Land consump ion and u baniza ion in u al a eas. Unde s anding he
dynamics o land ake and demog aphic changes in u al municipali ies in
Ca alonia, Spain
Rod igo d’A ila
a
, Melisa Pesoa
a,*
, Gonzalo Ga cía
a
, Ja ie Rocamonde
b
a
Uni e si a Poli ´
ecnica de Ca alunya, Depa men o U banism, Te i o y and Landscape, A . Diagonal, 649, 08028, Ba celona, Spain
b
Uni e sidade da Co u˜
na, U ban Planning Depa men , Campus da Zapa ei a, 15008, A Co u˜
na, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Land consump ion
Land ake
Ru al owns
Ru al depopula ion
Ca alonia
Spain
ABSTRACT
Se e al in e na ional o ganiza ions ag ee ha land consump ion is in a c i ical si ua ion, ye demand o u -
banized spaces pe sis s, e en in declining popula ions. This phenomenon has been p ima ily applied o la ge
u ban agglome a ions, so he dynamics o land ake in non-u ban a eas, pa icula ly hose si ua ed a om la ge
me opolises, should no be o e looked. The cen al ques ion o his a icle is whe he inc eased land con-
sump ion in u al a eas co esponds o popula ion dynamics. By examining di e en emo e sensing da ase s
ega ding small municipali ies in Ca alonia (Spain), oge he wi h he popula ion census, i seeks o asce ain
whe he he e is a co ela ion be ween soil impe iousness, as an indica o o u baniza ion p ocesses, and de-
mog aphic changes in u al con ex . The s udy p o ides a comp ehensi e examina ion o land consump ion o
2009–2018, ollowing he eal es a e c isis, in Ca alonia’s u al municipali ies, elucida ing he complexi ies o
achie ing sus ainable land use in he con ex o popula ion decline. The esul s o he s udy indica e ha e en
a e he 2008 c isis, u al owns con inued o g ow in size, gene a ing mo e land consump ion, e en wi hou
popula ion g ow h. This s ands in con as o he pos -c isis dynamics obse ed in Spain’s majo ci ies. The
indings unde sco e he impo ance o analyzing egional dynamics in unc ional a eas a he han by indi idual
municipali ies, o achie e a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he p ocess. These indings a e i al o he
de elopmen o u u e egional planning policies, ensu ing he op imal alloca ion o esou ces and he p o ision
o necessa y suppo o municipali ies o he sus ainable managemen o hei g ow h.
1. In oduc ion
In ecen decades, u banized a eas ha e g own exponen ially in
di e en pa e ns (Chak abo y e al., 2022; Güne alp e al., 2020; Se o
e al., 2011). This g ow h has been a he expense o soil, which is one o
he mos complex ecosys ems in na u e and con ains a qua e o he
plane ’s biodi e si y. Soil, as a non- enewable esou ce, is unde se e e
p essu e no only om u baniza ion, bu also om he expansion o
ag icul u e, li es ock, and indus ial o es y.
In he epo en i led “Fu u e B ie : No Ne Land Take by 2050?”
(Eu opean Commission, 2016), he Eu opean Commission highligh s he
challenges ha coun ies a ound he wo ld a e acing conce ning land
consump ion, wi h a pa icula ocus on Eu opean coun ies (EEA,
2018). Di e se s udies highligh he en i onmen al impac s o land
consump ion on biodi e si y (Hasan e al., 2020; Se o e al., 2012) as
u ban de elopmen can cause agmen a ion, isola ion, and deg ada ion
o na u al habi a s; simpli ica ion and homogeniza ion o species
composi ion; dis up ion o hyd ological sys ems; and modi ica ion o
ene gy low and nu ien cycling (Albe i e al., 2003).
The Eu opean En i onmen al Agency, UN-Habi a , and o he o ga-
niza ions concu ha land consump ion is in a c i ical si ua ion
(Eu opean Commission, 2011; EEA, 2018), ye he demand o u ban-
ized spaces pe sis s, e en in e i o ies whe e he popula ion is
declining. This is d i en by new li es yles ha equi e mo e space pe
capi a, as well as by he compe i ion be ween municipali ies o a ac
new de elopmen s due o supposed economic income, he de elopmen
* Co esponding au ho . Depa amen d’U banisme, Te i o i i Paisa ge, Escola T`
ecnica Supe io d’A qui ec u a de Ba celona ETSAB, A . Diagonal, 649 - Edi ici A -
4a plan a, 08028, Ba celona, Spain.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (R. d’A ila), [email p o ec ed] (M. Pesoa), [email p o ec ed] (G. Ga cía), ja ie . ocamonde@udc.
es (J. Rocamonde).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Habi a In e na ional
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/habi a in
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.habi a in .2025.103443
Recei ed 24 No embe 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 8 Ap il 2025; Accep ed 14 May 2025
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
A ailable online 23 May 2025
0197-3975/© 2025 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/ ).
o p oduc i e ac i i ies, ene gy p oduc ion, o he cons uc ion o new
in as uc u e (Colsae e al., 2018).
The concep o “land ake” is open o ques ion due o a ce ain am-
bigui y, as i includes bo h u baniza ion and he a i icializa ion o soils
(Deco ille & Fel gen, 2023; Ma qua d e al., 2020). This has led o un-
ce ain y ega ding he moni o ing and limi a ion o hese p ocesses, as
no all a i icialized a eas a e sealed o impe ious, which could esul in
misin e p e a ion o he ac ual densi y o u ban de elopmen s
(Deco ille, 2018; Deco ille & Schneide , 2015).
I should be no ed ha al hough he Eu opean Commission
announced in 2011 he objec i e o ending ne land ake a he EU le el
by 2050 (Eu opean Commission, 2011), he implemen a ion me hods
we e no de ailed a ha ime. This was o malized a decade la e , in
2021, wi h he publica ion o he Soil P o ec ion S a egy o 2030
(Eu opean Commission, 2021). I is he e o e up o coun ies o se
conc e e a ge s o 2030. Fu he mo e, in 2015, he UN se a a ge in
hei SDGs o measu e his: he a io o land consump ion a e o pop-
ula ion g ow h a e (11.3.1 LCRPGR).
1
This links he expansion o u -
banized a eas o ac ual popula ion g ow h, o measu e i s e iciency.
Es oque e al. (2021), call a en ion o he lowes e iciency o land
use in Eu ope and No h Ame ica, ha ing he highes LCRPGR o he
pe iod 1975–2000 and 2000–2015, while he Eas e n and Sou h-Eas e n
Asia SDG egion is ca ching up. This means ha u banized a eas a e
expanding a a highe a e han he popula ion g ow h, some hing
al eady con i med by s udies such as Schia ina e al. (2022), among
o he s.
Se e al s udies had analyzed he d i e s o hese land consump ion
pa e ns in di e en con ex s. Colsae e al., 2018 con i m he impo -
ance o well-known d i e s such as he inc ease o popula ion, GDP and
anspo acili ies, bu also highligh he impo ance o policy ac o s,
while o he ac o s such as common policy ins umen s emain unclea .
Csomos e al. (2024) unde line ha indus ializa ion and popula ion
policies a e p opelling land ake and land use change, while local
clima e s a egies a e ine ec i e ools o hal land ake and land use
change.
Some esea ch has in es iga ed he public policies needed o achie e
he 2050 a ge (E e s, 2024; G adina u e al., 2023; Lacoe e & Lein-
elde , 2023) and highligh ed he p ac ical di icul ies in ol ed in
measu ing land consump ion and de ining e e ence h esholds
(Eichho n e al., 2024; Romano e al., 2023). Mo eo e , da a is no al-
ways a ailable o egula ly upda ed. Howe e , emo e sensing ools
ha e made mo e da a and p oduc s a ailable, allowing be e moni-
o ing (Melchio i e al., 2018).
Despi e he con o e sies, he concep o land ake and he land use
e iciency analysis has been p ima ily applied o la ge u ban agglom-
e a ions (EEA, 2021, 2023; Hu e al., 2021; Masini e al., 2019; Sal a i
e al., 2018; Sieden op & Fina, 2012; Zoppi & Lai, 2014). The Eu opean
En i onmen Agency epo s ha he numbe o a i icial su aces in he
EU inc eased by 7.1 % be ween 2000 and 2018, p ima ily a ound la ge
ci ies (EEA, 2019a) (Fig. 1). In his ega d, i has been used o discuss
how low-densi y u ban sp awl has con ibu ed o he loss o biodi e si y
and ag icul u al land (EEA, 2021; T´
o h, 2012).
Ne e heless, he dynamics o land ake in non-u ban a eas, pa ic-
ula ly hose si ua ed a om la ge me opolises, should no be o e -
looked. Mougin e al. (2024) no es ha in F ance, o ins ance, u al
a eas wi h a high deg ee o dispe sion ha e expe ienced he mos sig-
ni ican g ow h o e he pas i e decades. This could be de ined as
mic o-u baniza ion (Chai & Se o, 2019), which d aws a en ion o he
signi icance o small and medium-sized se lemen s wi hin he wide
con ex o global land expansion. This emphasizes he necessi y o a
comp ehensi e analysis o buil -up land dynamics ac oss he ull
spec um o human se lemen s, anging om u al a eas o majo
me opoli an cen e s (Li e al., 2022).
The d i e s o hin e land occupa ion include mobili y in as uc u e,
housing, public acili ies, indus y and logis ics cen e s, ec ea ional
encla es, aw ma e ial ex ac ion si es, was e disposal, and ene gy
p oduc ion. The ac o s d i ing hese occupa ions a e di e se, anging
om public policies o cul u al p ac ices (Colsae e al., 2018; Ka i e al.,
2023).
Guas ella e al. (2017) suppo he hypo hesis ha la ge munici-
pali ies a e mo e e icien in managing land ake. Thei esea ch
e ealed ha he ma ginal land consump ion pe new household is
in e sely ela ed o he size o he municipali y. This inding is consis-
en wi h he no ion ha , as mo e space is o en a ailable, small mu-
nicipali ies a e less inclined o alloca e ins i u ional a en ion o he
issue o land ake. Consequen ly, hey in e nalize less he en i onmen al
ex e nali ies associa ed wi h land use.
In Spain, u ban land expansion has been pa icula ly no able o e
he pas h ee decades, especially a ound majo ci ies and coas al a eas,
whe e ou ism and cons uc ion ha e had a signi ican impac . I is
es ima ed ha be ween 2000 and 2018, Spain consumed 2474.12 km
2
o
na u al land, mainly o u ban and in as uc u e use (EEA, 2019b). The
planning backg ound will be u he de eloped in sec ion 2.1.
I would be easonable o assume ha mo e u baniza ion and own
g ow h ha e esul ed in demog aphic g ow h and socioeconomic
de elopmen . Howe e , he expansion o u baniza ion has no always
been accompanied by such changes. Despi e he g ow h o u banized
land, u al communi ies con inue o lose popula ion. I is, he e o e,
impo an o assess he ela ionship be ween u baniza ion h ough soil
sealing and demog aphic changes in u al municipali ies.
This s udy aims o de e mine i he e is a co ela ion be ween soil
impe iousness, as an indica o o u baniza ion p ocesses and de-
mog aphic changes in u al municipali ies in Ca alonia. This allows us o
ei he e u e o suppo he idea ha building mo e is he solu ion o
economic s agna ion, which has been he guiding p inciple in Spain o
a leas he las 40 yea s (Na edo, 2014). The s udy pe iod, be ween
2009 and 2018 co e s a singula phase o Spanish u baniza ion, which is
he pe iod a e he eal es a e c isis o 2008 and he COVID pandemic.
U baniza ion, when conside ed alongside o he ac o s, such as
popula ion g ow h o decline, could se e o iden i y ends and make
Fig. 1. Land con e ed o u ban a eas in he EEA-39, 2000–2018. Sou ce: EEA.
1
The Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics o Spain has de eloped a me hodology
o building his indica o . Howe e , esul s a e s ill no a ailable. See h ps://
www.ine.es/dyngs/ODS/obje i o.h m?id=4907.
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
2
compa a i e s udies (G abska-Szwag zyk, Hashem and Khiabani,
Pesoa-Ma cilla, Cha u edi, & De V ies, 2024). While u ban g ow h does
esul in inc eased e enue o municipal adminis a ion in he o m o
p ope y ax, his is no he case when coupled wi h he cu en end o
popula ion decline in u al a eas. This esul s in signi ican main enance
cos s o unde u ilized in as uc u e and se ices and a conside able
en i onmen al impac .
We a e cu en ly acing a pa adigm shi ha in ol es changes in he
en i onmen al sphe e, as well as in s a egies and objec i es ha p o-
mo e less ex ensi e ci y models, in line wi h he objec i es o he 2030
Agenda, o he Eu opean ‘No ne land ake’ objec i es o 2050. These
p og ams ad oca e educing he consump ion o unde eloped land, o
educe he loss o en i onmen al se ices essen ial o he sus ainabili y
o human li e in he e i o y. The e o e, i seems ha he changing imes
we a e expe iencing demand u gen solu ions o ensu e he adap a ion
o planning ha has been excessi ely s a ic. This is pa icula ly ele an
o land o de elopmen and unconsolida ed u ban land and, as we
in end o in es iga e in his a icle, o e hink e i o ial s a egies ha
p omo e u ban planning ha allows us o deal wi h scena ios o de-
mog aphic decline (Ama , 2015; Bl´
azquez, 2006) and educe land
consump ion.
The ollowing sec ion ou lines he de eloped me hodology, de ailing
emo e sensing (RS) da a and demog aphic indica o s o de elop an
index o compa ing land consump ion ac oss u al municipali ies. The
esul s sec ion p esen s an analysis o changes in u banized a eas. The
discussion sec ion o e s wo pe spec i es on hese indings. Fi s , i
con as s indi idual ajec o ies wi h egional pa e ns. Second, i ex-
amines he ela ionship be ween land consump ion and i ali y in u al
municipali ies. Thi d, we examine he ans o ma ion in ela ionship o
he public policies ha ac as d i e s and he ones ha y o s op land
consump ion. Finally, conclusions summa ize he main indings o he
s udy in ela ion o he ini ial ques ion, highligh ing he pa adox o u al
a eas losing popula ion while consuming mo e land.
2. Ma e ials and me hods
2.1. S udy a ea: backg ound and cu en si ua ion
Ca alonia is one o Spain’s 17 au onomous communi ies, wi h a land
a ea o jus o e 32,000 km
2
and a popula ion o app oxima ely 8
million. The egion is subdi ided in o 947 municipali ies, 595 o which
a e conside ed u al by Law 45/2007 o Decembe 13, 2007 o he
sus ainable de elopmen o he u al en i onmen (he eina e LDSMR).
The law de ines u al municipali ies as hose wi h a esiden popula ion
o less han 5000 inhabi an s and in eg a ed in o u al a eas, de ined as
geog aphical spaces wi h a densi y o less han 100 inhabi an s pe km
2
.
Fig. 2 demons a es he pe cen age o municipali ies wi h ewe han
5000 esiden s. To c ea e his ca og aphy, he nine e i o ial planning
a eas in o which he Ca alan e i o y is subdi ided ha e been aken in o
accoun . The da a indica e ha 72 % o he e i o y is inhabi ed by only
9 % o he popula ion (INE, 2024).
2
In Ca alonia, he e has been a clea end owa ds popula ion con-
cen a ion on he coas o e he las hund ed yea s, whe e he g ea es
economic dynamism is loca ed. Likewise, in he las 20 yea s, he e has
been a p og essi e g ow h o he coun y capi al ci ies in he in e io . The
eg essi e end o he u al popula ion ha began in he mid-20 h
cen u y eased om he mid-1990s un il 2008, hanks o o eign immi-
g a ion and i s wide e i o ial dis ibu ion (Bayona Ca asco & Gil
Alonso, 2011; Pujadas & Bayona, 2016). A cul u al change ela ed o a
e u n o he na u al en i onmen and he g ow h o ou ism, he eo -
ien a ion o adi ional ac i i ies and he inc easing p o ec ion o na u al
a eas also con ibu ed o slowing down he end.
Howe e , he economic c isis o 2008 b ough his end o a hal ,
causing mo e han hal o he Ca alan municipali ies o expe ience a
decline in popula ion due o con inuous mig a ion om u al and small
municipali ies o la ge ones (Aldom`
a, 2022). This end was also ol-
lowed by o eign immig an s, who had con ibu ed subs an ially o he
demog aphic g ow h o he smalle encla es. Consequen ly, a eg essi e
dynamic has been obse ed in many u al municipali ies in ecen yea s,
pa icula ly p onounced in smalle municipali ies (Gil & Bayona, 2021).
This u he accen ua es he e i o ial dispa i ies be ween he Ca alan
coas al a ea and he inland egions. Despi e he economic eco e y ha
ook place in he i e yea s be o e he heal h c isis o 2020, no gene al
demog aphic eco e y was obse ed o he whole Ca alan e i o y
(Aldom`
a, 2022).
In his con ex , mos u al municipali ies in Ca alonia a e expe i-
encing an aging popula ion, a low bi h a e and low immig a ion
(IDESCAT, 2023), leading o a demog aphic end owa ds s agna ion o
e en decline in a signi ican po ion o he e i o y. Howe e , gi en his
demog aphic si ua ion, he e has been an inc ease in he cons uc ion o
new housing in u al municipali ies.
Conce ning u ban planning, he 1956 Land Law is he p ecu so o
he cu en u ban planning model in Spain (al hough successi e land
laws we e subsequen ly d a ed in 1976, 1992, 1998, 2007–2008, 2013
and 2015, which is cu en ly in o ce). The 1956 Law classi ies land in o
u ban, u ban ese e (land o de elopmen ) and us ic ca ego ies.
U ban classi ica ion has been and con inues o be a de e mining ac o in
he en i e legal egime o land and in he de ini ion o he e i o ial
model, since i implici ly p ede e mines and di ec s u ban de elopmen
ac ions owa ds land ha is ‘ap ’ o be ans o med o u ban de elop-
men (Agudo, 2010).
Land classi ica ion was he main mechanism o municipal u ban
planning p ac ice du ing he so-called ‘p odigious decade’, be ween
1997 and 2007 (Ama , 2015). I was a s a egy based on p omo ing
excessi e pa e ns o u ban land consump ion, unde he ideology o
land libe alisa ion. The a gumen was ha planning had been e y
Fig. 2. Ca alonia map highligh ing he u al municipali ies and planning e-
gions (in colo s, on he igh side) de ined by he Ca alan Go e nmen .
3
1
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion based on da a om INE and ICGC. (Fo in e p e a ion
o he e e ences o colo in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web
e sion o his a icle.)
2
O he 32.115 sq km o Ca alonia, u al municipali ies occupy app ox.
23.180 sq km. O he 8.034.743Ca alonia inhabi an s, 788.015 li e in u al
municipali ies. Sou ce: Ins i u o Nacional de Es adís ica, 2024
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
3
es ic i e and by making mo e land a ailable o de elopmen , mo e
housing would be buil and he e o e he p ice o housing would all (de
San iago, E. and Gonz´
alez, I. 2021a). This s a egy was widely used un il
he 2008 eal es a e c isis in Spain. I was in la ge ci ies whe e i s con-
sequences became mo e isible, wi h an o e sized land consump ion, a
beyond he me e sa is ac ion o he expec ed demand, as se e al e-
sea ches ha e shown (G´
o golas, 2019; Gaja, 2008; Calde ´
on Calde ´
on &
Ga cía Cues a, 2017).
Howe e , he p ac ice o land classi ica ion also had impo an
consequences in small municipali ies, whose impac has been much less
s udied han in la ge ones (de San iago, E. and Gonz´
alez, I. 2021b).
Gi en his si ua ion, i is possible ha new p inciples o u ban planning,
o g ea e e sa ili y o u ban egula ions, may be necessa y o adap o
a ho izon o no-g ow h, o u ban con ainmen , ha adjus s o he eal
needs o he di e en ypes o se lemen s, and ha uses he accumu-
la ed housing and u banisa ion s ock (Gaja, 2015). The e a e ew s udies
ha ha e analyzed wha has happened o de elopable land and unde-
eloped u ban land (Zamb´
on e al., 2017), despi e he ac ha he
ques ion o wha o do wi h his he i age has been aised o yea s
(Nel⋅lo, 2012).
2.2. Da a
The analysis was conduc ed by combining wo ypes o da a, as
de ailed in Table 1. The i s was emo e sensing da a (in as e o ma ),
and he second was s a is ical da a ( ables). The as e images p o ide a
combina ion o da a ob ained h ough emo e sensing, o e ing aluable
insigh s in o changes in land co e be ween 2009 and 2018, as well as
he uses o he land. The s a is ical da a on popula ion a ia ion o he
s udy pe iod was de e mined based on he a ailabili y o da a on land
impe meabiliza ion so he s udy pe iod co e s om 2009 o 2018,
add essing a pa icula ly in e es ing phase in Spain’s u baniza ion dy-
namics, as he 2008 eal es a e bubble bu s , ma king he end o he so-
called “p odigious decade” du ing which he e was an accele a ed p o-
cess o housing and in as uc u e cons uc ion (Bu iel de O ue a,
2008). F om 2009 onwa ds, he economic c isis deepened, wi h signs o
eco e y only eme ging om 2015 onwa ds.
All da a used in his esea ch a e open and accessible, allowing ad-
minis a ions o ob ain a clea pic u e o he si ua ion in each a ea a a
sup amunicipal le el. To enhance and con ex ualize da a isualiza ion,
he da a is p ojec ed on o he digi al e ain model ob ained om he
Ca og aphic and Geological Ins i u e o Ca alonia.
2.2.1. Land co e da ase om ICGC
The ICGC Land Co e da ase p o ides de ailed ca og aphic in o -
ma ion on land co e ypes in Ca alonia, including u banized a eas,
ag icul u al land, o es s, and wa e bodies, wi h a spa ial esolu ion o
1 m and a hema ic b ead h o 41 ca ego ies. This da ase is a ailable o
2009 and 2018, p o iding aluable insigh s in o land use changes o e
ime. The 2009 land co e s a e a simpli ica ion o he Ca alonia Land
Co e Map 4 o 2009, de eloped by CREAF and adap ed o he da a
model app o ed by he Ca og aphic Coo dina ion Commission o Ca -
alonia. On he o he hand, he 2018 land co e s a e an upda e de i ed
om he pho o in e p e a ion o he 2018 ICGC o hopho os, inco po-
a ing changes iden i ied h ough compa ing images, opog aphic base
da a, o es i e da abases, and o he sou ces.
The ICGC Land Co e da ase main ains me hodological consis ency
ac oss s udy pe iods h ough pho oin e p e a ion and digi al sc een
digi iza ion, suppo ed by ca og aphic esou ces. The 2018 upda es
in eg a e manual pho oin e p e a ion wi h semi-au oma ic change
de ec ion using adiome ic indices, deep lea ning, and GIS-based ag i-
cul u al pa cel da a (SIGPAC).
4
High- esolu ion ICGC o hopho os (na -
u al colo and in a ed) ensu e classi ica ion accu acy. These alida ion
p ocesses enhance da ase eliabili y in de ec ing land co e changes.
In his s udy, he ICGC land co e da ase was used o analyze
changes in u banized a eas. The e o e, all ypes o a eas classi ied as
u banized a eas we e selec ed o his s udy. By in e sec ing hese u -
banized a eas wi h municipali ies (polygons), i was possible o calcu-
la e he o al u banized a ea pe municipali y o 2009 and 2018.
2.2.2. IMCC Deg ee o Impe iousness change classi ied
This in o ma ion, p o ided by Cope nicus, illus a es changes in
impe iousness o land sealing on a pan-Eu opean scale wi h a spa ial
esolu ion o 10 m in as e o ma . The ca ego ies de ined a e: new
impe iousness, impe iousness loss, no change, inc eased impe i-
ousness, dec eased impe iousness, unclassi iable, and no impe ious-
ness. Changes in impe iousness o land sealing a e p ima ily based on
NDVI (No malised Di e ence Vege a ion Index) analysis. These laye s
a e de i ed p oduc s om he base in o ma ion called IMD Deg ee o
Impe iousness.
The ime se ies o he High-Resolu ion Impe iousness Deg ee
p oduc s a ed in 2006, wi h upda es e e y h ee yea s. Th oughou his
ime se ies, he e ha e been epea ed me hodological adjus men s and
echnical imp o emen s.
5
To ensu e he homogenei y and con inui y o
he High-Resolu ion Impe iousness Deg ee (HRL IMD) ime se ies, a
ep ocessing o he his o ical p oduc s o 2006, 2009 and 2012 was
ca ied ou in 2015, using he mos ad anced me hodology. Wi h he
change in spa ial esolu ion om 20 m o 10 m in he ecen p oduc ion
o he 2018 p oduc s, ano he signi ican me hodological adjus men
was made. In addi ion, using high-quali y da a om Sen inel-1 and
Sen inel-2, wi h hei high spa ial and empo al esolu ion, allowed a
signi ican imp o emen in quali y compa ed o his o ical p oduc s. This
imp o emen esul s in a spa ial di e en ia ion be ween buil and un-
buil a eas, which was no possible in he p e ious p oduc ion due o he
limi ed quali y o he inpu da a.
The e o e, wi h he inc eased spa ial esolu ion, he cu en High-
Resolu ion IMD 2018 is no longe di ec ly compa able wi h his o ical
laye s (2015 and ea lie ). Di ec compa abili y and analysis o changes
a e only gua an eed o he IMCC Deg ee o Impe iousness change
p oduc a 20 m esolu ion, which dis inguishes be ween ac ual changes
and echnical imp o emen s due o he inc ease in spa ial esolu ion o
inpu da a and inal p oduc s.
As he p oposed analysis only equi es a dis inc ion be ween whe he
he e has been an inc ease in impe iousness o no , and does no
equi e knowledge o he deg ee o change, we ha e chosen o use he
ca ego ized change laye (IMCC Deg ee o Impe iousness change
classi ied).
Table 1
Da a used, sou ces, and pe iod a ailabili y. Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Da ase Type Sou ce Spa ial
esolu ion
Yea s
Land co e Ras e ICGC 1 m 2009 y 2018
IMCC Deg ee o
Impe iousness change
classi ied
Ras e Cope nicus 20 m 2009, 2012,
2015 y 2018
Popula ion CSV INE Anual, 2009;
2018
Digi al Ele a ion Model
( o isualiza ion)
Ras e ICGC 5m 2020
4
Technical speci ica ions o he IGCG’s Ca alonia land co e da ase : h
ps://www.icgc.ca /ca/Te i o i-sos enible/Cobe es-del-sol.
5
Impe iousness Change Use Manual: h ps://land.cope nicus.eu/en/p o
duc s/high- esolu ion-laye -impe iousness/impe iousness-classi ied-change-
2009-2012.
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
4
The da ase s used in his s udy co e di e en aspec s o u baniza-
ion, anging om he cons uc ion o new housing and public acili ies
o he de elopmen o new in as uc u e. O e all, hey ocus mo e on
change han on land classi ica ion. In his espec , ollowing he con-
cep s o he UN-Habi a epo on land use e iciency, which de ines land
consump ion as he “con e sion o land om o he uses o u ban unc-
ions” (UN-Habi a , 2018), his s udy uses da a om di e en sou ces
and me hodologies o ind a eliable way o de ec changes in land co e
in Ca alonia (Fig. 3).
2.2.3. S a is ical da a
The s a is ical da a used in his s udy come mainly om he Spanish
Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e (INE). This da ase includes he annual
popula ion census.
2.3. Me hods
The la es popula ion census da a has e ealed which municipali ies
ha e expe ienced a decline in popula ion o e ecen yea s. In addi ion,
s udies on Ca alonian g ound co e ha e delinea ed u banized a eas in
bo h 2009 and 2018. By c oss- e e encing hese da ase s, we we e able
o iden i y he municipal a eas ha expe ienced a loss o popula ion
while s ill unde going u banisa ion. Subsequen ly, s udies on Impe i-
ousness Classi ied Change, conduc ed by Cope nicus and a ailable o
all o Eu ope, p o ided enhanced isualiza ion o a eas ha unde wen
changes in impe iousness du ing speci ic pe iods (2009–2012,
2012–2015, and 2015–2018).
To analyze he ela ionship be ween u banisa ion and demog aphic
changes, we adap ed key indices, including he Popula ion G ow h Ra e
(PGR), which acks he pe cen age inc ease o dec ease in popula ion
o e ime; he Land Consump ion Ra e (LCR), which measu es he a e a
which u ban land expands; and he Land Consump ion pe Capi a (LCP),
which assesses he amoun o land used pe pe son. The UN Habi a Land
Use E iciency Repo (2018) in oduces hese key indica o s. When
combined, hese me ics p o ide a comp ehensi e amewo k o e al-
ua ing sus ainable u banisa ion, highligh ing a eas whe e land use is
e icien o excessi e ela i e o popula ion g ow h.
PGR =(LN(Pop( 2)/Pop( 1)) / (y)
Whe e: Pop 1 is he o al popula ion wi hin he u ban a ea in 1 (ini ial
yea ), Pop 2 is he o al popula ion wi hin he u ban a ea in 2 ( inal
yea ) and y is he numbe o yea s be ween he wo measu emen
pe iods.
LCR =(LN(U b( 2)/U b 1) / (y)
Whe e: U b 1 is he o al a ea co e ed by he u ban a ea in he ini ial
yea 1; U b 2 is he o al a ea co e ed by he u ban a ea in he inal yea
2 and y is he numbe o yea s be ween he wo measu emen pe iods
( 1 and 2)
LCPC 1 =U BU 1 / Pop 1
Whe e: U Bu 1 is he o al buil up a ea wi hin he de ined 1 u ban
bounda ies; Pop 1 is he o al popula ion wi hin he 1 u ban
bounda ies.
Which culmina es in inal indica o s, such as:
6
LCRPGR (LUE
6
) =(Annual Land Consump ion a e) / (Annual Popula-
ion g ow h a e)
% Change in LCPC ( 1- 2) =(LCPC 2 - LCPC 1) / LCPC 1 x 100
In p e ious s udies, esul s ha e been analyzed in di e en ways.
Schia ina e al. (2022) di ided he da a in o ca ego ies o a mo e
nuanced unde s anding o land consump ion in each municipali y. They
explain ha “an e icien de elopmen ajec o y occu s when 0 <LUE
≤1, whe e PGR >LCR, and ou classes cha ac e ize ine icien beha -
io s whe e LCR >PGR: LUE <−1; −1 <LUE ≤0; 1 <LUE ≤2; and LUE
>2.” Howe e , hese calcula ions do no accoun o nega i e alues,
such as when he LCR is lowe han ze o, posing challenges when
applying he indices o municipali ies wi h declining land consump ion.
Mo eo e , he ca ego iza ion in hei s udy limi s he indings o
“wo sening” o “imp o emen ,” which may be use ul on a global scale
bu less applicable in egional analyses like his case.
On he o he hand, Fujimu a e al. (2022) inco po a e nega i e
alues bu also ely on ca ego ical dis inc ions (Fig. 4). Thei s udy, also
on a global scale, uses ca ego iza ion o in e p e esul s ha may be
simila ma hema ically. Fo ins ance, posi i e numbe s on he index can
indica e bo h popula ion inc ease wi h land consump ion inc ease
(uppe igh quad an ), as well as popula ion dec ease wi h land con-
sump ion dec ease (lowe le quad an ). While his app oach wo ks o
some analyses, i was essen ial in ou case o c ea e a compa able
pa ame e ha could e alua e he bes and wo s cases wi hin Ca alonia.
To sol e his, we in oduced a cons an in o he calcula ions, allowing us
o ank all municipali ies, om bes o wo s , ac oss he s udied in-
dica o s. This cons an shi ed all esul s o posi i e alues, enabling us
o c ea e a clea and uni ied anking o municipali ies based on hei
pe o mance. We kep in o ma ion abou land o popula ion inc ease as
sepa a e indica o s o main ain he o iginal alue o he da a, while he
alue o he esul i sel (LUE) was changed by he cons an . In ha
ega d, we could keep all he in o ma ion needed and ye compa e and
enlis all Ca alonia municipali ies om wo s o bes in land use
e iciency.
3. Resul s
3.1. Unde s anding land use e iciency in u al Ca alonia
As a esul o applying he me hodology desc ibed, we analyzed
which o hese municipali ies con inued o expand, as e idenced by he
cons uc ion o new impe ious a eas (high LCR), despi e expe iencing
popula ion decline (low PGR). S a ing om his unbalanced si ua ion,
ou esea ch sough o explo e he exp ession o his phenomenon
h oughou Ca alonia (Fig. 5). This pe spec i e highligh ed se e al
municipali ies in di e en coun ies wi h s ong economic links ha
in luenced he expansion o u ban se lemen s and in as uc u e.
The esul s illus a e a p onounced dispa i y be ween coas al and
inland Ca alonia, wi h he o me exhibi ing a concen a ion o he
majo i y o he popula ion and a consis en demog aphic g ow h a-
jec o y, con ibu ing o an upwa d shi in he land-use e iciency index.
In con as , inland a eas a e expe iencing a gene al decline in popula-
ion, which is e lec ed in lowe index a es. Fu he mo e, nume ous
u al municipali ies in Ca alonia a e expe iencing se e e depopula ion,
wi h o e 300 municipali ies ha ing less han 1000 inhabi an s,
pa icula ly in he mos emo e a eas. Regional capi als and in e medi-
a e ci ies, such as To osa, Lleida, Solsona, and Vielha, ep esen ex-
cep ions o his si ua ion, se ing as popula ion, economic, and se ice
nodes amids he b oade nega i e ends obse ed in he su ounding
in e io egions.
Fu he mo e, signi ican in as uc u e ini ia i es (such as he A2
ha connec s Ba celona do Lleida) which acili a e connec i i y be ween
pi o al u ban cen e s wi hin Ca alonia and beyond, con ibu e o he
posi i e land consump ion indices obse ed in hei immedia e icini y.
The municipali ies si ua ed nea hese anspo a ion co ido s exhibi
highe popula ion densi ies, e en when hey a e classi ied as u al o
small owns. This e idence illus a es ha accessibili y o egional u ban
cen e s is a c i ical ac o in main aining popula ion le els.
A mo e de ailed examina ion o he da a a he municipal le el
6
LUE =Land Use E iciency indica o , as s a ed a Schia ina e al. (2022)
which is he same as he LCRPGR index as s a ed a Fujima a e al. (2022) and
he UN Habi a Land Use E iciency Repo (2018).
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
5
allows iden i ying he mos and leas a o able cases wi hin he s udy
(see Table 2). No able examples can be ound in key egions such as
Ponen (Lleida), Te es de l’Eb e (To osa), and Coma ques Cen als
(Solsona). These municipali ies a e no able o hei nega i e pe o -
mance conce ning land consump ion, which is d i en by high le els o
depopula ion and la ge-scale expansion o impe ious su aces. When
hese esul s a e conside ed alongside he egional map, b oade pa -
e ns and dynamics eme ge. Fo example, Ce i`
a de les Ga igues, a
small municipali y nea he p o incial capi al o Lleida, exhibi s a sig-
ni ican popula ion loss, which e lec s he u al- o-u ban mig a ion
end. Fu he mo e, i demons a es one o he highes land consump-
ion a es in Ca alonia, la gely due o he cons uc ion o a majo ing
oad as pa o a egional logis ics and mobili y plan o he Ponen
egion.
Con e sely, mo e a o able examples a e concen a ed in he p o -
ince o Gi ona and he Ba celona Me opoli an A ea, p edominan ly in
majo u ban egions whe e he equilib ium be ween land consump ion
and popula ion g ow h is mo e s able. These a eas illus a e a mo e
sus ainable app oach o u baniza ion, whe eby popula ion densi y is
main ained wi hou excessi e land expansion (see Fig. 5).
Fig. 3. Image showing each da ase , i s le el o de ail and accu acy, and how hey ela e and complemen each o he . Sou ce: Own elabo a ion based on p e iously
de ailed da ase s.
Fig. 4. Diag am o quad an s showing nega i e and posi i e alues on he LCR-
PGR (LUE) index. Sou ce: Adap ed om Fujimu a e al. (2022).
Fig. 5. Land Use E iciency in Ca alonia (G een =Be e , Pink =wo s ).
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion. (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colo in his
igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he Web e sion o his a icle.)
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
6
3.2. Highe land consump ion pe capi a in u al a eas
F om a egional pe spec i e, he map in Fig. 6 highligh s ano he key
index: he change in land consump ion pe capi a be ween 2009 and
2018. This index illus a es, municipali y by municipali y, he ela-
ionship be ween u banized land and popula ion, indica ing whe e he e
has been an imp o emen (a dec ease in land consump ion pe capi a)
and whe e he e has been a nega i e change (an inc ease in land con-
sump ion). Da k ci cles ep esen municipali ies in poo condi ions,
whe e ewe people occupy mo e u banized space, and he size o he
ci cles e lec s he size o he municipali y.
A no able concen a ion o da k ci cles is e iden in he icini y o
Lleida (Ponen ) and To osa (Te es de l’Eb e), highligh ing he ad e se
land consump ion dynamics in he inland a eas su ounding hese
pi o al ci ies. Con e sely, he coas al egions display a concen a ion o
ligh e and la ge ci cles, which may be indica i e o mo e a o able
condi ions. I is also wo h no ing ha he da kes ci cles a e ela i ely
small, indica ing ha he mos ad e se condi ions a e ound in smalle ,
u al municipali ies.
While new cons uc ion is o en ega ded as an indica o o economic
g ow h, in small municipali ies expe iencing depopula ion, his phe-
nomenon p esen s a pa adox. These u al a eas a e expe iencing a ne
loss o popula ion while simul aneously expanding hei u ban oo p in .
In con as , la ge u ban municipali ies a e demons a ing g ea e
Table 2
Land consump ion in Rep esen a i e cases. Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Municipali y G oup Planning Region Land consump ion Pop. G ow h PGR LCR Ch_LCPC LCRPGR
Ce i`
a de les Ga igues 500–2.000 Ponen 57 % −23 % 0,9704 1,0502 1,0500 1,0822
Godall 500–2.000 Te es de l’Eb e 3 % −30 % 0,9608 1,0037 0,4700 1,0446
Vilano a de la Ba ca 500–2.000 Ponen 15 % −18 % 0,9774 1,0151 0,4000 1,0385
Gines a 500–2.000 Te es de l’Eb e −1 % −29 % 0,9627 0,9992 0,3900 1,0380
Vilalle 500–2.000 Al Pi ineu i A an 0 % −25 % 0,9860 1,0022 0,3400 1,0333
T´
e mens 500–2.000 Ponen 21 % −10 % 0,9883 1,0210 0,3400 1,0330
Flix 2.000–5.000 Te es de l’Eb e 6 % −15 % 0,9822 1,0066 0,2500 1,0248
A esa de Seg e 2.000–5.000 Ponen 7 % −11 % 0,9872 1,0078 0,2000 1,0209
Ca dona 2.000–5.000 Coma ques Cen als 1 % −10 % 0,9879 1,0016 0,1300 1,0139
Rajadell 500–2.000 Coma ques Cen als 20 % −9 % 0,9912 1,0092 0,1000 1,0105
Almena 2.000–5.000 Ponen 2 % −6 % 0,9933 1,0022 0,0800 1,0090
Cas elle i la Go nal 2.000–5.000 Pened`
es 4 % 1 % 1,0012 1,0041 0,0300 1,0028
Pe alada 500–2.000 Coma ques Gi onines 4 % 3 % 1,0038 1,0049 0,0100 1,0011
Soses 500–2.000 Ponen 3 % 3 % 1,0031 1,0028 0,0000 0,9998
Cas ellolí 500–2.000 Pened`
es 12 % 21 % 1,0208 1,0129 −0,0700 0,9923
Fig. 6. Popula ion by municipali y (size o he ci cle), and Land consump ion pe capi a change (Da k G ey >0, Ligh G ey <0).
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
7
e iciency in land use, wi h a educ ion in he amoun o buil space pe
pe son –e en hough his lack o expansion is ew imes due o he un-
a ailabili y o mo e land o de elopmen . The indings o his s udy
p o ide a comp ehensi e examina ion o land consump ion ends in
Ca alonia’s u al municipali ies, elucida ing he complexi ies o
achie ing sus ainable land use in he con ex o popula ion decline.
4. Discussion
4.1. Indi idual ajec o ies and egional pa e ns
To gain a deepe unde s anding o hese dynamics, u al munici-
pali ies we e classi ied acco ding o hei planning egions (Fig. 2), and
isual ep esen a ions o popula ion sizes we e inco po a ed o each
municipali y. This app oach enables us o iden i y “posi i e” and
“nega i e” cases, as depic ed in p e ious maps, and o unco e whe he
ce ain ends a e mo e p e alen in la ge o smalle municipali ies.
This p o ides aluable insigh s in o eme ging land-use pa e ns.
The sca e plo (Fig. 7) p o ides a isual ep esen a ion o ends
wi hin each planning egion, while also iden i ying ou lie s. The poin s,
ep esen ing municipali ies, o igina e om a cen al poin , wi h each
quad an e lec ing a di e en end. The uppe -le quad an shows
posi i e popula ion g ow h and educed land consump ion, ep esen ing
he bes cases. The uppe - igh quad an shows posi i e alues o bo h
indexes. The lowe -le quad an e lec s nega i e alues o bo h in-
dexes. The lowe - igh quad an highligh s he wo s cases, wi h posi i e
land consump ion pai ed wi h popula ion decline.
No ably, Ce i`
a de les Ga igues, T´
e mens, and Vilano a de la Ba ca
(all in he Ponen egion) s and ou nega i ely due o high land con-
sump ion. Following, Te es de l’Eb e, ep esen ed by Godall and
Gines a , shows a p edominan ly declining popula ion pai ed wi h
minimal u ban expansion, also esul ing in a low land-use e iciency
a e. Regions like Pened`
es (Cas ellolí) and Coma ques Cen als (Raja-
dell) ha e expe ienced bo h high popula ion g ow h and high land
consump ion. Howe e , in Coma ques Cen als, he e is an imbalance,
wi h land consump ion ou pacing he popula ion g ow h a e. In a
di e en con ex , Al Pi ineu i A an (Vilalle ) has seen one o he
sha pes declines in popula ion, hough wi hou signi ican land con-
sump ion conce ns, which can indica e se e e economic s agna ion. The
Me opoli an A ea demons a es a cen alized end wi h posi i e co -
ela ions be ween popula ion g ow h and land consump ion. Simila ly,
hough wi h ewe u ban municipali ies, Coma ques Gi onines (Fo i`
a)
exhibi s popula ion g ow h along wi h modes educ ions in land con-
sump ion, a end also seen in se e al u al a eas (Table 3).
I is a well-es ablished ac ha some u ban a eas expe ience popu-
la ion g ow h, which in u n necessi a es he cons uc ion o new
housing o mee he ising demand. Howe e , he si ua ion in u al
municipali ies p esen s a di e en and, in many cases, mo e complex
challenge. Many o hese u al a eas do no expe ience popula ion
g ow h, ye hey con inue o build and consume land.
Fig. 8 p esen s a second sca e plo , in which highe poin s on he
e ical axis indica e mo e popula ed municipali ies. Mo emen om
le o igh on he ho izon al axis ep esen s inc easing amoun s o u -
banized a eas, which co ela es wi h highe le els o land consump ion.
The ed line ep esen s Ca alonia a e age numbe o popula ion g ow h
and land consump ion (0.1 Ha pe inhabi an in he yea s s udied),
e lec ing a pa e n o u ban concen a ion as a e e ence poin .
By examining he ajec o y o each municipali y’s da a poin s, we
can iden i y a ia ions in bo h popula ion g ow h and land consump-
ion. The lines connec ing pai s o poin s o each municipali y p o ide a
clea e illus a ion o hese ends. Municipali ies ha de ia e he mos
om sus ainable g ow h pa e ns a e hose wi h nea ly ho izon al lines,
Fig. 7. Rela i e land consump ion and popula ion change be ween 2009 and 2018 o u al municipali ies in Ca alonia. Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
8
indica ing disp opo iona e land de elopmen in ela ion o popula ion
g ow h (Soses, Cas elle i la Go nal y Pe alada). O g ea e conce n a e
municipali ies wi h downwa d-sloping lines, which ep esen a eas
whe e he popula ion has dec eased bu land consump ion has
con inued o ise (Almena , Ca dona, Flix y A esa de Seg e). This un-
sus ainable de elopmen pa e n sugges s ha in some u al munici-
pali ies, signi ican land is being consumed despi e a sh inking o
s agnan popula ion. In his plo , al hough we lack a egional pa e n
spa ial isualiza ion like he p e ious one, i highligh s some indi idual
cases ha can be analyzed as indi idual phenomena, o e en o iden i y
hei impac s on su ounding egions and coun ies. Thus, in o de o gain
a comp ehensi e unde s anding o land consump ion pa e ns i is
c ucial o shi he ocus om indi idual municipali ies o a egional
scale analysis.
4.2. The speci ici y o u al e i o ies
The esul s demons a e ha u al municipali ies exhibi dis inc
cha ac e is ics compa ed o medium-sized egions and me opoli an
a eas. The u al con ex o en includes less dense popula ions and ewe
economic oppo uni ies, which p esen s an addi ional challenge in
balancing he cos s associa ed wi h land consump ion and in as uc u e
de elopmen . I is he e o e necessa y o adop a ailo ed app oach in
u al a eas, which mus be dis inc om he b oade egional ame-
wo ks ha migh apply o u ban cen e s.
The Spanish go e nmen is cu en ly con ibu ing o he e alua ion
o land consump ion by publishing an annual index. Howe e , esul s
a e p o ided o municipali ies wi h 20,000 inhabi an s o mo e, p o -
inces, and au onomous communi ies and ci ies. The e o e, esul s should
Table 3
Popula ion g ow h and land consump ion by municipali y g oup size and planning egion. Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
G oups Popula ion in 2009 Popula ion in 2018 Pop. G ow h U b. A ea in 2009 (Ha) U b. A ea in 2018 (Ha) Land consump ion
<500 86.267 81.146 −5,94 % 14.456,25 14.364,61 −0,63 %
500–2.000 260.957 256.258 −1,80 % 25.254,48 25.054,16 −0,79 %
2.000–5.000 420.386 428.296 1,88 % 27.905,43 28.043,08 0,49 %
>5.000 6.707.810 6.834.365 1,89 % 119.428,64 119.266,01 −0,14 %
Regional plan
Al Pi ineu i A an 76.828 71.888 −6,43 % 5.483,15 5.445,03 −0,70 %
Camp de Ta agona 513.580 515.095 0,29 % 20.740,38 20.598,79 −0,68 %
Coma ques Cen als 399.621 403.624 1,00 % 17.087,85 17.346,67 1,51 %
Coma ques Gi onines 732.918 747.464 1,98 % 32.510,64 32.275,25 −0,72 %
Me opoli `
a 4.744.774 4.849.691 2,21 % 63.255,20 62.712,47 −0,86 %
Pened`
es 457.918 473.408 3,38 % 17.471,99 17.665,62 1,11 %
Ponen 358.921 360.497 0,44 % 20.447,86 20.641,75 0,95 %
Te es de l’Eb e 190.860 178.398 −6,53 % 10.047,73 10.042,29 −0,05 %
To al gene al 7.475.420 7.600.065 1,67 % 187.044,80 186.727,87 −0,17 %
Fig. 8. Rela i e land consump ion and popula ion change be ween 2009 and 2018 o u al municipali ies in Ca alonia. Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
R. d’A ila e al.
Habi a In e na ional 162 (2025) 103443
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