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Ci a ion: So ják, R.; Tichá, M.;
F id icho á, E. The Volume ic
Me hod Desc ibing he Li e Cycle o
Powe Tools du ing Thei P oduc ion
wi h Di e en Ends o Li e.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498. h ps://
doi.o g/10.3390/su14031498
Academic Edi o s: Yoshiki
Shimomu a and Shige u Hosono
Recei ed: 9 Janua y 2022
Accep ed: 24 Janua y 2022
Published: 27 Janua y 2022
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2022 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
sus ainabili y
A icle
The Volume ic Me hod Desc ibing he Li e Cycle o Powe
Tools du ing Thei P oduc ion wi h Di e en Ends o Li e
Richa d So ják1,* , Ma ie Tichá2and E a F id icho á1
1Ins i u e o Machine and Indus ial Design, Facul y o Mechanical Enginee ing,
B no Uni e si y o Technology, Technická2896/2, 616 69 B no, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed]
2Facul y o En i onmen , Jan E angelis a Pu kynˇe Uni e si y in Ús ínad Labem, Pas eu o a 3632/15,
400 96 Ús ínad Labem, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: icha [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +420-541-142-702
Abs ac :
The amoun o powe consump ion o he p oduc li e cycle has a signi ican impac on
global wa ming. To de e mine hese nega i e impac s, li e cycle assessmen (LCA) is used. These
me hods a e ime-consuming and expensi e aining cos s ha equi e he cha ac e is ics o he mass
and ma e ial cha ac e is ics o he p oduc s. The aim o he p esen s udy was o de elop a me hod
ha uses only p oduc ypology and olume ic p oduc p ope ies wi hou knowing he s uc u al
and ma e ial composi ion. To achie e he objec i e, 134 pieces o powe ools we e used, di ided
in o 10 g oups acco ding o hei ype. The olume o he p oduc was de e mined by 3D scanning
wi h subsequen ma e ial and he LCA me hod based on he Oil Poin Me hod (OPM). The end o li e
(EoL) o he p oduc was e alua ed in land illing, combus ion, and 90% ecycling a ian s. Equa ions
we e ob ained om Mon e Ca lo Simula ion wi h 95% eliabili y and allowed he de e mina ion o
he ene gy equi emen s o he p oduc ion o powe ools and CO
2
emissions, including da a o
packaging and anspo o goods. The Volume ic E alua ing Me hod o Ecodesign (VEME) can
quickly e alua e impac in h ee EoL p ocedu es and op imise he olume o powe ools and he
loca ion o p oduc ion o p oduc s wi hou LCA knowledge.
Keywo ds:
li e cycle assessmen ; en i onmen al impac s; CO
2
emission; indus ial design; land illing;
combus ion; ecycling; p edic ion; VEME me hod
1. In oduc ion
By i s ac ions, human socie y c ea es nega i e en i onmen al impac s on he plane .
The en i onmen al beha iou o socie y is limi ed by con en ions, di ec i es, and s anda ds.
The Pa is P o ocol is one o he majo in e na ional ea ies and has al eady been a i ied
by 197 coun ies. The aim o he ag eemen is o educe g eenhouse gas emissions so
ha he empe a u e ise does no exceed an a e age empe a u e o 1.5
◦
C, compa ed o
p e-indus ial le els [
1
]. P oduc egula ion e o s a e made using ISO 14000 (en i onmen-
al managemen ) li e cycle assessmen s anda ds. S anda ds ISO 14044 (En i onmen al
managemen —Li e cycle assessmen —P inciples and amewo k) and ISO 14040 (En i-
onmen al managemen —Li e cycle assessmen —Requi emen s and guidelines) se e as a
guide o he assessmen o he indi idual li e s ages o a p oduc [2].
Li e cycle assessmen (LCA) ools use di e en app oaches and p o ide di e se esul s
in acco dance wi h en i onmen al impac assessmen equi emen s [
3
]. App oaches o
en i onmen al impac assessmen can be:
•Quali a i e
•Semi-quan i a i e
•Quan i a i e
Quali a i e app oaches a e used o apid assessmen o en i onmen al impac s wi h-
ou in-dep h knowledge o LCA me hods. These include, o example, Ecodesign Checklis
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su14031498 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 2 o 18
(e alua ion in h ee c i e ia), LiDS Wheel (spide web/ ada diag am assessing bo h ex-
is ing and new p oduc s in eigh ac o s), and The Golden Rules (a me hod designed o
compa e and assess concep s, o example) [
4
–
6
]. The e a e many mo e me hods: Vol os
Lis s, ABC-Analysis, Philips Fas Fi e Awa eness, Econcep Spide web, The Mo phological
Box and o he s. Me hods based on a quali a i e app oach a e sui able o a quick and
indica i e e alua ion o a p oduc o se ice. I is possible o assess he ea ly s ages o
design wi hou knowledge o LCA wi h quali a i e ou pu . Some ools allow o di ec
e alua ion o impac s [6,7].
The MECO Ma ix is a semiquan i a i e app oach ha is based on a simpli ied LCA
me hod as well as he ERPA Ma ix. These me hods combine bo h quali a i e and quan i a-
i e app oaches (di ec e alua ion o impac s) [6–8].
Me hods using quan i a i e inpu s a e, o example, MET Ma ix. This me hod is
used in all phases o he li e cycle, including he possibili y o compa ing impac analyses.
I con ains mo e han 1000 i ems in eg a ed in o 3D so wa e [
7
,
9
]. Inpu /Ou pu (I/O)
allows indi ec de e mina ion o en i onmen al impac s using economic indica o s. I is
possible o de e mine ene gy and ma e ial lows du ing p oduc ion and hei quan i ica ion
in economic sec o s o in he whole sys em. The solu ion h ough I/O analysis p o ides a
comp ehensi e en i onmen al o e iew o he economic en i y [
10
]. The Oil Poin Me hod
(OPM) e alua es he li e cycle in phases: ma e ials p oduc ion, manu ac u ing p ocesses,
anspo , use and end o li e. I uses Oil Poin (OP) uni s o calcula ion, whe e 1 OP equals
45 MJ (1 kg o c ude oil). OPM con ains OP alues o mo e han 70 ma e ials, 20 p oduc ion
p ocesses, and 5 end o li e p ocesses [
11
]. LCA so wa e solu ions such as OpenLCA,
SimaP o, GaBi, and Umbe o p o ide be e esul s han quali a i e o semiquali a i e
app oaches, bu aining and implemen a ion o ools a e cos ly. The undeniable ad an age
o LCA-based me hods is he abili y o assess he en i e li e cycle o a p oduc /se ice
and ake s eps o imp o e i . Acco ding o he esea ch indings, ecodesign expe s no
longe ocus on p oduc design [
12
]. When designing p oduc s, he indus ial designe is
an expe in aes he ics and e gonomics. The use o ecodesign ools by indus ial designe s,
especially quan i a i e LCA me hods, is no common [
13
]. Wi h he coming o Indus y 4.0,
he e a e demands o he in eg a ion o new ma e ials and he op imiza ion o p oduc
shapes. This esponsibili y o he indus ial designe is aimed a sus ainable p oduc ion o
p oduc s [
14
]. The design o new p oduc s should make a ge ed use o ecycled ma e ials
o educe he use o p ima y aw ma e ials in high- olume p oduc ion. Conside ing he
wo ldwide sales o powe ools, i is necessa y o op imise p oduc s e en a his ea ly
s age o design. Global sales o powe ools a e expec ed o each USD 48 billion in he
yea 2027 (an inc ease o 4.8% in 2020) [
15
]. Fo hese easons, i is essen ial o ocus on
sus ainable powe ool p oduc ion. Quali a i e me hods used in he ea ly s ages o design
do no allow he use o LCA o p incipled easons. Quan i a i e app oaches equi e mass
and ma e ial cha ac e is ics ha a e no known in he ea ly s ages o design. Fo hese
easons, he e is no app oach/me hod ha p o ides quan i a i e da a using LCA a he
ea ly design s age. Quan i a i e app oaches equi e weigh and ma e ial cha ac e is ics
ha a e no known. The olume ic app oach ha could cap u e p oduc cha ac e is ics has
no ye been applied, p obably due o he ime-consuming na u e o p ocessing ex ensi e
LCA. Can he amoun o emissions CO
2
and ene gy consump ion o p oduc ion be based
only on he olume and na u e o he p oduc ? An impo an elemen in he EU is also
in o ming consume s h ough he “Ene gy Labels” abou ene gy consump ion du ing he
use phase. The missing in o ma ion on consump ion labels is he ene gy equi emen s
o p oduc ion, p oduc packaging, and anspo . This in o ma ion could be u nished
o powe ools, and he consume could choose a p oduc ha is mo e en i onmen ally
iendly. The Eu opean P oduc Da abase o Ene gy Labeling (EPREL) akes ca e o his
egis a ion and manu ac u e s a e obliged o log in o he da abase. An o e iew o
p oduc s ha a e subjec o labelling is egula ed by Regula ion (EU) 2017/1369 o he
Eu opean Pa liamen [16,17].
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 3 o 18
The pu pose o he p esen esea ch was o de e mine he en i onmen al impac
o selec ed powe ools in an ea ly s age o design wi hou knowledge o hei in e nal
componen s. Tools and me hods based only on quali a i e da a a e a ailable o he
assessmen o ea ly s age p oduc design. Wi h ega d o quali a i e inpu , i was no
possible o expec high-quali y quan i a i e ou pu s. Quan i a i e app oaches equi e a
deep knowledge o LCA and a comp ehensi e knowledge o he p oduc s being analysed
(ma e ial composi ion, manu ac u ing echnology, e c.). The new app oach will allow he
de e mina ion o ene gy equi emen s and CO
2
emissions a di e en ends o he li e cycle
based only on he p opo ions o he olume o he p oduc , i s ypology, and he loca ion
o p oduc ion. The new me hod will allow op imiza ion o powe ools p oduc ion, olume
p opo ions, applica ion o p oduc ion in ensi y labels, in eg a ion o knowledge in ci cula
economy, po en ial o ma e ials ecycling in ecycling cen es, and shapes op imiza ion by
indus ial designe s. The ad an age o he me hod is he high e iciency o wo k, wi hou
knowledge o LCA, and low equi emen s o inpu da a ( ype and olume o p oduc and
place o p oduc ion). The no el y o he me hod lies in linking a e y ea ly s age o p oduc
design wi h he LCA me hod, which has no been used be o e. Calcula ing he impac o
EoL a ian s can be done wi h a single quan i a i e a iable, namely, he olume o he
p oduc unde e alua ion.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
The ma e ials used we e samples o powe ools (manu ac u ed be ween he yea s
1989 and 2018). These ool samples we e analysed in he ollowing basic s eps:
•Range o examined samples;
•3D digi isa ion o samples;
•Ma e ial and cons uc ion analysis;
•LCA me hod;
•LCA simula ion o powe ools.
2.1. Range o Examined Samples
The esea ch was ca ied ou wi h handheld powe ools, which we e ob ained in
coope a ion wi h he ecycling cen e ENVIROPOL s. . o. (Jihla a, Czech Republic).
The selec ion was made wi hou ocusing on he ype o ool, bu conside ing he o e all
condi ion o he ool. A o al o 134 pieces o powe ools we e analysed and subsequen ly
ca ego ised in o 10 ype g oups acco ding o ype:
•Random o bi al sande s (6 pcs.);
•Shee sande s (16 pcs.);
•Elec ic plane s (9 pcs.);
•Handle jigsaws (24 pcs.);
•Bel sande s (7 pcs.);
•Pe cussion d ills (17 pcs.);
•Ci cula saws (7 pcs.);
•Angle g inde s (26 pcs.);
•Elec ic chainsaws (16 pcs.);
•Recip oca ing saws (6 pcs.).
The lowcha desc ibes a p ocedu e ha in ol es p epa ing da a o LCA and simula-
ion a e ob aining he esul ing equa ions (Figu e 1).
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 4 o 18
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 19
Figu e 1. Flowcha o he new olume ic me hod.
2.2. 3D Digi isa ion o Samples
The olume ic p ope ies o handheld powe ools we e de e mined by 3D scan-
ning. Samples we e analysed using an EinScan HD P o handheld 3D scanne and a
s uc u al LED ligh using ma king poin s and con ou s. Digi isa ion was pe o med in
manual mode wi h he se ing a medium de ails wi h a 0.7 mm accu acy. All 3D da a
ob ained we e in STL o ma and modi ied in Rhinoce os 7 so wa e wi h subsequen
de e mina ion o p oduc olume in ml (accu acy o 0.001 mm
3
). Sample o scanned
powe ools and hei s pho og aphs (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. Sample o 3D scanned powe ool and i s pho og aph ( ecip oca ing saw).
2.3. Ma e ial and Cons uc ion Analysis
The examined samples we e disassembled in o indi idual pa s (bea ings, co e ,
sc ews, bol s, sp ings, con ac s, gea s, e c.). The indi idual pa s o he ool we e weighed
(Sa o ius PMA7500 weigh wi h a ole ance o 0.1 g), en e ed in o MS Excel ables, and
desc ibed in e ms o ma e ials used. Using he weigh di e ences, he indi idual ma e-
ial p ope ies o he combined pa s o he ool, such as powe line wi es, s a o s, bea -
ings, and some mo ion mechanisms, we e calcula ed. To de e mine he exac quan i y o
indi idual ma e ials, he o o s and s a o s we e i e e sibly disassembled (Figu e 3). All
pa s we e weighed and u he analysed a e pho og aphs we e aken.
Figu e 1. Flowcha o he new olume ic me hod.
2.2. 3D Digi isa ion o Samples
The olume ic p ope ies o handheld powe ools we e de e mined by 3D scanning.
Samples we e analysed using an EinScan HD P o handheld 3D scanne and a s uc u al
LED ligh using ma king poin s and con ou s. Digi isa ion was pe o med in manual mode
wi h he se ing a medium de ails wi h a 0.7 mm accu acy. All 3D da a ob ained we e
in STL o ma and modi ied in Rhinoce os 7 so wa e wi h subsequen de e mina ion o
p oduc olume in ml (accu acy o 0.001 mm
3
). Sample o scanned powe ools and hei s
pho og aphs (Figu e 2).
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 19
Figu e 1. Flowcha o he new olume ic me hod.
2.2. 3D Digi isa ion o Samples
The olume ic p ope ies o handheld powe ools we e de e mined by 3D scan-
ning. Samples we e analysed using an EinScan HD P o handheld 3D scanne and a
s uc u al LED ligh using ma king poin s and con ou s. Digi isa ion was pe o med in
manual mode wi h he se ing a medium de ails wi h a 0.7 mm accu acy. All 3D da a
ob ained we e in STL o ma and modi ied in Rhinoce os 7 so wa e wi h subsequen
de e mina ion o p oduc olume in ml (accu acy o 0.001 mm
3
). Sample o scanned
powe ools and hei s pho og aphs (Figu e 2).
Figu e 2. Sample o 3D scanned powe ool and i s pho og aph ( ecip oca ing saw).
2.3. Ma e ial and Cons uc ion Analysis
The examined samples we e disassembled in o indi idual pa s (bea ings, co e ,
sc ews, bol s, sp ings, con ac s, gea s, e c.). The indi idual pa s o he ool we e weighed
(Sa o ius PMA7500 weigh wi h a ole ance o 0.1 g), en e ed in o MS Excel ables, and
desc ibed in e ms o ma e ials used. Using he weigh di e ences, he indi idual ma e-
ial p ope ies o he combined pa s o he ool, such as powe line wi es, s a o s, bea -
ings, and some mo ion mechanisms, we e calcula ed. To de e mine he exac quan i y o
indi idual ma e ials, he o o s and s a o s we e i e e sibly disassembled (Figu e 3). All
pa s we e weighed and u he analysed a e pho og aphs we e aken.
Figu e 2. Sample o 3D scanned powe ool and i s pho og aph ( ecip oca ing saw).
2.3. Ma e ial and Cons uc ion Analysis
The examined samples we e disassembled in o indi idual pa s (bea ings, co e ,
sc ews, bol s, sp ings, con ac s, gea s, e c.). The indi idual pa s o he ool we e weighed
(Sa o ius PMA7500 weigh wi h a ole ance o 0.1 g), en e ed in o MS Excel ables, and
desc ibed in e ms o ma e ials used. Using he weigh di e ences, he indi idual ma e ial
p ope ies o he combined pa s o he ool, such as powe line wi es, s a o s, bea ings, and
some mo ion mechanisms, we e calcula ed. To de e mine he exac quan i y o indi idual
ma e ials, he o o s and s a o s we e i e e sibly disassembled (Figu e 3). All pa s we e
weighed and u he analysed a e pho og aphs we e aken.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 5 o 18
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 19
Figu e 3. Pho og aphy o ex e nal and in e nal componen s ( ecip oca ing saw).
2.4. LCA Me hod
Li e cycle assessmen was pe o med using he OPM me hod. This LCA me hod
p o ided a su icien numbe o ma e ials, p ocesses, and possible EoLs. Powe ools
we e de eloped in h ee EoL a ian s o each p oduc :
• Land illing (100% o he ma e ials a e land illed);
• Combus ion (ma e ials ha can be ans o med in o ene gy);
• 90% ecycling (90% o he ma e ials a e linea ly ecycled).
The phase o he anspo was ca ied ou a in e als om ( uck = 300 km a uck =
1700 km and an = 500 km) o ( uck = 300 km, ship = 14,500 km, uck = 1700 km and an
= 500 km). The sea anspo a ion was de e mined and calcula ed o app oxima e dis-
ances by h ps://sea-dis ances.o g/ (accessed on 29 Decembe 2021). The anspo con-
di ions we e he same o land illing, combus ion and ecycling (phases can be indi idu-
ally op imised). The p oduc packaging ma e ial was calcula ed as ca dboa d B (200
g/m2) and PE oil 0.1 mm. The size o he package was de i ed om he olume o he
ool wi h he addi ion o 65/50/45 mm a ound he ool i sel , including a ho izon al and
wo e ical illing segmen s. Du ing machining, 60.4% o he weigh loss o he ma-
chined ma e ial was aken in o accoun [18]. The use phase was calcula ed o 1000 h and
is no included in he o e all calcula ions.
All 134 ool samples we e subjec ed o LCA by he Oil Poin Me hod (OPM) o
end-o -li e impac s—land illing, combus ion, 90% ecycling—and wi h he a e o ecy-
cling cou se om 0% o 100%. Recycling a e was se o 45%, in acco dance wi h he EU
di ec i e [19] and u ning poin equi emen s o he end-o -li e cycle combus ion ( he
poin whe e he amoun o ene gy in combus ion is equal o he ene gy eco e ed by
ecycling).
2.5. LCA Simula ion o Powe Tools
The simula ion was based on da a acqui ed om he analysis o indi idual g oups
o powe ools ocused on p oduc olume and p oduc ion ene gy equi emen s. The
inpu da a o he simula ion we e subjec ed o linea eg ession (LR) and es ed o a
Figu e 3. Pho og aphy o ex e nal and in e nal componen s ( ecip oca ing saw).
2.4. LCA Me hod
Li e cycle assessmen was pe o med using he OPM me hod. This LCA me hod
p o ided a su icien numbe o ma e ials, p ocesses, and possible EoLs. Powe ools we e
de eloped in h ee EoL a ian s o each p oduc :
•Land illing (100% o he ma e ials a e land illed);
•Combus ion (ma e ials ha can be ans o med in o ene gy);
•90% ecycling (90% o he ma e ials a e linea ly ecycled).
The phase o he anspo was ca ied ou a in e als om ( uck = 300 km a
uck = 1700 km and an = 500 km) o ( uck = 300 km, ship = 14,500 km, uck = 1700 km
and an = 500 km). The sea anspo a ion was de e mined and calcula ed o app oxima e
dis ances by h ps://sea-dis ances.o g/ (accessed on 29 Decembe 2021). The anspo
condi ions we e he same o land illing, combus ion and ecycling (phases can be indi idu-
ally op imised). The p oduc packaging ma e ial was calcula ed as ca dboa d B (200 g/m
2
)
and PE oil 0.1 mm. The size o he package was de i ed om he olume o he ool wi h
he addi ion o 65/50/45 mm a ound he ool i sel , including a ho izon al and wo e ical
illing segmen s. Du ing machining, 60.4% o he weigh loss o he machined ma e ial was
aken in o accoun [
18
]. The use phase was calcula ed o 1000 h and is no included in he
o e all calcula ions.
All 134 ool samples we e subjec ed o LCA by he Oil Poin Me hod (OPM) o end-o -
li e impac s—land illing, combus ion, 90% ecycling—and wi h he a e o ecycling cou se
om 0% o 100%. Recycling a e was se o 45%, in acco dance wi h he EU di ec i e [
19
]
and u ning poin equi emen s o he end-o -li e cycle combus ion ( he poin whe e he
amoun o ene gy in combus ion is equal o he ene gy eco e ed by ecycling).
2.5. LCA Simula ion o Powe Tools
The simula ion was based on da a acqui ed om he analysis o indi idual g oups o
powe ools ocused on p oduc olume and p oduc ion ene gy equi emen s. The inpu
da a o he simula ion we e subjec ed o linea eg ession (LR) and es ed o a no mal
dis ibu ion wi h a p- alue < 0.05. Due o he ime-consuming na u e o indi idual LCA, a

Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 6 o 18
simula ion using he Mon e Ca lo me hod was pe o med. The simula ion o n= 1000 s eps
was used wi h indi idual g oups o ools in he EoL a ian s o land illing, combus ion, and
90% ecycling. Da a om he inpu analysis wi h he no mal dis ibu ion wi h he s anda d
de ia ion o he baseline we e p ocessed a he es le el alpha = 0.05. Subsequen analysis
included linea eg ession o ob ain line equa ions wi h 95% con idence wi h p- alue < 0.05
( -Tes pai ed wi h a wo- ailed dis ibu ion). The simula ion was pe o med o wo ou pu
ca ego ies wi h h ee EoL op ions:
•Ene gy o p oduc ion (MJ and kWh);
•Emission o CO2(kg CO2eq.).
Analysis o emissions kg CO
2
eq. was applied o coun ies CZ, PL, EE, SE, TR,
BR, CN, IN, US, JP (acco ding o ISO code 3166-1) and he Uni ed Kingdom as UK. The
coun ies we e selec ed wi h espec o di e en ene gy mixes. The esul s ob ained om
he simula ion and ene gy mixes o indi idual s a es ( alues o kg CO
2
eq. pe kWh as o
June 2019) we e used o calcula e he emissions o kg CO2eq. [20].
3. Resul s
The o al weigh o 134 pieces o powe ools was 310 kg, wi h mo e han 9700 indi-
idual pa s and ma e ial g oups. P io o p ocessing wi h he LCA me hod, he powe
ool samples we e sequen ially pho og aphed and scanned wi h a 3D scanne o de e mine
he p oduc olume. P oduc olumes anged om 757 mL (angle g inde s) o 5530 mL
(elec ic chainsaws).
Fo ma e ial analysis he ools we e disassembled in o indi idual pa s and in en o-
ied o da a p epa a ion o LCA. Manu ac u ing ope a ions we e assigned o he gi en
ma e ials and pa s ( o example, ecip oca ing saw, see Table 1). In en o y analysis showed
ha in he ea ly 1990s, pu e ABS was used o co e he p oduc s. La e i was composi e
ma e ials PA6 and PA66 ein o ced wi h be ween 30% and 50% GF. The cons uc ion o
balance s and bea ings a e usually made o zinc alloy and aluminium alloy and s eel.
Flexible pa s such as bea ing housings a e made o EPDM and PB. B ass and b onze we e
used o plain bea ings and con ac s. A signi ican amoun o s eel is used in elec ic mo o s
in s a o pla es and a ma u e o o o s, and coppe in o o windings, s a o , and wi es. The
essen ial ma e ials o powe ools a e s eel, composi e, coppe , and aluminium (Du al),
which ha e a signi ican impac on LCA calcula ions.
Table 1. Example o p oduc weigh and ma e ial composi ion analysis ( ecip oca ing saw).
Desc ip ion Ma e ial Quan i y (kg)
PA6-GF30 PA6-GF30 * 0.741
The moplas ic Elas ome TPE ** 0.038
PA6 PA6 0.016
S eel (89% P ima y) S eel 0.740
Shee s S eel 1.481
Du al * Al + Cu + Mg 0.377
Coppe Coppe 0.359
Con ac s (B ass) B ass 0.014
Tu ning, Milling Remo ed 0.447
Bol s, Sc ews, Nu s S eel 0.075
Sp ings (S eel) S eel 0.004
Wi e W apping PVC 0.018
Capaci o ** PP + Al + Pape 0.005
PCB Composi e Composi e Boa d ** 0.017
Resin Epoxies 0.021
Ca bon B ushes Ca bon 0.002
Fe i e S eel 0.006
Lub ican Vaseline 0.115
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 7 o 18
Table 1. Con .
Desc ip ion Ma e ial Quan i y (kg)
∑4.030
Desc ip ion Ma e ial A ea (m2)
Elec o-Pla ing C , Ni, Zn, Cu 0.01080
Pain s ** Liquid Pain s 0.03690
∑0.048
Desc ip ion Ma e ial Leng h (m)
Welding S eel 0.000
∑0.000
* Recalcula ed, ** App oxima ely Calcula ed.
3.1. LCA Me hod
The LCA me hod o each ool con ained a o al o 402 indi idual EoL analyses, which
we e combined in o p oduc g oups ollowed by linea eg ession. In 6 samples om
30 g oups o ca ego ies he p- alue was highe han signi icance le el alpha. The eason
o a p- alue > 0.05 was he low numbe o samples analysed in a ca ego y, wi h high
a iabili y wi hin a na ow ool olume in e al. The dependence o olume and ene gy
equi emen s on p oduc p oduc ion is e iden despi e he non- obus numbe o samples.
The e was no dependence o he ool powe on he ool olume. Howe e , his powe inpu
co esponds o he in ended use phase. The use phase o 1000 h anged be ween 125 W
(1406
MJ = 391 kWh
, ene gy o p oduc ion compa ed o he use phase 7.5%) and 2200 W
(24,750 MJ = 6875 kWh, ene gy o p oduc ion compa ed o he use phase is 2.4%). The
ene gy equi emen s o he packaging ma e ial we e 8.537 MJ
±
0.270 MJ (land illing),
−
3.862 MJ
±
0.122 MJ (combus ion) and 11.374 MJ
±
0.359 MJ (90% ecycling). The ene gy
p o iles ob ained we e unique o each indi idual sample and we e no iden ical (land illing,
combus ion, and 90% ecycling).
3.2. Land illing
The esul ing li e cycle in land ill mode epo ed ze o alues o all ma e ials and EoL,
acco ding o he ules o he OPM me hod o he powe ool example. The g aph (Figu e 4)
ep esen s he ene gy equi emen s o p oduc ion when all ool pa s a e land illed (=0%
ecycling, no ac ion on he in eg i y o he samples). I was ound ha a signi ican
p opo ion o he ma e ials in he ooling a e s eel, composi e, aluminium/Du al, coppe
and zinc alloy. This p opo ion depends on he olume and ca ego y o he ool.
3.3. Combus ion
The combus ion mode (Figu e 5) was only possible o ma e ials ha con ain eeds ock
sha e indica o s, such as ABS, PP, PMMA, PVC, e c. The composi e ma e ial PA6, PA66, PP,
POM, PBT was used o ene gy only in pe cen ages wi hou glass ib es (GF) ein o cemen .
Capaci o s, p in ed ci cui boa ds (PCBs), V-Bel s, and lub ican s we e also ans o med o
ene gy. The ene gy ob ained om he combus ion o he packaging ma e ial, which always
had an ene gy po en ial, was also calcula ed. The highes possible alue ob ained was
6.017 MJ o elec ic chainsaws ( he alues depended on he size o he powe ools). In he
case o combus ion, he ene gy in MJ is ans e ed o an independen sys em.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 8 o 18
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 19
Figu e 4. G aph o ma e ial composi ion and ene gy equi emen s—Land illing ( ecip oca ing
saw).
3.3. Combus ion
The combus ion mode (Figu e 5) was only possible o ma e ials ha con ain eed-
s ock sha e indica o s, such as ABS, PP, PMMA, PVC, e c. The composi e ma e ial PA6,
PA66, PP, POM, PBT was used o ene gy only in pe cen ages wi hou glass ib es (GF)
ein o cemen . Capaci o s, p in ed ci cui boa ds (PCBs), V-Bel s, and lub ican s we e
also ans o med o ene gy. The ene gy ob ained om he combus ion o he packaging
ma e ial, which always had an ene gy po en ial, was also calcula ed. The highes possible
alue ob ained was 6.017 MJ o elec ic chainsaws ( he alues depended on he size o
he powe ools). In he case o combus ion, he ene gy in MJ is ans e ed o an inde-
penden sys em.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
PA6-GF30
The moplas ic Elas ome
PA6
S eel (89% P ima y)
Shee s
Du al*
Coppe
Con ac s (B ass)
Tu ning, Milling
Bol s, Sc ews, Nu s
Sp ings (S eel)
Wi e W apping
Capaci o **
PCB Composi e
Resin
Ca bon B ushes
Fe i e
Lub ican
Elec o-Pla ing
Pain s**
Ene gy (MJ)
Ma e ial
Ma e ial Composi ion o he King C a KMS 710 E in
Te ms o Ene gy Requi emen s o he Li e Cycle
Acco ding o he Me hodology OPM (Land illing)
T anspo Range Ma e ials P oduc ion
Manu ac u ing P ocesses End o Li e
Packaging
Figu e 4.
G aph o ma e ial composi ion and ene gy equi emen s—Land illing ( ecip oca ing saw).
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19
Figu e 5. G aph o ma e ial composi ion and ene gy equi emen s—Combus ion ( ecip oca ing
saw).
3.4. Tu ning Poin & 90% Recycling
Fo p oduc s wi h a high p opo ion o used plas ic on he inne pa and on he
ou e co e s, i was no possible o ind a u ning poin on he en i e ecycling scale om
0% o 100%. The e u n o some ypes o plas ic back in o ci cula ion is ene ge ically de-
manding due o he mul iple alues o uel sha e ( ecycling) compa ed o he alues o
eeds ock sha e (land illing). Recycling equi es a high amoun o ene gy o sh edding,
sepa a ion, and e-mel ing (Figu e 6). The a e age educ ion in ene gy equi emen s o
p oduc ecycling compa ed o EoL land illing is 13.2% ± 1.6%. The maximum ene gy
sa ed by ecycling was 32.4%. The inc ease in ene gy equi emen s o EoL (90% ecy-
cling) is only in 13 ou o 134 ools, wi h an a e age alue o 1.6% ± 0.8% (maximum in-
c ease was 6.2%). In 47 cases, he u ning poin was mo e ene ge ically di icul han he
demand o he EU o 45% ecycling. The loca ion o he u ning poin is shown in he
g aph (Figu e 7). In 45.5% o cases, i was no possible o ind a u ning poin on he
whole ecycling scale om 0% o 100%.
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
PA6-GF30
The moplas ic Elas ome
PA6
S eel (89% P ima y)
Shee s
Du al*
Coppe
Con ac s (B ass)
Tu ning, Milling
Bol s, Sc ews, Nu s
Sp ings (S eel)
Wi e W apping
Capaci o **
PCB Composi e
Resin
Ca bon B ushes
Fe i e
Lub ican
Elec o-Pla ing
Pain s**
Ene gy (MJ)
Ma e ial
Ma e ial Composi ion o he King C a KMS 710 E in
Te ms o Ene gy Requi emen s o he Li e Cycle
Acco ding o he Me hodology OPM (Combus ion)
T anspo Range Ma e ials P oduc ion
Manu ac u ing P ocesses End o Li e
Packaging
Figu e 5.
G aph o ma e ial composi ion and ene gy equi emen s—Combus ion ( ecip oca ing saw).
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 9 o 18
3.4. Tu ning Poin & 90% Recycling
Fo p oduc s wi h a high p opo ion o used plas ic on he inne pa and on he ou e
co e s, i was no possible o ind a u ning poin on he en i e ecycling scale om 0% o
100%. The e u n o some ypes o plas ic back in o ci cula ion is ene ge ically demanding
due o he mul iple alues o uel sha e ( ecycling) compa ed o he alues o eeds ock
sha e (land illing). Recycling equi es a high amoun o ene gy o sh edding, sepa a ion,
and e-mel ing (Figu e 6). The a e age educ ion in ene gy equi emen s o p oduc
ecycling compa ed o EoL land illing is 13.2%
±
1.6%. The maximum ene gy sa ed by
ecycling was 32.4%. The inc ease in ene gy equi emen s o EoL (90% ecycling) is only
in 13 ou o 134 ools, wi h an a e age alue o 1.6%
±
0.8% (maximum inc ease was 6.2%).
In 47 cases, he u ning poin was mo e ene ge ically di icul han he demand o he EU
o 45% ecycling. The loca ion o he u ning poin is shown in he g aph (Figu e 7). In
45.5% o cases, i was no possible o ind a u ning poin on he whole ecycling scale om
0% o 100%.
Sus ainabili y 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 19
Figu e 6. G aph o ma e ial composi ion and ene gy equi emen s—90% ecycling ( ecip oca ing
saw).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
PA6-GF30
The moplas ic Elas ome
PA6
S eel (89% P ima y)
Shee s
Du al*
Coppe
Con ac s (B ass)
Tu ning, Milling
Bol s, Sc ews, Nu s
Sp ings (S eel)
Wi e W apping
Capaci o **
PCB Composi e
Resin
Ca bon B ushes
Fe i e
Lub ican
Elec o-Pla ing
Pain s**
Ene gy (MJ)
Ma e ial
Ma e ial Composi ion o he King C a KMS 710 E in
Te ms o Ene gy Requi emen s o he Li e Cycle
Acco ding o he Me hodology OPM (90% Recycled)
T anspo Range Ma e ials P oduc ion
Manu ac u ing P ocesses End o Li e
Packaging
335.9
330.6 325.3 320.0 314.7 309.4 304.1 298.8 293.5 288.2 282.9
Tu ning Poin
(Combus ion)
39.4%
315.0
Recycling in he
EU
45.0%
312.0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 102030405060708090100
Ene gy - Wi hou T anspo & Use Phase (MJ)
Pe cen age o Recycling (%)
Dependency o Recycled Sha e and Ene gy o he
P oduc ion o he King C a KMS 710 E Th oughou
he Li ecycle Acco ding o he Me hodology OPM
(Pe cen agle P edic ion o Recycling)
Figu e 6.
G aph o ma e ial composi ion and ene gy equi emen s—90% ecycling ( ecip oca -
ing saw).
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 16 o 18
mix o he coun ies whe e hey a e p oduced. F om he selec ed coun ies, SE (Sweden)
is he bes in e ms o ca bon oo p in and EE (Es onia) he wo s . The calcula ion o
emissions has he same cha ac e is ics as he ene gy equi emen s o he p oduc ion o
powe ools, as hey a e de i ed and ecalcula ed om i . The p oposed me hod includes a
use phase (1000 h), bu is no included in he calcula ion equa ions (ene gy equi emen s
and CO
2
emissions) o de e mine he ene gy equi emen s o ool p oduc ion. The ene gy
equi emen o each powe ool is de e mined by i s powe inpu and ime o use, which
de e mine he dominan pa o he p oduc li e cycle. The me hod does no ake in o
accoun main enance cos s and also se ice in e en ions on he p oduc s, due o he lack o
da a o a mo e de ailed e alua ion. Cu en ly, no esea ch has been conduc ed in he a ea
o designing and assessing powe ools based on he olume p opo ions o he p oduc .
This is a comple ely new app oach ha can be mos closely compa ed o he me hod ha
has been used o a long ime in he cons uc ion indus y in he Czech Republic. The
s a is ical me hod “p ice indices in he cons uc ion indus y” is used o quick alua ion
o ca ego ised ypes o buildings acco ding o he “uni o m classi ica ion o cons uc ion
objec s” (houses, b idges, e c.), using he ex e nal olume o he building [
24
]. Buildings
a e made up o basic ma e ials and elemen s acco ding o he same p inciple as powe ools.
In he cons uc ion indus y, ou pu s a e gi en in mone a y uni s ela i e o hei olume,
and in he new VEME me hod (Volume ic E alua ing Me hod o Ecodesign), ou pu s a e
gi en in ene gy uni s also ela i e o hei olume.
Resea ch was ca ied ou on powe ools, and samples we e selec ed acco ding o
hei condi ion and equency in he elec ical was e. The sample ange ep esen ed a c oss
sec ion o p oduc s om 1989 o 2018 and does no include all exis ing ypes o powe
ools. The OPM ha was used o LCA calcula ions p o ided ele an esul s, as he
quali y o he me hod has p e iously been compa ed wi h EDIP and Eco-Indica o 95 [
11
].
CO
2
emissions we e ecalcula ed om kWh only o he p oduc ion o selec ed coun ies,
acco ding o he Ca bon Foo p in June 2019 [
20
]. The calcula ions o CO
2
emissions om
kWh we e indica i e and he issues in ol ed in de e mining hem a e e y ex ensi e and
complica ed. The ene gy in ensi y o p oduc ion, including kg CO
2
eq. emissions, should
mo i a e manu ac u e s o make p oduc ion mo e en i onmen ally iendly, bu also o
op imise ma e ial lows, including olume p opo ions, a an ea ly s age o p oduc design.
This esponsibili y lies mainly wi h he indus ial designe s who design p oduc s [
14
]. An
inc ease in he p ice o he emission allowances will logically lead o he op imisa ion o
he p oduc ion loca ion and he educ ion o ene gy equi emen s [
25
]. Op imisa ion o a
single p oduc may seem insigni ican , bu o millions o ools p oduced, i al eady has a
signi ican impac . The ene gy in ensi y o he p oduc ion o aw ma e ials and he p ice
o ma e ials a e closely linked [
26
]. The po en ial o esea ch can be a ge ed a enla ging
he ange o powe ools samples, con e ing olume cha ac e is ics o weigh p ope ies,
ans o ming elec ic engines om al e na ing cu en (AC) o di ec cu en (DC), and
op imising anspo ange and loca ion o pollu ions.
5. Conclusions
The olume cha ac e is ics o handheld powe ools and he ene gy equi emen s
o hei p oduc ion ep esen in e dependencies. The li e cycle, especially o EoL powe
ools, is in luenced by he ype o ool, he ma e ial used, and he olume cha ac e is ics
o he ool. Acco ding o he pe o med analysis, he olume o he powe ool consis s o
a se o pa s, which as a esul mus mee he economic, cons uc ional, and e gonomic
equi emen s o he p oduc . La ge amoun s o plas ics (PA, PA66, Epoxy, PU, PC, PET ilm,
and PMMA) wi h a high uel sha e con en impai he e iciency o ecycling. Tools wi h a
high p opo ion o hese plas ics (e.g., elec ic chainsaws and handle jigsaws), including
GF- ein o ced plas ics, ha e he same o wo se esul s in ecycling as in land illing (only in
13 samples ou o 134). The ene gy equi emen s o ool anspo can be wice he ene gy
equi ed o p oduce i s packaging. The me hod o he analysis o powe ools is based
on OPM wi hou knowledge o LCA so wa e (Gabi, SimaP o, open LCA), which equi es

Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 17 o 18
expensi e aining o he sol e and is easily in eg a ed in o MS Excel. The me hod p o ides
a simpli ied analysis a ge on he olume ic cha ac e is ics o he powe ools. Wi h he
help o es ablished equa ions, i is possible o quickly de e mine he ene gy equi emen s
o hei p oduc ion. The equa ions o he o e all analysis a e di ided in o 10 main g oups
acco ding o he ype o powe ool. These g oups con ain 60 equa ions (kWh and MJ)
desc ibing p oduc p oduc ion equi emen s and 30 equa ions o de e mining emissions
(kg CO
2
eq.). To de e mine he emissions (kg CO
2
eq.) acco ding o he geog aphical
loca ion o he p oduc ion loca ion, 11 equa ions a e se .
I was ound ha di e en p oduc ypes (angle g inde s, bel sande s, e c.) ha e di e -
en ma e ial and s uc u al cha ac e is ics, depending on he olume. Wi h 90% ecycling,
i is possible o sa e up o 32.4% o ene gy compa ed o land illing. O all 134 samples,
9.7% o he quan i y o ecycled samples equi ed up o 6.2% mo e ene gy han land illing.
This is because o he high ene gy equi emen s o ma e ial ecycling. In some cases,
incine a ion is mo e e ec i e han ecycling ma e ials (especially plas ic) due o he high
uel sha e alues compa ed o he eeds ock sha e alues.
The me hod p o ides an op imiza ion ool o p oduc de elopmen , p oduc ion,
and de e mina ion o kg CO
2
eq. emissions acco ding o he ene gy mixes o indi idual
coun ies. The new app oach can be used by designing p oduc s in indus ial design and in
he a eas o economic e alua ion o he me hod and place o p oduc ion. The con ibu ion o
he conduc ed esea ch is he acquisi ion o knowledge in he a eas o ene gy equi emen s
o p oduc ion acco ding o di e en a ian s o EoL wi h espec o he olume p opo ions
o p oduc s. The acqui ed knowledge can be used no only in p oduc ion op imisa ion, bu
also in educa ional ac i i ies o indus ial designe s a he ea ly s age o p oduc design.
Fu u e esea ch will ocus on he addi ion o o he ca ego ies o p oduc s in he ield o
powe ools and hei expansion. Ano he possibili y is he applica ion o he me hod o
household appliances, o example. The po en ial o his esea ch enables he ex ension
o ene gy labelling o p oduc s (consump ion) by ene gy equi emen s o he p oduc ion
o ools, anspo , and packaging. The weak poin o his me hod is he de e mina ion o
pa ame e s (kWh, MJ and kg CO
2
eq.) om equa ions a low p oduc olumes in h ee
EoL s udies. The knowledge o he esea ch has gi en ise o he new VEME me hod. This
me hod, using he p oposed so wa e, allows indus ial designe s o di ec ly e alua e he
en i onmen al and economic impac s by inpu wo pa ame e s ( olume and ypology o
he p oduc s) and subsequen ly op imise he inal design o he p oduc . The ad an age o
his so wa e is ha i is easy o use, wi hou he need o knowledge o LCA, and can be
used by he gene al public. This so wa e is a ailable online a VEME.cz
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, R.S. and M.T.; me hodology, R.S. and M.T.; so wa e, R.S.;
alida ion, R.S.; o mal analysis, R.S.; in es iga ion, R.S.; esou ces, R.S.; da a cu a ion, R.S.; w i ing—
o iginal d a p epa a ion, R.S. and E.F.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, R.S., M.T. and E.F.; isualiza ion,
R.S.; supe ision, R.S. and M.T.; p ojec adminis a ion, R.S. and E.F.; unding acquisi ion, R.S. and
E.F. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by g an numbe No. FSI-S-20-6481 (B no Uni e si y o Technol-
ogy, Facul y o Mechanical Enginee ing).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Acknowledgmen s:
The au ho s hank ENVIROPOL s. . o. o lending us samples o powe ools
o analysis and also he B no Uni e si y o Technology (Facul y o Mechanical Enginee ing) o
p o iding he wo kshop and equipmen .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es o his s udy.
Sus ainabili y 2022,14, 1498 18 o 18
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