Ci a ion: Polak, L.; Ku a, J.; So ne , R.;
F yza, T. Measu emen and Analysis
o 4G/5G Mobile Signal Co e age in a
Hea y Indus y En i onmen . Senso s
2024,24, 2538. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/s24082538
Academic Edi o : You an Hu
Recei ed: 29 Feb ua y 2024
Re ised: 11 Ap il 2024
Accep ed: 12 Ap il 2024
Published: 15 Ap il 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
senso s
A icle
Measu emen and Analysis o 4G/5G Mobile Signal Co e age in
a Hea y Indus y En i onmen
Ladisla Polak *,† , Jan Ku a †, Roman So ne †and Tomas F yza †
Depa men o Radio Elec onics, Facul y o Elec ical Enginee ing and Communica ion, B no Uni e si y
o Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 616 00 B no, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed] (J.K.); [email p o ec ed] (R.S.);
[email p o ec ed] (T.F.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
†These au ho s con ibu ed equally o his wo k.
Abs ac : In he e ol ing landscape o Indus y 4.0, he in eg a ion o ad anced wi eless echnolo-
gies in o manu ac u ing p ocesses holds he p omise o unp eceden ed connec i i y and e iciency.
In pa icula
, he da a ansmission in a hea y indus y en i onmen needs s able connec i i y wi h
mobile ope a o s. This pape deals wi h he pe o mance s udy o 4G and 5G mobile signal co e age
wi hin a complex ac o y en i onmen . Fo his pu pose, a cos -e ec i e and po able measu emen
se up was ealized and used o p o ide long- e m measu emen campaigns moni o ing and eco ding
se e al key pa ame e indica o s (KPIs) in 4G/5G downlink and upload. To suppo he ep oducibil-
i y o he p o ided s udy and o he esea ch ac i i ies, he measu ed da ase is publicly a ailable
o download. Among o he s indings, he ob ained esul s show how he pe o mance o 4G/5G is
in luenced by a hea y indus y en i onmen and o he ime o day on he ne wo k load.
Keywo ds: 4G; 5G; co e age mapping; indus ial ac o y; key pe o mance indica o s;
mobile ne wo ks
1. In oduc ion
In he e a o Indus y 4.0, he seamless in eg a ion o ad anced echnologies has
become essen ial o he e icien unc ioning o mode n manu ac u ing acili ies. A he
hea o his in eg a ion lies he eliance on obus and eliable mobile communica ion
ne wo ks, pa icula ly he g adual ansi ion om ou h o i h gene a ion (4G and 5G)
echnology. As ac o ies emb ace he connec i i y and speed p omises o 5G ne wo ks,
he e a ises an impe a i e need o assess and op imize mobile signal co e age wi hin hese
dynamic and o en complex en i onmen s [1–6].
“Sma ” ac o ies, bu also adi ional manu ac u ing acili ies and indus ial com-
plexes, necessi a e a mo e sui able echnical pla o m capable o handling a high olume o
da a, such as ha ob ained om a ious senso s, while ensu ing high eliabili y. In pu sui
o his goal, mobile and/o wi eless ne wo ks play a c ucial ole. As hese ne wo ks gain
ac ion, unde s anding aspec s such as signal co e age, eliabili y, and capaci y becomes
pa amoun o pe o mance op imiza ion and seamless connec i i y in demanding en i on-
men s, like ac o ies wi h a complex en i onmen (e.g., hea y indus y). The measu emen
and moni o ing o 4G/5G mobile signal co e age inside a ac o y eme ge as c i ical con-
side a ions o ensu ing seamless communica ion and connec i i y. O en, p o essional
ha dwa e (HW) equipmen and so wa e (SW) ools a e equi ed o acili a e da a collec ion
and analysis. Mo eo e , da ase s om hese measu emen s a e no always comple e o
publicly a ailable, hinde ing he ep oducibili y o analyses o hei use o op imizing
mobile connec ions in o he ac o y se ings [4].
In his pape , we in oduce a cos -e ec i e measu emen se up ha enables us o
conduc an ex ensi e analysis o 4G/5G mobile signal co e age in a complex ac o y
en i onmen . Ou app oach aims o p o ide comp ehensi e insigh s in o mobile signal
co e age wi hin such a unique ansmission en i onmen .
Senso s 2024,24, 2538. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/s24082538 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/senso s
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 2 o 18
Fu he mo e, o acili a e he ep oducibili y o ou analysis and suppo u u e e-
sea ch endea o s, we ha e made he comple e da ase publicly a ailable. This da ase
includes de ailed measu emen s and obse a ions, allowing o he esea che s o alida e
ou indings and explo e addi ional op imiza ion s a egies o mobile connec i i y in
simila ac o y en i onmen s.
This pape is s uc u ed as ollows. Sec ion 2p esen s an o e iew o he s a e o
he a and de ines he main con ibu ions o his wo k. Sec ion 3in oduces he c ea ed
measu emen sys em and p o ides insigh s in o he indoo en i onmen o he ac o y
whe e he long- e m measu emen campaigns we e conduc ed. The analysis and discussion
o he ob ained esul s a e p esen ed in Sec ion 4. This pape is concluded in Sec ion 5.
2. Rela ed Wo ks and O iginal Con ibu ion
In ecen yea s, nume ous wo ks ha e in es iga ed 4G/5G mobile signal co e age in
a ious indoo and ou doo en i onmen s [
3
–
14
]. Howe e , conduc ing such s udies in
ha sh o hea y indus y en i onmen s has ecei ed compa a i ely less a en ion.
Haq e al. [
3
] p esen he indings o a s udy ocusing on cus ome sa is ac ion
based on 3G/4G ne wo k pe o mance in he Punjab egion o Pakis an. Thei s udy
examines a ious aspec s such as ne wo k co e age, cus ome se ices, quali y o ideo
calls, and download speed. Howe e , de ails ega ding he ansmission en i onmen s
(indoo and ou doo ) a e no p o ided, and he ob ained da ase is no accessible.
The s udy p esen ed by El-Saleh e al. [
4
] p o ides comp ehensi e mobile co e age
measu emen s conduc ed in bo h indoo and ou doo u ban a eas o Malaysia. Da a, com-
ing om i e mobile ope a o s suppo ing 3G and 4G echnologies, we e collec ed h ough
d i e es s. The esul s we e e alua ed in e ms o key pe o mance indica o s (KPIs),
comple ed by pe o mance me ics such as h oughpu , ping, and hando e . The indings
con i med he necessi y o mobile ope a o s o enhance da a a es o acili a e high-speed
ansmission and low-la ency communica ions. Howe e , i is un o una e ha he da ase
o u he esea ch analysis is no a ailable.
Rod iguez e al. [
5
] p oposed an expe imen al amewo k o in eg a ing 5G wi eless
sys ems in o indus ial applica ions. The amewo k was es ed in a eal small-scale indus-
ial ac o y en i onmen called he “Aalbo g Uni e si y 5G Sma P oduc ion Lab”. Du ing
he es s, o e 100,000 samples we e collec ed o p o ide s a is ical-based pe o mance
analysis, ocusing on da a a ic and packe in e -a i al imes; while he s udy p o ides
aluable insigh s, i does no gi e signi ican a en ion o in es iga ing he in luence o
he ansmission en i onmen on he moni o ed sys em pa ame e s. In [
7
], esea che s
conduc ed a simila expe imen using he same indus ial en i onmen , his ime ocusing
on he pe o mance o Wi eless Fideli y (Wi-Fi) o Indus ial In e ne -o -Things (IIoT).
They u ilized a comme cial en e p ise-g ade Wi-Fi 6 sys em o collec da a on pa ame e s
such as Recei ed Signal S eng h Indica o (RSSI), ound- ip ime (RTT), and hando e .
The esul s highligh ed ha he loca ion o access poin s (APs) and di e en indus ial
scena ios can ha e a signi ican in luence on he alues o he moni o ed pa ame e s.
In [
8
], Rekopu a e al. examined he pe o mance o he 5G ne wo k in he Indus y 4.0
Implemen a ion Cen e (NTUST), ocusing on pa ame e s such as ne wo k speed, la ency,
ji e , and packe loss a e. To conduc his analysis, ad anced measu emen equipmen was
employed, allowing o up o 100 use s in a i ual en i onmen . The s udy emphasized he
impo ance o he echnology used in he wi eless ne wo k, such as Wi-Fi 6 and E he ne ,
o enabling a sma ac o y en i onmen .
Lyczkowski e al. [
9
] p esen ed a measu emen -based pe o mance compa ison be-
ween a p i a e Long-Te m E olu ion (LTE) ne wo k and an IEEE 802.11b/g/n ne wo k
deployed in an au omo i e ac o y. The measu emen s ocused on moni o ing se e al KPIs
while p oduc ion was ongoing. Howe e , de ails abou he ac o y en i onmen a e no
p o ided, and he da ase is no publicly a ailable. Based on he esul s, he LTE-based
ne wo k demons a es signi ican ad an ages o e he WLAN-based solu ion o ac o y
au oma ion use cases.
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 3 o 18
Schmiede e al. [
10
] and Mi e al. [
11
] conduc ed channel cha ac e iza ion s udies in
indoo indus ial en i onmen s, speci ically, a high-p ecision machining wo kshop hall and
a sma wa ehouse, espec i ely, u ilizing he 28 GHz millime e wa e bands. Thei analyses
included he examina ion o pa h loss and powe delay p o iles. The indings e ealed he
unique na u e o hese indus ial en i onmen s in e ms o wi eless communica ion.
Raida e al. [
12
,
13
] epo ed comp ehensi e and long- e m measu emen s o a
4G-based
LTE ne wo k, conduc ed in Aus ia, encompassing bo h indoo and ou doo en i onmen s.
The s udies include a de ailed analysis and e alua ion o he measu ed da a. Impo an ly,
he da ase esul ing om hese measu emen s is publicly a ailable. The au ho s o bo h
s udies ha e indica ed ha hei da ase can be u ilized o esea ch pu poses o by mobile
ope a o s o op imize he sampling p ocess and measu emen du a ion o KPIs. The analy-
sis o he esul s e ealed he impac o a ious ansmission condi ions, such as wea he
condi ions like ain, on he s abili y o ce ain KPI measu emen s.
In [
14
], Mahmud e al. conduc ed an analysis o 4G/5G ne wo ks, ocusing on pa-
ame e s such as o al ecei ed da a, packe losses, and e- ansmissions. The s udy p e-
dominan ly elied on simula ions and cen e ed on e alua ing he pe o mance o di e en
schedule s u ilized in 4G/5G ne wo ks. One o he key indings o his s udy is he es ablish-
men o a di ec ela ionship be ween signal- o-in e e ence and a io (SINR), h oughpu ,
and packe losses measu ed a he use equipmen (UE).
2.1. Summa izing
F om he b ie o e iew p esen ed abo e, we can conclude he ollowing:
1.
Ex ensi e and long- e m measu emen -based s udies o 4G/5G mobile signal co e -
age in complex (hea y) ac o y en i onmen s ha e no been epo ed so a ; while
s udies such as [
5
,
7
] ha e explo ed simila opics o 5G and Wi-Fi sys ems, hey we e
conduc ed in uni e si y-based small-scale indus ial ac o y en i onmen s.
2.
The s udies p ima ily ocus on moni o ing and analyzing selec ed KPIs. Addi ionally,
he in luence o key en i onmen al ci cums ances, such as he ime o day on ne wo k
load and on he quali y o adio connec ions in wi eless communica ions, is o en no
ho oughly in es iga ed.
3.
In nume ous cases, da ase s om measu emen s a e no publicly a ailable, hinde ing
he ep oducibili y o ex ension o he esea ch. Comple e da ase s a e only open in
wo ks [
12
,
13
,
15
]. Howe e , hese da ase s a e ob ained om measu emen campaigns
in non- ac o y en i onmen s.
2.2. O iginal Con ibu ion
The main con ibu ions o his pape a e as ollows:
1.
We p opose a simple and cos -e ec i e ha dwa e (HW) se up ha enables long-
e m and epea able measu emen o KPIs o 4G/5G mobile signals. The measu ed
pa ame e s can be sa ed and p ocessed o line (a pa o hem online). Addi ionally,
ou concep allows use s o emo ely connec o he measu emen equipmen o
change measu emen con igu a ions o send (sa e) da a. The equipmen used is
cha ac e ized by i s small size, po abili y, and emo e connec ion capabili y.
2.
We conduc ed an ex ensi e KPI-based pe o mance s udy o 4G/5G mobile ne wo ks,
ocusing speci ically on mobile signal co e age wi hin a hea y indus y en i onmen .
We explo ed he po en ial o 4G/5G mobile ne wo ks o da a ansmission in such
a challenging ansmission en i onmen . De ailed measu emen campaigns we e
conduc ed a a ious loca ions wi hin he ac o y, loca ed in he Czech Republic,
p o iding insigh s in o 4G/G5 ne wo k pe o mance.
3.
To p omo e he ep oducibili y o ou analysis and suppo u u e esea ch endea o s,
pa icula ly in he ield o a i icial in elligence, we made he ull da ase publicly
a ailable. Ou wo k p o ides a la ge public da ase comp ising eal-wo ld measu e-
men s cap u ed a mul iple loca ions wi hin he ac o y en i onmen . The da ase is
openly accessible on Gi Hub [16].
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 4 o 18
3. Measu emen in he Fac o y En i onmen
In his sec ion, we in oduce ou measu emen equipmen and desc ibe he measu e-
men me hodology, as well as he me ics and so wa e (SW) ools used o se up ou
pe o mance e alua ion o 4G/5G mobile signal co e age in a ha sh ac o y en i onmen .
The p oposed concep is designed o allow epea able and au oma ed measu emen s. I can
be used o measu ing 4G/5G signal quali y me ics in a ious en i onmen s, no limi ed
o ac o y se ings, and is independen o he ime o day.
3.1. 4G and 5G Mobile Ne wo ks in he Czech Republic
As men ioned, he measu emen campaigns we e conduc ed in a ac o y loca ed in
he Czech Republic. P esen ly, mobile ope a o s in he Czech Republic suppo 2G, 4G,
and 5G mobile sys ems. In he case o 5G, ope a o s deploy 5G ne wo ks using a ious
adio equency (RF) bands wi hin F equency Range 1 (FR1). Speci ically, he ollowing
RF bands a e u ilized: 700 MHz (5G), 800 MHz (4G), 1800 MHz (4G and 5G), 2100 MHz
(4G and 5G)
, and 3500 MHz (5G) [
17
]. These RF bands we e selec ed based on hei echnical
cha ac e is ics and co e age op imiza ion. I is c ucial o no e ha all ealized 5G adio
access ne wo ks (RANs) a e in eg a ed wi h exis ing 4G ne wo ks, ope a ing unde non-
s andalone (NSA) a chi ec u e. This in eg a ion allows o seamless connec i i y and
enables a smoo h ansi ion o 5G echnology while le e aging he exis ing in as uc u e
o 4G ne wo ks [18].
The 700 MHz and 800 MHz RF bands a e ideal o wide co e age and pene a ion
in o indoo spaces. These RF bands a e sui able o achie ing ex ensi e a ea co e age and
op imizing signals in challenging en i onmen s wi h physical obs acles. Ope a o s u ilize
a bandwid h o 10 MHz in his RF band. The 1800 MHz RF band o e s mobile ope a o s
he abili y o p o ide highe da a a es and is op imal o u ban a eas wi h highe use
de ice densi y. In his case, ope a o s u ilize a bandwid h o 20 MHz, enabling e icien
da a ansmission in a eas wi h inc eased demand o b oadband connec i i y. To es ablish
mobile connec ions in s a egically signi ican u ban a eas and loca ions wi h high demand
o b oadband connec i i y, ope a o s employ he 2100 MHz and 3500 MHz RF bands.
In he 2100 MHz and 3500 MHz RF bands, ope a o s u ilize a bandwid h o 20 MHz and
40 MHz, espec i ely.
3.2. Ha dwa e Se up
The block diag am o he p oposed measu emen sys em and a pho o o he measu e-
men boa d used o collec da a o analyzing 4G/5G ne wo k pe o mance a e depic ed in
Figu e 1. The measu emen se up included an
HP P oDesk 400 G6
mini pe sonal compu e
(PC) [
19
] unning he Windows 11 ope a ing sys em. A cus om-buil sc ip , ope a ing
wi h AT commands o communica ion and da a collec ion, was u ilized o in e ace wi h
he modem, ensu ing po able and au oma ed measu emen s. The PC was con igu ed
o au oma ically powe on when connec ed o he powe g id, s eamlining he s a up
p ocess. Addi ionally, in he e en o a powe ailu e, he sys em was p og ammed o
au oma ically es a , ensu ing con inuous ope a ion. A Py hon p og am was c ea ed o
ou measu emen s. I s a ed au oma ically upon PC s a up and conduc ed comp ehensi e
measu emen s o all pa ame e s.
The RM502QAEAA-M20-SGASA module om Quec el was u ilized o measu ing 4G
and 5G mobile connec i i y. De ailed pa ame e s o he module can be ound on he en-
do ’s websi e [
20
]. The module was inse ed in o he manu ac u e ’s de elopmen boa d,
designa ed as PCIECARDEVB-KIT [
21
]. In ou measu emen con igu a ion, he module
was connec ed o ou b oadband omnidi ec ional an ennas designed o mobile se ices,
each wi h a gain o 5 dBi. This con igu a ion enabled suppo o 4
×
4 Mul iple Inpu
Mul iple Ou pu (MIMO). To ensu e easy po abili y and p o ec ion agains damage o
bo h he de elopmen boa d and he RM502QAEAA module, a simple box was c ea ed
using a 3D p in e , as depic ed in Figu e 1b.
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 5 o 18
PCIECARDEVB -KIT
An ennas
PC wi h Windows
and Team Viewe
Da a & Powe
USB 3.0
a b
Figu e 1. The measu emen equipmen : (a) he block diag am o he p oposed measu emen sys em,
(b) he measu emen boa d used o collec da a o analyzing 4G/5G ne wo k pe o mance.
3.3. Measu ed Pa ame e s
Ou pe o mance e alua ion aimed o cha ac e ize and e alua e 4G/5G mobile con-
nec i i y in a ac o y en i onmen comp ehensi ely. To achie e his, we measu ed all
s a ic and dynamic pa ame e s suppo ed by he RM502QAEAA-M20-SGASA module.
The s a ic pa ame e s measu ed, among o he s, included he RF band on which he ope a o
ansmi s, he bandwid h used, and he name and loca ion o he ansmi e . The dynamic
pa ame e s, known as KPIs, a e c ucial objec i e measu es o e alua ing signal quali y in
mobile ne wo ks [
12
]. Each o hese pa ame e s p o ides in o ma ion abou di e en as-
pec s o he signal and i s ecep ion [
22
,
23
]. Below a e he de ini ions and b ie desc ip ions
o he conside ed 4G/5G signal quali y indica o s:
•
Recei ed Signal S eng h Indica o (RSSI)—RSSI ep esen s he cumula i e signal
s eng h ecei ed a he de ice’s an ennas, ega dless o he signal’s speci ic sou ces.
Measu ed in dBm, i conside s he o e all incoming signal s eng h, encompassing
neighbo ing base s a ions’ signals, in e nal and ex e nal in e e ence, and ambien
noise. A highe RSSI alue indica es s onge signal s eng h.
•
Re e ence Signal Recei ed Powe (RSRP)—RSRP quan i ies he signal s eng h
ecei ed om he p esen base s a ion in a mobile ne wo k. Measu ed in dBm, i s
alue emains independen o channel wid h and does no conside spu ious signals
o in e e ence. A lowe RSRP alue indica es a weake signal s eng h.
•
Re e ence Signal Recei ed Quali y (RSRQ)—RSRQ, a quan i a i e pa ame e in-
oduced by he 3GPP conso ium [
23
], se es as an indica o o he quali y o pilo
signals ecei ed om he cu en base s a ion. I is calcula ed using RSSI and RSRP
alues. A highe RSRQ alue (measu ed in dB) co esponds o supe io signal quali y.
•
Signal- o-In e e ence plus Noise Ra io (SINR)—SINR is calcula ed as he a io
be ween he ecei ed signal and he combined in e e ence and ex e nal noise in he
mobile ne wo k. I is employed o measu e signal quali y, deno ed in uni s o dB.
A highe SINR alue indica es supe io signal quali y.
•
Channel Quali y Indica o (CQI)— he dimensionless nume ic alue CQI se es as
an indica o o channel quali y o he base s a ion. U ilized o adap i e modula ion
and coding, CQI acili a es he adjus men o ansmission a e and e iciency based
on signal quali y. Repo ed alues o CQI ange om 0 o 15, e lec ing he le el o

Senso s 2024,24, 2538 6 o 18
modula ion and coding he UE could employ. Highe CQI alues signi y a o able
condi ions in he ansmission channel, sugges ing he po en ial o achie ing highe
ansmission a es.
In 4G ne wo ks, he u ilized module was capable o measu ing he ollowing pa am-
e e s: RSRP, RSRQ, RSSI, SINR, and CQI. Howe e , in 5G ne wo ks, he modem only
suppo ed he measu emen o pa ame e s RSRP, SINR, and RSRQ. The limi alues o KPIs
indica ing he signal quali y in an RF channel a e p o ided in Table 1. In his wo k, we do
no dis inguish be ween he limi alues o 4G and 5G signal quali y [
24
,
25
]. Analyzing
he co ela ion be ween KPIs (i.e., unde s anding how changes in one KPI may a ec
o he s) p o ides aluable insigh s in o he quali y and pe o mance o a cellula ne wo k.
Fo ins ance, highe RSRP alues ypically co espond o highe RSSI alues, indica ing a
s ong o e all signal s eng h. Highe SINR alues gene ally lead o highe CQI alues,
indica ing be e channel quali y and po en ial o highe da a h oughpu .
Table 1. Limi alues o he KPIs indica ing he condi ions in he RF channel [24,26].
Me ic Excellen Good Mode a e Bad
RSSI >−65 dBm −65 o −75 dBm −75 o −85 dBm <−85 dBm
RSRP >−80 dBm −80 o −90 dBm −90 o −100 dBm <−100 dBm
RSRQ >−10 dB −10 o −15 dB −15 o −20 dB <−20 dB
SINR >20 dB 13 o 20 dB 0 o 13 dB <0 dB
CQI 13 o 15 10 o 13 6 o 10 1 o 6
In addi ion o esponse ime measu emen s, h oughpu and la ency o da a ansmis-
sion we e also measu ed. Th oughpu e e s o he da a ans e a e measu ed in bi s pe
second (bps) in ei he uplink (UL) o downlink (DL) communica ion. La ency, on he o he
hand, e e s o he ime i akes o da a o a el om he sou ce o he des ina ion and
back o he sou ce. I is ypically measu ed in milliseconds (ms). These me ics p o ide
aluable insigh s in o he e iciency and esponsi eness o he ne wo k.
Response ime measu emen s we e conduc ed on wo di e en comme cial se e s
belonging o majo sea ch p o ide s: www.Google.com (accessed on 4 Feb ua y 2024)
and www.Seznam.cz (accessed on 4 Feb ua y 2024) (sea ch engine in he Czech Republic).
The pu pose o using hese se e s was o iden i y po en ial issues wi h he mobile con-
nec i i y. Consis en ly highe esponse imes o one se e compa ed o he o he wi hin
a speci ic ime ame could indica e a signi ican load on ha pa icula se e . Howe e ,
hese measu emen s alone do no p o ide insigh s in o he esponse ime o ou mobile
ne wo k. Consis en esponse imes ac oss bo h se e s indica e he esponsi eness o ou
ne wo k, wi hou e ealing po en ial anomalies caused by se e o e load, whe he due o
no mal a ic o a dis ibu ed denial o se ice (DDoS) a ack. Mo eo e , i one se e was
a ailable while he o he was no , i would sugges a se e ou age. Con e sely, i bo h
se e s we e down, i would likely indica e a dis up ion in ou mobile connec i i y.
3.4. Fac o y-Measu emen En i onmen
The measu emen campaigns we e conduc ed in he ac o y o Tajmac-ZPS, a.s. [
27
],
loca ed in Zlín, Czech Republic. Tajmac-ZPS, a.s. is a leading company engaged in he
de elopmen , p oduc ion, and sale o machine ools. The company boas s a comp ehensi e
acili y, including a ound y si ua ed di ec ly on he p oduc ion p emises in Zlín, enabling
hem o co e all s ages o machine de elopmen and p oduc ion, s a ing om mechanical
d awing, designing, p oduc ion o models and cas ings, hei ea men and machining,
and up o he inal assembly. F om he pe spec i e o wi eless communica ion, he ac o y
en i onmen p esen s challenging condi ions o da a ansmission, cha ac e ized by ac o s
such as mul ipa h p opaga ion, noise, and a high olume o mo ing people [
28
]. These
ac o s con ibu e o a ich en i onmen o assessing he pe o mance o wi eless ne wo ks
in eal-wo ld indus ial se ings.
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 7 o 18
The measu emen s we e conduc ed a Tajmac-ZPS, a.s. in h ee o i s halls. Figu e 2
illus a es he dis ibu ion o indi idual measu ing poin s and ansmi e s ia an ae ial
iew. The uppe hal o he pic u e displays he company p emises, while he lowe hal de-
pic s a la ge shopping mall whe e he ansmi e s, Base T anscei e S a ion—BTS (E ol ed
Node B—eNB o Nex Gene a ion Node B—gNb) [
18
,
29
]—we e si ua ed. The dis ance
be ween he eNB/gNb and ou measu emen poin s anged be ween 400 and 450 me e s.
This a ea was exclusi ely co e ed by 5G cellula ne wo ks ope a ing a 700 MHz. Based on
he cu en quali a i e pa ame e s o he RF signal, he measu emen de ice au oma ically
selec ed he eNB/gNb o connec o. Th oughou he measu emen s, we we e connec ed o
wo ansmi e s, as depic ed in Figu e 2. No ably, no hando e s we e obse ed du ing
he measu emen campaign a indi idual loca ions. T ansi ions o di e en ansmi e s
occu ed only wi h a change o loca ion and a subsequen e-connec ion o he ne wo k.
The indoo en i onmen o he ac o y is depic ed in Figu e 3. The 4G/5G connec i i y
measu emen s we e ca ied ou a six measu emen loca ions inside he ac o y, and a b ie
desc ip ion along wi h an illus a i e pho o is a ailable in Table 2.
Figu e 2. Fac o y: map iew wi h measu emen poin and ansmi e s.
Figu e 3. Inside o he ac o y in which he measu emen campaigns we e conduc ed [27].
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 8 o 18
Table 2. Desc ip ion o he measu emen places. The ed a ows indica e he loca ion o he measu e-
men equipmen .
Place and
Da e o Measu emen Pho o Desc ip ion
Place 1
(9–13 Ma ch 2023)
The measu emen was
conduc ed in he o ice loca ed
in hall numbe 3.
The measu emen equipmen
was posi ioned on he
opposi e side o he hall om
he ansmi e . This hall
se es as a ansshipmen
cen e o p oduc s.
Place 2
(15–19 Ma ch 2023)
The measu emen was
conduc ed in he o ice loca ed
in hall numbe 2.
The measu emen equipmen
was posi ioned on op o he
elec ical panel.
Place 3
(22–26 Ma ch 2023)
The measu emen was
conduc ed inside he me al
cell in hall 1, which houses he
company’s
p oduc ion acili ies.
Place 4
(29 Ma ch–3 Ap il 2023)
The measu emen was
conduc ed in hall numbe 1,
wi hin he me al cabine
si ua ed be ween he
p oduc ion a eas.
Place 5
(8–12 Ap il 2023)
The measu emen was
conduc ed in hall numbe 1,
wi hin he shee me al cabine
loca ed a he p oduc ion cell.
Place 6
(22–26 Ap il 2023)
The measu emen was
conduc ed in hall numbe 1,
inside he b ick shed loca ed
wi hin he hall.
The measu emen equipmen
was placed on a shel a a
heigh o 1 me e .
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 9 o 18
3.5. Measu emen P ocedu e
The 4G/5G connec i i y measu emen s we e ca ied ou a six measu emen loca ions
inside he ac o y. Loca ions wi hin he co po a e en i onmen whe e p e-exis ing Wi-Fi
ecep ion issues we e encoun e ed we e s a egically selec ed. This delibe a e choice is
cen al o gaining a deepe unde s anding o he impac o ou 5G in as uc u e in egions
s uggling wi h Wi-Fi ecep ion issues. The expec a ion is ha loca ions wi h Wi-Fi issues
a e mo e likely o encoun e po en ial hu dles in ecei ing 5G signals.
De ailed esul s om he measu emen s a e p esen ed o a span o 5 days, o ganized
in he ollowing o de : Thu sday, F iday, Sa u day, Sunday, and Monday. This app oach
enables he obse a ion o he in luence o bo h wo king and non-wo king days, and also
he impac o so-called weekdays- o-weekends and weekends- o-weekdays on he mea-
su emen esul s. A lowcha o he measu emen me hodology is shown in Figu e 4.
The measu emen s hemsel es we e conduc ed using AT commands, h ough which objec-
i e pa ame e s desc ibed in Sec ion 3.3 we e measu ed. The alues o hese pa ame e s
we e eco ded e e y 15 s.
S a o PC
Wai
60 seconds
S a o
P og am
Measu e o Ping
(Se e 1 & 2)
Measu e o 4G &5G
Pa ame e s
O e 30
minu es?
Measu e he In e ne
Connec ion Speed
Yes
No
Connec o
he Ne wo k
Sa e he Resul s
( x file)
Wai
15 seconds
Figu e 4. Flowcha o he measu emen me hodology.
The esponse o he web se e was measu ed di ec ly om he modem using AT
commands. Addi ionally, he measu emen o In e ne speed in bo h di ec ions was pe -
o med a hal -hou ly in e als. Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha his measu emen
equency is illus a i e only, as i was limi ed due o he Fai Use Policy (FUP) da a
limi applied o he SIM ca d by he ope a o (T-Mobile). The in as uc u e o he mobile
ope a o T-Mobile was u ilized o he measu emen s, conduc ed using he well-known
se e www.speed es .ne (accessed on 4 Feb ua y 2024). All measu emen s we e con-
Senso s 2024,24, 2538 16 o 18
a b
Figu e 11. Se e esponse dis ibu ion unc ion o (a)Google se e and (b)Seznam se e .
5. Conclusions
This pape ocused on on analyzing he 4G and 5G cellula signal co e age, h ough
long- e m measu emen campaigns conduc ed in a complex ac o y en i onmen . To
achie e his goal, we p oposed and implemen ed a simple and po able measu emen se up
along wi h an app op ia e measu emen me hodology.
Du ing he measu emen s, no signi ican e en s we e obse ed ha signi ican ly
a ec ed he adio da a ansmission o e he 5G ne wo k. This sugges s ha he 5G sys em
is qui e obus and esis an o in e e ence om indus ial ope a ions wi hin he ac o y.
Wi h he excep ion o Place no. 2, whe e signal s eng h was weak, he sys em emained
connec ed o he 5G ne wo k a all imes. In cases whe e 5G connec i i y ailed, he sys em
seamlessly swi ched o he 4G ne wo k, ensu ing con inuous connec i i y wi hou any
comple e loss o se ice. Du ing he measu emen s, he sys em consis en ly ope a ed wi hin
he n28 band, co esponding o a equency o 700 MHz, wi hou any changes in equency
band obse ed. Addi ionally, he e we e no ins ances o he sys em swi ching om one
ansmi e o ano he du ing he measu emen s a indi idual si es. The only occu ence o
swi ching ansmi e s was when he de ice was mo ed o a di e en measu emen si e
and powe ed back on.
The obse ed changes in signal s eng h and quali y be ween nigh and day a e
likely due o a ia ions in he numbe o de ices connec ed o he ansmi e , a he
han changes in a ic o in e e ence wi hin he indus ial plan . These luc ua ions a e
no iceable e en du ing weekends, indica ing ha hey a e no solely ela ed o weekday
ac i i y. The ansmi e s, loca ed in la ge shopping malls, expe ience high use connec i i y
du ing weekdays and weekends bu signi ican ly ewe use s a nigh . Addi ionally,
he e was a no able di e ence o app oxima ely 20 dB in signal s eng h be ween he
loca ion wi h he highes and lowes signal s eng hs, despi e bo h loca ions being simila ly
dis an om he ansmi e . This sugges s ha he ecei e ’s loca ion wi hin he building
signi ican ly in luences he ecei ed signal s eng h. The e a e se e al s a egies o a oid
low signals and luc ua ions in a complex ac o y en i onmen , including he ollowing:
signal moni o ing (p omp de ec ion o low signals o luc ua ions, enabling p oac i e
measu es o add ess hem be o e hey impac ope a ions), signal ampli ica ion (use o
signal ampli ie s o boos e s o s eng hen weak signals in a eas whe e co e age is poo ),
and an enna o ien a ion (p ope ly o ien ing an ennas can imp o e signal ecep ion).
In he u u e, ou ocus will be on conduc ing long- e m benchma k es s o ga he
ex ensi e 4G/5G-based da a om bo h indoo and ou doo en i onmen s. We plan o
de elop an applica ion dedica ed o e icien ly collec ing and p ocessing da a [
31
]. Addi-
ionally, we aim o implemen algo i hms ha will enhance he o ecas ing capabili ies o
4G/5G mobile signal co e age, enabling be e p edic ion o signal quali y and co e age in
a ious scena ios [32–34].

Senso s 2024,24, 2538 17 o 18
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, L.P. and J.K.; me hodology, L.P., J.K., R.S. and T.F.; so wa e,
L.P. and J.K.; alida ion, L.P., J.K. and T.F.; o mal analysis, L.P., J.K. and R.S.; in es iga ion, L.P. and
J.K.; esou ces, L.P. and J.K.; da a cu a ion, L.P. and J.K.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, L.P.;
w i ing— e iew and edi ing, L.P., J.K., R.S. and T.F.; isualiza ion, L.P.; supe ision, T.F.; p ojec
adminis a ion, T.F.; unding acquisi ion, T.F. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was suppo ed by he In e nal G an Agency o B no Uni e si y o Technology
(BUT) unde p ojec no. FEKT-S-23-8191 and by TACR p ojec no. FW03010366.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e openly a ailable on Gi Hub: h ps:
//gi hub.com/polak-l/4G-5G-Mobile-Signal-Co e age-in-a-Fac o y (accessed on
4 Feb ua y 2024
).
Acknowledgmen s: We would like o exp ess ou since e g a i ude o Tajmac-ZPS, a.s. o g aciously
allowing us o conduc measu emen campaigns wi hin hei p emises. Thei coope a ion and suppo
we e in aluable in acili a ing ou esea ch endea o s.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .