
and Bi ds Di ec i es (Habi a s 92/43/EEC Di ec i e, Bi ds 2009/147/EC
Di ec i e). Then, we included species classi ied as C i ically Endange ed
(CR), Endange ed (EN), Vulne able (VU), and Nea Th ea ened (NT)
Fig. 1. S udy a ea map. Map displaying he s udy a ea o Cape C eus/Gul o
Roses a ea (Spain, NW Medi e anean) wi h he loca ion o he LEBA 1 (zone o
high po en ial o o sho e wind ene gy), and Na u a 2000 si es (SPA, SCI, and
pSCI). SPA: special p o ec ion a ea; SCI: si e o communi y impo ance; pSCI:
p oposed si es o communi y impo ance.
P. Waw zynkowski e al.
Ma ine Policy 172 (2025) 106518
2
ollowing he IUCN Red Lis ’s Medi e anean egional assessmen
(www.iucn edlis .o g), eso ing o he global assessmen when egional
da a we e absen . Finally, ou selec ion ex ended o species p o ec ed by
in e na ional ag eemen s (Ba celona, Be n, Bonn, and CITES con en-
ions) and hose wi h local sa egua ding s a us, documen ed in he
Spanish Lis o Wild Species unde Special P o ec ion Regime, Spanish
Ca alog o Th ea ened Species, and Ca alan Lis o p o ec ed and
h ea ened species o he na i e auna.
We pinpoin ed 135 policy- ele an species om he 1188 mac o-
species inhabi ing he s udy a ea (Table 1, Table A). These species
span di e se axa, wi h he mos p ominen concen a ions in A es (33
species), Mammalia (26 species, comp ising 7 Ce acea and 18 Chi-
op e a), and Ac inop e ygii (18 species). O hese 135 policy- ele an
species, 58 enjoy p o ec ion unde ei he he Bi ds o Habi a s Di-
ec i es, wi h A es and Mammalia encompassing 25 p o ec ed species
each unde bo h di ec i es (Table 1).
In his s udy, we analyze policy- ele an species a he axonomic
g oup le el o cap u e b oad pa e ns and ends essen ial o in o ming
conse a ion and policy measu es. By ocusing on axonomic g oups, we
can add ess b oade ecological implica ions o loa ing OWFs while
main aining ele ance o policy and conse a ion p io i ies.
2.3. Impac assessmen
To comp ehensi ely assess he biological e ec s o loa ing OWFs, a
igo ous li e a u e e iew p o ocol was implemen ed. Ini ially, gene ic
e m like “ loa ing o sho e wind a m en i onmen al impac ” we e used
ac oss s anda d sea ch ools, including Google Schola ,
1
Web o Sci-
ence,
2
and specialized wind ene gy en i onmen al da abases such as
Te hys.
3
Following he iden i ica ion o p ima y s esso s, ocused
sea ches using speci ic keywo ds (e.g., “ loa ing o sho e wind a m
noise and ib a ions”) we e conduc ed. Mo eo e , he snowball me hod
[143] was employed o b oaden he scope, del ing in o he e e ences
ci ed wi hin he e ie ed s udies. A o al o 138 s udies we e selec ed o
inclusion in his comp ehensi e assessmen .
We indi idually examined iden i ied s esso s (p essu es) and linked
each one o he co esponding echnology (d i e ) esponsible o i s
occu ence and he a ec ed axa ( ecep o s). The e ained s esso s o
e alua ion include collision, noise and ib a ions, ba ie e ec ,
en anglemen , sedimen esuspension, spa ial beha io pe u ba ion,
elec omagne ic ields, hea emission, and habi a modi ica ions. To
assess he biological impac , we adop ed he Gene alized Impac
Assessmen me hodology p oposed by Be gs ¨
om e al. [12]. This
me hodology conside s he empo al and spa ial ex en o he s esso , as
well as he sensi i i y o he ecep o species. We p o ided de ailed in-
o ma ion on he spa ial and empo al ex en o each d i e c ea ing he
s esso based on he li e a u e e iew. We hen calcula ed he mean
alue o hese ex en s o each s esso , esul ing in a single alue o
each s esso .
We assessed he magni ude o impac using sco es anging om 1 o
3, whe e highe sco es indica e a g ea e le el o impac . We employed
he ca ego iza ion c i e ia desc ibed in Table 2 o assign hese sco es.
The o e all impac was de e mined by summing all he sco es by e-
cep o s. A o al sco e o 3–4 indica ed a low o e all impac , cha ac e -
ized by mainly low sco es and no high sco es o any speci ic aspec . A
o al sco e o 5–6 indica ed a mode a e o e all impac , consis ing o
p edominan ly mode a e sco es o a combina ion o one high sco e o
one aspec and a leas one low sco e o he o he aspec s. A o al sco e
o 7–9 indica ed a high o e all impac , wi h mode a e o high sco es o
all aspec s o mul iple high sco es o di e en aspec s. In he esul s,
hese impac le els will be colo -coded: yellow o low impac (3–4),
o ange o mode a e impac (5–6), and ed o high impac (7–9).
Fu he mo e, he le el o ce ain y in he assessmen was e alua ed
sepa a ely o he empo al and spa ial ex en o he d i e s and he
sensi i i y o he ecep o s. This e alua ion conside ed he ex en o
which he conclusions we e suppo ed by pee - e iewed li e a u e.
3. Resul s and discussion
Ou li e a u e e iew enabled us o link he echnologies (d i e s)
p oposed in a ious loa ing OWF p ojec s in ou s udy a ea wi h he
p essu es (s esso s) a ec ing he policy- ele an species unde in es-
iga ion. Table 3 ca ego izes hese associa ions based on he OWF li e
cycle phase. Subsequen ly, we will p esen de ailed assessmen s o each
s esso and hei po en ial impac on policy- ele an species.
Table 1
Numbe o species conside ed as policy- ele an in ou s udy a ea, o de ed by
phylum and class showing he coun o species p o ec ed unde he Bi ds and
Habi a s Di ec i es, hose mee ing ou c i e ia bu no p o ec ed unde hese
di ec i es, and he o al numbe o policy- ele an species.
Phylum Class Bi ds and
Habi a s
Di ec i es
species
O he
policy-
ele an
species
To al
policy-
ele an
species
Annelida Polychae a 1 1
A h opoda B anchiopoda 2 2
Malacos aca 1 5 6
Cho da a Ac inop e ygii 1 17 18
A es 25 8 33
Chond ich hyes 8 8
Elasmob anchii 4 4
Mammalia
1
25 1 26
Rep ilia 3 3
Cnida ia An hozoa 1 15 16
Echiode ma a Echinoidea 1 1
Mollusca Bi la ia 2 1 3
Gas opoda 3 3
Och ophy a Phaeophycae 2 2
Po i e a Desmospongiae 5 5
Rhodophy a 1 1
T acheophy a Liliopsida 3 3
1
7 Ce acea, 18 Chi op e a
Table 2
Assessmen c i e ia o po en ial impac on ma ine li e om loa ing OWFs
s esso s. Spa ial ex en was de ined as he expec ed dispe sal o he s esso
om i s sou ce, empo al ex en as i s expec ed du a ion. Sensi i i y was
assessed in ela ion sepa a ely o each axa ( ecep o ). Ce ain y le els we e
de e mined based on pee - e iewed li e a u e documen a ion.
Sco e Spa ial
ex en
Tempo al
ex en
Sensi i i y Ce ain y
1 (low) <100 m Du ing su ey
and/o
cons uc ion
phase
Mino e ec s
on he
abundance and
dis ibu ion o
local species
Limi ed o no
empi ical
documen a ion
2
(mode a e)
<1000 m Th oughou
ope a ional
phase
E ec s on he
abundance and
dis ibu ion o
local species,
no e ec s on
ood web
Documen a ion
a ailable, bu
esul s o di e en
s udies may be
con adic o y
3 (high) >1000 m Pe manen E ec s on he
abundance and
dis ibu ion o
local species,
e ec s on ood
web
Documen a ion
a ailable,
ela i ely high
ag eemen among
s udies
1
h ps://schola .google.com/
2
h p://login.webo knowledge.com/
3
h ps:// e hys.pnnl.go /
P. Waw zynkowski e al.
Ma ine Policy 172 (2025) 106518
3
Table 3
Associa ions be ween s esso s and echnologies/componen s in loa ing OWF de elopmen . This able showcases he connec ions be ween di e en s esso s and he speci ic d i e s ( echnologies o componen s) linked o
OWF de elopmen .
Phase Technology
Componen
S esso s
Collision Noise and
ib a ion
Ba ie
e ec
En anglemen
p ima y
Sedimen
esuspension
Spa ial
beha io
a ac ion
Spa ial
beha io
a oidance
Chemical
pollu ion
Elec omagne ic
ields
Hea
emission
Habi a
modi ica ion
loss and
damage
Habi a
modi ica ion
c ea ion
Oceanog aphic
p ocesses
Su ey Ma ine a ic X X X X X X
Geophysical
su ey
X
Me eo ological
buoy
X X X X
Ins alla ion Ma ine a ic X X X X X X
Cable ins alla ion X X X X
Ancho ing line
ins alla ion
X X X
Ancho s
ins alla ion
X X X X
Subs a ion
ounda ion
X X X X
Ope a ion Ma ine a ic X X X X X X
Ligh ing X
Wind u bine X X X X X
Wind u bine
pla o m
XX X
Wind u bine
blades
X
Wind u bine
owe
X X X X
Ancho ing lines X X X X X X X X
Dynamic powe
cables
X X X X X X
Powe cables X X
Elec ical
subs a ion
X X X X
P. Waw zynkowski e al.
Ma ine Policy 172 (2025) 106518
4
3.1. Collision
3.1.1. Abo e wa e
The isk o collision mo ali y is a signi ican conce n o bi ds in
wind ene gy acili ies [33]. Al hough collisions wi h wind u bines can
be deadly [26], hei occu ence in OWFs is ela i ely a e compa ed o
onsho e wind a ms due o bi ds’ abili y o pe cei e OWFs as obs acles
and a oid hem (see 3.6.2) [117]. Howe e , he isk o collision in-
c eases in low ligh condi ions, especially a nigh and du ing poo is-
ibili y [83], wi h seabi ds acing heigh ened ulne abili y due o hei
long li espan and low ecundi y [122]. Mig a ing bi ds a e also a isk
[117], al hough da a on mig a ion pa hs in he s udy a ea a e limi ed.
Fo ba s, he p ima y isk associa ed wi h loa ing OWFs is collision
wi h as -mo ing u bine blades [2,65], gi en ha ba s gene ally a oid
collisions wi h s a iona y s uc u es [36].
3.1.2. Below wa e
Wind ene gy acili ies, including OWF, can lead o inc eased ma ine
a ic h oughou hei di e en s ages, inc easing he po en ial o
collisions wi h la ge ce aceans and u les [10]. The isk o collision wi h
subme ged componen s o o sho e wind u bines, such as pla o ms, is
gene ally conside ed low o non-exis en , al hough limi ed s uc u ed
esea ch is a ailable on his aspec , he e is a weal h o p ac ical
expe ience ha has been accumula ed o e ime [140,141].
Based on he li e a u e, ma ine bi ds and ba s a e expec ed o be he
mos a ec ed by collisions, wi h a mode a e po en ial impac (Table 4
and Table B.1).
3.2. Noise and ib a ion
The impac o noise om OWFs on ma ine li e is a key conce n ha
a ies ac oss he wind a m’s li e cycle and wea he condi ions. Du ing
all phases o OWF ope a ions, ships a e essen ial, con ibu ing o noise
gene a ion. This ship noise can dis up communica ion among a ious
ish species and induce physiological s ess in ish and in e eb a es
[130]. Pa icula ly, du ing su ey and main enance ac i i ies, he
in e mi en na u e o essel noise is a signi ican ac o ha can ele a e
s ess esponses in ma ine o ganisms [144]. Mo eo e , he inc eased
ma ine a ic associa ed wi h OWFs may dis u b and displace ma ine
mammals and u les om c ucial habi a s due o ele a ed noise le els
and he dis u bance c ea ed by essel ac i i ies [61].
The geophysical si e su eys conduc ed o OWFs ha e he po en ial
o a ec ma ine li e. Some ish species, like clupeids, can de ec mid-
equency sona anges [93]. Howe e , he exac impac o hese su -
ey echnologies on ma ine li e emains no ully unde s ood, and
limi ed s udies ha e been conduc ed on hei e ec s [93]. Al hough
Table 4
Po en ial impac o loa ing OWFs on Medi e anean ma ine policy- ele an species om a ious p essu es. Sco es ep esen he cumula i e impac o each p essu e,
combining he mean spa ial ex en o he p essu e, mean empo al ex en o he p essu e, and sensi i i y o each g oup. Colo -coded: 3–4 (yellow) o low impac , 5–6
(o ange) o mode a e impac , and 7–9 ( ed) o high impac . See Sec ion 2.3 o de ini ions and me hodology.
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di ec mo ali y o damage o in e nal issues is no an icipa ed, ce ain
ish ha e exhibi ed signs o hea ing loss. In e eb a es, o en less mo ile
and ben hic, a e also exposed o hese su ey echnologies, bu he e is a
lack o documen ed s udies add essing hei speci ic e ec s.
Acco ding o Nedwell e al. [95], enching ac i i ies o bu y cables
a e expec ed o ha e a signi ican impac on ha bo po poises, wi h
g ea e es ima ed impac s on ma ine mammal species compa ed o ish.
Tao mina e al. [134] s a ed ha he e is cu en ly no clea e idence
demons a ing he e ec s o unde wa e noise emi ed du ing cable
ins alla ion on ma ine mammals o o he ma ine animals. This may be
due o he lack o s udies speci ically e alua ing he impac o his
echnology on unde wa e noise, wi h exis ing esea ch p ima ily based
on modeling. Fo he inal connec ion o he cable o he sho e, Ho i-
zon al Di ec ional D illing is ecommended in a eas wi h seag ass
meadows. Al hough his ac i i y could po en ially gene a e signi ican
noise, he e is a lack o a ailable s udies speci ically add essing his
aspec . O e all, he cons uc ion phase o OWFs is cha ac e ized by a
highe le el o noise, bu i occu s o e a ela i ely sho pe iod o ime,
and i is no expec ed o ha e popula ion-le el impac s.
S udies compa ing he noise gene a ed by ope a ing OWFs wi h ha
o la ge comme cial ships ha e poin ed ou ha wind a ms a e s a-
iona y and ep esen local sou ces o noise, which ma ine animals may
ind challenging o e ade [93]. Du ing he ope a ional phase, con in-
uous noise om OWFs is no expec ed o cause physiological ha m o
ma ine animals [138,80,82,93]. Howe e , con inuous noise om OWFs
can ha e a signi ican masking e ec as i coincides in equency wi h
he hea ing and ocaliza ion anges o nume ous ish species [93]. Un-
like ixed ounda ions, he noise om loa ing o sho e u bines does no
p opaga e in o he sea loo , leading o a mo e con ined spa ial impac on
ben hic species [102]. Du ing he ope a ional phase o loa ing o sho e
u bines, moo ing- ela ed noise is p oduced in addi ion o con inuous
noise [118]. This moo ing- ela ed noise includes impulsi e sounds o
ansien s, which become mo e p onounced du ing highe wind speeds
and co espondingly highe wa es. These sounds may occu indi idually
o in quick succession [118,19]. I is he e o e c ucial o conside he
cumula i e noise ou pu o la ge u bine a ays because he dis ances
o e which OWF a ay noise can be de ec ed unde ambien condi ions
may inc ease [118].
Unde wa e noise is expec ed o impac all ma ine species (Table 4
and Table B.2). Ma ine mammals, especially, due o hei eliance on
sound o communica ion and na iga ion, a e likely he mos a ec ed
[102]. Fish, which ely on hea ing and pa icle mo ion o communi-
ca ion and en i onmen al awa eness, migh expe ience eloca ion due
o cons uc ion- ela ed noise, despi e hey gene ally do no espond o
con inuous ope a ional noise [140]. Ma ine mac oin e eb a es, like
decapods and cephalopods, can de ec sound and pa icle mo ion bu
ha e less sensi i i y o loud noises. Howe e , he speci ic e ec s o
an h opogenic sound on hese species a indi idual and popula ion
le els emain la gely unknown [127,131]. The e ec s o an h opogenic
sound on sea u les a e no ho oughly s udied. None heless, loud noises
gene a ed du ing OWF cons uc ion a e expec ed o impac hei
beha io and displacemen [61]. The ecen a en ion o he abili y o
elasmob anchs o de ec sound has e ealed mixed esponses depending
on he species. Due o hei capabili y o eac o an h opogenic un-
de wa e sound, sha ks may be a ec ed by cons uc ion ac i i ies [124,
88]. Ce ain seabi ds can hea unde wa e , de ec ing low equencies
and displaying a oidance esponses o human-gene a ed noise. How-
e e , he impac o unde wa e noise du ing cons uc ion and ope a ion
is no conside ed signi ican [6].
3.3. Ba ie e ec
3.3.1. Abo e wa e
The abo e-wa e pa o OWFs can ac as a ba ie o ce ain species
o seabi ds [64,85] and mig a ing bi ds [44]. Seabi ds migh al e hei
ligh pa hs o a oid collisions wi h he in as uc u e, incu ing added
ene gy cos s [85]. The e ec is expec ed o in ensi y wi h he scale o he
OWF; la ge ins alla ions a e an icipa ed o p esen mo e p onounced
ba ie s o a ian species.Habi a agmen a ion om hese physical
ba ie s may cause he a oidance o p e iously u ilized o aging a eas
[28] and he impac on mig a ing bi ds a ies by species and loca ion
[57]. While indi idual OWFs ha e minimal e ec s on la ge-scale bi ds
mig a ion, cumula i e impac s may become signi ican i wind powe
expansion does no conside mig a ion ou es [20].
3.3.2. Below wa e
Animals may pe cei e ba ie s acous ically o isually, po en ially
in luencing hei impac ex en [102]. To da e, no s udy has epo ed
physical ba ie s om OWFs on ma ine mammals o la ge aqua ic ani-
mals. Ye , i is i al o conside ha loa ing OWFs, due o hei design
wi h moo ings and cables, occupy a mo e ex ensi e dynamic space in he
wa e column han ixed-bo om u bines, po en ially yielding di e en
ou comes. Al hough no e idence o a ba ie e ec on ma ine mammals
cu en ly exis s, conce ns a e signi ican in No h Ame ica, whe e
ope a ional OWFs ha e no ye been deployed, especially o No h
A lan ic igh whales [111]. Gi en he complex mo emen pa e ns o
many ma ine species, cha ac e ized by si e ideli y in some cases, as-
sessmen s o local ma ine ecosys ems be o e OWF implemen a ion a e
essen ial o es ablish baselines and e alua e po en ial changes upon
OWF ac i a ion [102].
Conce ning ish, OWFs and subme ged componen s a e unlikely o
signi ican ly a ec hei mo emen [102]. Floa ing pla o ms can e en
unc ion as ish agg ega ing de ices, p o iding o aging oppo uni ies
and shel e [21]. Elasmob anchs a e also no expec ed o be impac ed in
hei mo emen and migh be a ac ed o ish agg ega ions a ound
OWFs [43].
In summa y, based on ou indings and he li e a u e e iew, un-
de wa e ba ie e ec s on ish, sha ks, and ays can be discoun ed, and
a low impac on ma ine mammals is indica ed (Table 4 and Table B.3).
Howe e , he ou e po ions o OWFs may ac as ba ie e ec s o bi ds,
po en ially esul ing in a signi ican impac (Table 4 and Table B.3).
3.4. En anglemen
En anglemen , associa ed wi h moo ing lines and cables suspended
unde wa e , ep esen s a key di e ence be ween ixed and loa ing
OWFs [132,86]. En anglemen can be classi ied in o wo main ypes:
p ima y (di ec ) and seconda y/ e ia y (indi ec ) en anglemen [42].
P ima y en anglemen in ol es species ge ing di ec ly caugh in OWF
componen s, such as moo ing lines and powe cables. In con as , sec-
onda y/ e ia y en anglemen occu s when species become ensna ed in
ishing gea be o e o a e he gea in e ac s wi h OWF componen s
[42].
P ima y en anglemen isks in OWFs a e p edominan ly associa ed
wi h moo ing lines and cables suspended in he wa e , pa icula ly o
ma ine mammals. Howe e , he likelihood o p ima y en anglemen is
conside ed low, as he ension in moo ing lines gene ally p e en s loop
o ma ion o en anglemen [11]. None heless, he po en ial conse-
quences a e signi ican , especially o ulne able ma ine mammals [11,
60]. While no p ima y en anglemen inciden s ha e been epo ed wi h
loa ing o sho e s uc u es, he isk may inc ease wi h he g owing
numbe o OWF p ojec s ea u ing mul iple u bines, each equipped
wi h moo ing lines and powe cables [134]. The isk associa ed wi h
p ima y en anglemen depends on he moo ing sys em design, wi h
ca ena y moo ing sys ems posing highe isks due o la ge swep ol-
umes and a eas compa ed o au moo ing sys ems [11]. Powe cables,
on he o he hand, gene ally p esen a lowe isk, as hey a e designed o
be less esis an and capable o b eaking i la ge animals become
en angled, allowing o easie escape [102].
Seconda y and e ia y en anglemen , o en e med ghos ishing, is
mainly linked o ma ine li e , especially de elic ishing gea . This o m
o en anglemen poses isks o a b oade ange o ma ine li e, including
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Ma ine Policy 172 (2025) 106518
6
ma ine mammals [94], ma ine u les [34], sha ks [104], ish, and
di ing seabi ds [94]. Once en angled, hese smalle animals lack he
abili y o ee hemsel es, and he majo i y o hem pe ish wi hou
human in e en ion [34]. While no documen ed inciden s ha e occu ed
wi h loa ing o sho e u bines, ishing gea has been ound in he
moo ing lines o o sho e oil and gas pla o ms, indica ing he po en ial
o ghos ishing [102]. Seconda y en anglemen can ha e signi ican
popula ion-le el e ec s, unde sco ing he impo ance o add essing his
issue [86].
In assessing he po en ial impac o en anglemen , a dis inc ion was
made be ween p ima y and seconda y/ e ia y en anglemen , as hei
mechanisms and species a ec ed a y. P ima y en anglemen p ima ily
conce ns la ge swimming-bodied species, speci ically ma ine mammals,
wi h a low po en ial impac (Table 4 and Table B.4). Seconda y en an-
glemen , on he o he hand, poses mode a e isks o ma ine mammals,
sha ks, pelagic ish, ma ine u les, and di ing seabi ds, as hey a e all
exposed o en anglemen haza ds (Table 4 and Table B.4).
3.5. Sedimen esuspension
Sedimen en e ing he wa e column du ing a ious phases o an
OWF’s li e cycle can signi ican ly impac di e en ma ine species. While
indi idual u bine oo p in s may seem small, hey can collec i ely ha e
a signi ican impac when conside ing la ge-scale a ays [86]. This can
educe wa e anspa ency, a ec ing p ima y p oduce s and leading o
changes in algae communi ies [137]. I can also a ec isually o ien ed
ish species ha ely on sigh o eeding [136]. Fu he mo e, sedimen
esuspension can speci ically impac he ea ly li e s ages o ish. The
bu ial o eggs o damage o gills can a ec he su i al and de elopmen
o ish emb yos and la ae [23,58,8]. Fil e - eeding in e eb a es,
dependen on clea wa e o cap u ing ood pa icles, may expe ience
nega i e e ec s [28,73].
Conside ing hese indings, bo h pelagic and ben hic ish a e a a
mode a e isk o impac (Table 4 and Table B.5). No ably, lo a,
including seag asses and algae, and nonmo ile o ganisms such as
ben hic in e eb a es (pa icula ly ben hic eeding ones), a e highly
ulne able o sedimen plumes due o hei inabili y o escape, esul ing
in a high po en ial impac (Table 4 and Table B.5)
3.6. Spa ial beha io
3.6.1. A ac ion
3.6.1.1. Abo e wa e . The a ac ion o sensi i e species o OWFs is a
beha io al conce n mainly linked o he p esence o a i icial ligh ing on
he in as uc u e. Bi d a ac ion o a i icial ligh , a well-documen ed
phenomenon, poses pa icula isks o OWFs [107,113,119,81,92].
OWFs a e manda ed o inco po a e ligh ing o sa e y, bo h on u bines
and s uc u es du ing ins alla ion and main enance [61]. In e ms o bi d
beha io , OWF ligh ing can esul in a ac ion and diso ien a ion [27].
Bi d a ac ion o OWF ligh s can ex end o e se e al kilome e s,
di e ing bi ds om hei o iginal ligh pa hs owa d illumina ed a eas.
Diso ien a ion occu s when bi ds al e hei ligh pa hs nea he ligh
sou ce, o en ci cling he ligh sou ce o ex ended pe iods [48]. This
beha io inc eases he collision isk wi h wind u bines. I is no ewo hy
ha adi ional collision isk models, assuming s aigh ligh pa hs, may
no ully accoun o ci cling beha io nea ligh sou ces [27]. While
a ious ac o s like wea he condi ions [48,68,92], noc u nal species
ulne abili y [89], and moon phase Mon e ecchi [92]; Miles e al. [89]
can in luence his a ac ion o OWF a i icial ligh , li e a u e consis-
en ly indica es inc eased collision isk o bi ds due o a i icial ligh
[64]. Ba s a e known o be a ac ed o coas al ligh ing sou ces, such as
ligh houses [106], due o inc eased insec p ey p esence [3]. Howe e ,
o sho e a ac ion pa e ns migh di e [99]. O sho e ba a ac ion o
ligh ing sou ces has been epo ed [106,2,59], ye speci ic ac o s and
esponses emain unclea . Recen wo k on onsho e wind ene gy acil-
i ies sugges s ha a i icial ligh s a e no he p ima y cause o ba
a ac ion o wind u bines [55] and esea ch is needed o de e mine i
ba s exhibi simila beha io s o sho e.
The a ac ion o seabi ds o OWFs can lead o popula ion-le el im-
pac s due o inc eased collision isks. The a ailabili y o es ing si es on
o sho e s uc u es and changes in p ey dis ibu ion a e con ibu ing
ac o s. A e iew by Die schke e al. [32] sheds ligh on seabi d a ac-
ion and a oidance beha io s. Co mo an s, o ins ance, a e s ongly
a ac ed o OWFs because hey p o ide oos ing si es, enabling hem o
ex end hei o aging ange u he o sho e. Ship a ic a wind a ms
can ha e mixed e ec s on seabi ds; while i may dis u b some species, i
can a ac o he s. Gulls, o example, a e known o associa e ships wi h
ishing essels and he eeding oppo uni ies hey o e [47]. Mo eo e ,
he in oduc ion o new ha d subs a e h ough OWF s uc u es en-
hances habi a complexi y, a ac ing species and inc easing di e si y
and abundance. This, in u n, p o ides mo e o aging oppo uni ies o
di ing seabi ds [32]. The a ac ion o ba s o o sho e wind u bines
may inc ease collision isks, simila o obse a ions wi h onsho e u -
bines [55]. Ex ensi e esea ch on onsho e u bines has iden i ied ac o s
like landscape ea u es, oos ing oppo uni ies, p ey agg ega ion, and
physiological ea u es as con ibu o s o his a ac ion [55,71].
Whe he hese a ac ion pa e ns will hold o sho e emains unce ain.
3.6.1.2. Below wa e . OWFs can impac ma ine species in mul iple
ways, bo h h ough a i icial ligh ing and he addi ion o ha d subs a es
ha in oduce new habi a s. A i icial ligh ing nega i ely impac s sea
u les, dis up ing na u al beha io s and leading ha chlings as ay [121,
142]. Howe e , he esponse o sea u les o o sho e wind a m ligh ing
is no well unde s ood. S udies p esen a ying iews on he ma e , wi h
some calling o u he in es iga ion [52] while o he s sugges minimal
impac [101]. Ma ine mammals, apa om pinnipeds absen in ou
s udy a ea, do no ely on ligh o na iga ion, mainly using echoloca ion
[101]. Howe e , a i icial ligh ing’s indi ec e ec s may impac p ey
a ailabili y by al e ing zooplank on and ish dis ibu ion pa e ns du ing
diel e ical mig a ion, a ec ing ma ine mammals’ o aging habi s [31].
Ne e heless, he o e all unde s anding o a i icial ligh ing’s e ec s on
ma ine mammals emains incomple e, wi h some comp ehensi e e-
iews dismissing i s impac [101,49]. Rega ding ish, ligh in ensi y can
a ec diel mig a ion pa e ns. E ec s like al e ed mig a o y pa e ns,
diso ien a ion, empo a y blindness, and inc eased p eda ion due o
a i icial ligh ing ha e been obse ed [98]. Howe e , s udies ha e
mainly ocused on di ec wa e su ace ligh ing, and i is unlikely ha
wind u bine associa ed ligh ing signi ican ly a ec s ish communi ies
[101]. Mo e de ailed s udies a e needed o assess OWF ligh ing’s po-
en ial e ec s on ish. A s udy by Ramasco [112] sugges s inc eased cod
p esence nea he Hywind Sco land loa ing OWF du ing nigh ime,
possibly due o he pla o m’s a ac i e ligh ing e ec .
In addi ion o a i icial ligh ing, he in oduc ion o ha d subs a es
by loa ing OWFs ac s as an a i icial ee (see Sec ion 3.10.2), a ac ing
species due o he new habi a and o aging oppo uni ies c ea ed by
bio ouling and habi a - o ming o ganisms colonizing he s uc u es.
Floa ing pla o ms ac as agg ega ing de ices (Wilhelmsson e al., 2006),
enhancing o aging possibili ies and p o iding shel e o highe ophic
le el mobile species, such as ish, seabi ds, and ma ine mammals [21,30,
29]. This ee e ec is no able wi h loa ing OWFs, which in oduce ha d
subs a es a mul iple dep hs whe e no s uc u es p e iously exis ed.
The di e si y o species a ac ed o hese new habi a s may depend on
he dep h and complexi y o he s uc u es [30,70]. E en i his is
bene icial, he in oduc ion o new ha d subs a es can displace exis ing
species, he eby a ec ing ecosys em unc ions and ood web dynamics
[54]. In newly cons uc ed OWFs (i.e., deg aded en i onmen ), his
a ac ion o subop imal habi a s, known as an ecological ap, can
de e io a e he condi ion o ish s ocks [114] and ha e nega i e
ecological consequences [115]. Floa ing OWFs may ac as ish
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Ma ine Policy 172 (2025) 106518
7
agg ega ing de ices ha , despi e ha ing he po en ial o imp o e he
condi ion and ep oduc i e ou comes o ish, can s ill unc ion as
ecological aps [115]. The shel e e ec o his s uc u e can ex end
beyond he immedia e u bine a ea and impac highe ophic le el
species [62]. Howe e , i is essen ial o cla i y he balance be ween
a ac ion, p oduc ion, and ecological ap e ec s a a egional scale,
a he han elying solely on local obse a ions. The inc eased
complexi y o he ecosys em could ha e ene ge ic implica ions beyond
he OWF, depending on he si e ideli y, mobili y, and mig a ion o
a ac ed species [62]. Addi ionally, he esul s o loa ing OWFs may
di e om hose in he li e a u e, which p ima ily ocus on ixed OWFs.
Unlike bi ds and ba s, which di ec ly ace collision isks wi h u bine
blades, he a ac ion o ma ine species o OWFs does no p esen an
immedia e h ea . Ins ead, he po en ial impac p ima ily in ol es an
inc eased isk o seconda y en anglemen , as discussed ea lie (see
Sec ion 3.4).
Ma ine species a e a ac ed o OWFs due o a i icial ligh ing and he
in oduc ion o ha d subs a es ha c ea e a i icial ee s. While sea
u les, ma ine mammals, and ish may be d awn o ligh ing wi hou
acing di ec isks, bi ds and ba s a e a a heigh ened isk o collision.
The ha d subs a es enhance habi a complexi y, p o iding imp o ed
o aging oppo uni ies bu po en ially leading o ecological aps.
O e all, bi ds and ba s a e expec ed o be he mos a ec ed g oups, wi h
signi ican impac s om ligh ing. Addi ionally, pelagic and ben hic ish
a e also highly a ec ed by he in oduc ion o new subs a es (see
Table 4 and Table B.6).
3.6.2. A oidance
3.6.2.1. Abo e wa e . A oidance is a c i ical aspec o spa ial beha io
o conside when e alua ing OWF impac s. A oidance beha io in ol es
species ac i ely s aying away om o a oiding speci ic a eas, like wind
a m si es, due o a ious ac o s.
Seabi d a oidance o OWFs is well-documen ed [105]. The p esence
o all wind u bine s uc u es in open seascapes appea s o be a sig-
ni ican eason o his beha io , dis up ing seabi ds’ na u al isual cues
and na iga ion pa e ns [32]. Inc eased ma ine a ic nea OWFs can
u he con ibu e o seabi d a oidance, as some species end o a oid
essel in e ac ions, which may be mo e p e alen in OWF a eas [32].
This a oidance can ha e signi ican ene ge ic cos s, especially i wind
a ms dis up he pa h be ween seabi d oos ing/nes ing si es and
o aging g ounds [85]. This agmen a ion o ecological uni s due o
wind a ms can dis up seabi d popula ions and hei o e all dynamics
[44,64]. The ex en o a oidance impac s on seabi d popula ions de-
pends on he spa ial ela ionship be ween wind a ms, b eeding col-
onies, and o aging a eas, along wi h he beha io al cha ac e is ics o
di e en seabi d species [56].
3.6.2.2. Below wa e . In ma ine species, a oidance beha io is p i-
ma ily d i en by ac o s such as noise and elec omagne ic ields (EMFs)
om wind a m ope a ions. Seabi d a oidance indica es ha bi ds a e
highly impac ed by a oidance beha io s (Table 4 and Table B.6).
3.7. Chemical pollu ion
Chemical pollu ion is a signi ican conce n, especially o sensi i e
species. Species wi h long li espans and high ophic le els a e pa ic-
ula ly ulne able due o he po en ial o bioaccumula ion and bio-
magni ica ion [53].
An i ouling pain s a e commonly used in OWF de elopmen o p e-
en ma ine o ganism buildup [42]. These pain s, con aining coppe and
boos e biocides, can be ha m ul o ma ine li e in semi-closed en i on-
men s like ma inas, po s, and ha bo s [133]. Thei speci ic impac in
open-seas whe e OWFs a e ypically loca ed equi es u he in es iga-
ion [42]. Co osion p o ec ion sys ems a e essen ial o OWFs [110] and
associa ed essels bu can elease o ganic compounds and me als in o
he ma ine en i onmen . Cu en esea ch indica es low impac s on
ma ine li e om hese sys ems [69]. Ma ine sedimen s play a c ucial ole
as eposi o ies o a ious chemicals apped wi hin undis u bed laye s.
Dis u bing ma ine sedimen s du ing OWF ins alla ion, disman ling, and
moo ing line mo emen (see 3.5) may elease sedimen con aminan s,
impac ing wa e quali y and ma ine species [37]. The impac is gene -
ally lowe du ing OWF ope a ion compa ed o ins alla ion and
disman ling [63]. The expansion o o sho e acili ies, including OWFs,
aises he isk o acciden al pollu ion h ough ac o s like ma ine a ic
and machine y leaks. Rou ine ope a ion and main enance ac i i ies,
including hyd aulic luid o lub ican oil use, can pose a chemical spill
isk [15].
Es ima ing he speci ic axonomic g oups a ec ed by chemical
elease is challenging (Table 4 and Table B.7). Chemical eleases can
di use in he wa e column and po en ially impac all axonomic g oups
h ough p ocesses like bioaccumula ion and biomagni ica ion. Acci-
den al spills, depending on ac o s like spill scale and chemical ype
could ha e a mo e signi ican impac , wi h sensi i i y o a ec ed o -
ganisms playing a c ucial ole.
3.8. Elec omagne ic ields (EMFs)
Ce ain ma ine mammals possess magne o- ecep i e capabili ies o
na iga ion, making EMFs a po en ial conce n o hem [102]. Ne e -
heless, he isk o EMFs om OWFs signi ican ly a ec ing ma ine
mammals is conside ed low due o hei high mobili y and he ac ha
hey p ima ily de ec he magne ic ield in close p oximi y [135]. I is
impo an o no e ha ma ine mammals in ou case s udy a e no
elec o ecep i e and hus do no pose a isk.
Simila ly, sea u les, while lacking elec o ecep i e abili ies, ely on
he Ea h’s geomagne ic ield o na iga ion [78]. The ins alla ion o
cables nea nes ing a eas should be a oided o mi iga e po en ial isks
[135]. Howe e , sea u le mig a ion in he open ocean is no an ici-
pa ed o be signi ican ly impac ed by he EMFs gene a ed by OWFs.
Elasmob anchs a e acknowledged o hei capaci y o de ec EMFs
[135,97]. The p ima y conce n wi h a i icial EMFs and elasmob anchs
is po en ial beha io al impac s, pa icula ly in eeding and p eda o
de ec ion, as limi ed di ec s udies ha e explo ed he physiological e -
ec s o p olonged exposu e wi hin his g oup [102]. While esponses o
EMFs a y among species, elasmob anchs ha e demons a ed he abili y
o de ec ex emely low elec ic ields [134]. These ields a e challenging
o shield e ec i ely wi hin he indus y, po en ially esul ing in
beha io al e ec s which could ha e biological consequences o he
species [66]. None heless, he impac o EMFs on he beha io and
popula ion-le el e ec s o highly mobile elasmob anch species emains
unclea . This impac is in luenced by a ious ac o s, including species
dis ibu ion (encompassing spa ial ange and e ical dis ibu ion in he
wa e column), cabling dis ibu ion, mig a o y pa e ns, and p oximi y
o cables [102,135]. Elasmob anchs ha e demons a ed
magne o- ecep i e abili ies, al hough he p ecise mechanism o hei
esponse o magne ic ields emains incomple ely unde s ood [5,96].
Unde s anding he elec omagne ic sensi i i y o ma ine and diad-
omous ish species, especially conce ning cable signa u es in na u al
condi ions, emains a challenge [25]. Coas al and deme sal species, in
close p oximi y o seabed cables, a e likely mo e a ec ed han pelagic
ish [102,25]. Exis ing esea ch p ima ily in es iga es ish’s ea ly li e
s ages, e ealing po en ial gene ic, physiological, and de elopmen al
al e a ions due o high magne ic ield alues du ing ex ended exposu e
in lab condi ions [50]. Howe e , hese lab condi ions may no eplica e
he eal-li e exposu e o ish. S udies on EMF e ec s on mig a o y
beha io ha e no indica ed signi ican educ ions in mig a o y success
[102]. So a , no no able e ec s on ish abundance, species di e si y,
composi ion, o ishe ies ha e been obse ed.
S udying he impac o EMFs on ben hic species, including ma ine
in e eb a es, is i al due o hei heigh ened EMF exposu e. Exis ing
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esea ch ha e been con ined o a ew species [135] and mainly add ess
indi idual-le el e ec s. Un o una ely, indi idual-scale esea ch does
no p o ide conclusi e e idence o signi ican impac s, pa icula ly a
he popula ion, communi y, o ecological p ocess le els [14]. So a ,
a h opods, mollusks, echinode ms, and possibly annelids ha e been
ecognized as EMF-sensi i e species [102]. Howe e , i is essen ial o
no e ha di ec e idence o o sho e wind EMF impac s is lacking, and
any po en ial e ec s emain specula i e [135]. In e eb a e species
sensi i e o elec ic ields ha e h esholds abo e le els p oduced by
unde sea cables, sugges ing hey would no be signi ican ly a ec ed
[102,50]. Magne o-sensi i e species migh be impac ed when encoun-
e ing cable-induced magne ic ields, especially i hey depend on
geomagne ic ields o na iga ion. This e ec is mo e likely when he
magne ic sense is used wi hin a small local ange con aining a cable
sys em [135]. P esen ly, i is unclea whe he EMFs om OWFs will
di ec ly a ec ma ine in e eb a es, as he li e a u e is limi ed and
p ima ily based on lab s udies a he han ield obse a ions [4].
Based on he e iewed li e a u e, ma ine mammals, sea u les,
pelagic and ben hic ishes a e expec ed o expe ience low impac s om
EMFs. Con e sely, ben hic in e eb a es and elasmob anchs migh be
mo e suscep ible, wi h a mode a e an icipa ed impac (see Table 4 and
Table B.8).
3.9. Hea emission
The wa ming o subma ine cables could indi ec ly dis u b ben hic
auna by causing changes in physicochemical and bac e iological bal-
ances [103]. Tempe a u e adia ion has he po en ial o induce small
spa ial changes in ben hic communi y s uc u e [134].
Howe e , conside ing he na owness o he cable co ido and he
expec ed weak he mal adia ion, he impac s a e no conside ed sig-
ni ican [116,134,37] and a low expec ed impac was a ibu ed o
ben hic in e eb a es (Table 4 and Table B.9).
3.10. Habi a modi ica ion
3.10.1. Loss and damage
3.10.1.1. Abo e wa e . Habi a changes also a ec a ian species [45,
85], impac ing hei sensi i i y o u bines and habi a use o spawning,
es ing, eeding, and mig a ion. Wind a m a oidance can lead o habi a
loss in he OWF and su ounding a eas [128]. Fu he mo e, changes in
ood a ailabili y can also in luence he habi a use pa e ns o seabi ds.
3.10.1.2. Below wa e . The cons uc ion o OWFs ine i ably al e s sea-
loo habi a s and impac s ma ine o ganisms. The ins alla ion and
bu ying o elec ic cables, moo ing lines, ancho s, and o sho e sub-
s a ions in e ac wi h he seabed, a ec ing i s a ailabili y and u iliza ion
by ben hic o ganisms. Vessel ancho ing, especially du ing cable ins al-
la ion, u he impac s seabed habi a s and ben hic communi ies [28].
Con en ional ca ena y moo ings con inuously in e ac wi h he
seabed h oughou he ope a ional phase. The design includes a angen
o he bo om a he lowe end o he moo ing line, esul ing in
con inuous con ac wi h he seabed. The mo emen o he loa ing
pla o m, induced by wind and wa es, c ea es a moo ing oo p in ,
whe e he moo ing line con inuously mo es on he seabed, damaging
bo om habi a s and associa ed species and p oducing sedimen esus-
pension ha can a ec nea by habi a s (see Sec ion 3.5). In con as au
moo ing line designs can educe his impac . While mo ile ben hic
species can eloca e, sessile species may ace di ec ha m [63]. Sensi i e
habi a s o med by ulne able species wi h slow g ow h a es, such as
deep-sea co al ee s, ma¨
e l beds and ocky ou c ops [28,9], a e a isk o
dis u bance om his con inuous moo ing in e ac ion. The bo om
habi a damage is conside ed o pe manen empo al ex en due o he
ex ended eco e y pe iod equi ed o a ec ed sea loo a eas, which
may need decades o mo e o e u n o hei o iginal, p e-exposi ion
s a e.
Habi a loss ex ends o he wa e column, a ec ing habi a o ma-
ine mammals, sea u les, ish, and elasmob anchs. Ne e heless, he
amoun o pelagic habi a loss compa ed o he emaining ben hic
habi a wi hin and su ounding an OWF is ela i ely small, esul ing in
minimal e ec s [63].
Habi a loss is expec ed o ha e a highe impac on sessile and
ben hic o ganisms, wi h po en ial isks o ma ine mammals (Table 4 and
Table B.10).
3.10.2. C ea ion
OWFs in oduce new ha d subs a es ha modi y habi a s. This
phenomenon commonly e e ed o as " ee e ec " [72] occu s as OWF
componen s like pla o ms, cables, and moo ing lines ge colonized by
bio ouling and habi a - o ming species, enhancing habi a complexi y
and a ac ing species (see Sec ion 3.6.1), po en ially inc easing di-
e si y and abundance [67]. While his bene i s some species, he ex en
and na u e o he e ec depend on he a i icial ee s cha ac e is ics and
he indigenous popula ions p esen du ing in oduc ion [28]. The isk o
in asi e species coloniza ion is also inc eased wi h he p esence o OWF
s uc u es [51]. The Medi e anean egion is pa icula ly suscep ible o
non-indigenous and alien species [17], and OWF s uc u es can ac as
s epping s ones, acili a ing he ange ex ension o hese species wi hin
he Medi e anean en i onmen [1]. Bio ouling also a ec ben hic and
pelagic communi ies su ounding he OWFs. Colonizing o ganisms can
al e he seabed condi ions by he ejec ion o ecal pelle s ha deposi
and en ich sedimen a ound he u bines [79]. Bu doing so, he ouling
communi ies make pelagic ood sou ces a ailable o ben hic commu-
ni ies [125]. Howe e , s udies epo ing his e ec we e, o da e, con-
duc ed on ixed OWFs, and so, on shallow wa e OWFs, he esul s in
deepe wa e s wi h loa ing OWFs may di e wi h he di usion o he
pelle s in he wa e column, hus esul ing in a lowe e ec on ben hic
communi ies bu wi h he possibili y o a ec pelagic en i onmen .
Ano he e ec o he bio ouling on ood web dynamic is he local
deple ion o concen a ion o phy oplank on and mac o- and meso-
zooplank on om pelagic zones due o he il e ing o suspension eede s
[125] hus po en ially a ec ing a ailable p ima y p oduc i i y and he
ma ine ood web and biogeochemical cycle nea OWFs. Howe e , hese
new habi a s and he associa ed consequences hey b ing may be dis-
up ed du ing cleaning, emo al, o he e en ual disman ling phase o
OWFs.
Loss o habi a p ima ily impac s ben hic species, pa icula ly sessile
o ganisms, like seag asses, algae, and ben hic in e eb a es. This loss
can ex end o he wa e column, po en ially a ec ing la ge ma ine
mammals and abo e-wa e a eas, which can impac seabi ds. Addi-
ionally, he c ea ion o new habi a s may nega i ely impac exis ing
communi ies by inc easing o ganic ca bon in he sea bo om and
educing a ailable p ima y p oduc i i y, po en ially a ec ing sessile
ben hic o ganisms and plank on eede s (Table 4 and Table B.10).
3.11. Oceanog aphic p ocesses
OWFs can signi ican ly a ec oceanog aphic p ocesses [90], which
a e c ucial o ecological dynamics as hey in luence nu ien a ail-
abili y and he mal habi a s. The p incipal ways his impac occu s a e:
1. wind ex ac ion, educing su ace wind s ess and al e ing wa e
column u bulence; 2. wind a m wake-d i en di e gence and con e -
gence, leading o upwelling and downwelling; 3. u bulence gene a ed
by u bine unde wa e s uc u es, a ec ing local wa e mo emen [62].
Changes in hyd odynamics and wind wake e ec s may in luence
la al anspo , connec i i y, and ec ui men [62], impac ing bo h
deme sal and ben hic species. These impac s, hough di icul o assess,
can be signi ican , especially i OWFs o e lap wi h ish spawning habi-
a s. Addi ionally, al e a ions in hyd odynamics can a ec ood a ail-
abili y o zooplank i o ous species, such as small pelagics, by changing
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