267/491
Eu op. Coun ys. · Vol. 13 · 2021 · No. 2 · p. 267-296
DOI: 10.2478/euco-2021-0018
Eu opean Coun yside MENDELU
‘COSMOVILLAGERS’ AS SUSTAINABLE RURAL
DEVELOPMENT ACTORS IN MOUNTAIN HAMLETS?
INTERNATIONAL IMMIGRANT ENTREPRENEURS’
PERCEPTIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY IN THE LLEIDA
PYRENEES (CATALONIA, SPAIN)
Rica d Mo én-Aleg e
1
, Josepha Milazzo
2
,
F ancesc Romagosa
3
, Gio gos Kallis
4
1
Rica d Mo én Aleg e , Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona, Spain, and IGOT o Lisbon Uni e si y, Po ugal; e-mail:
Rica d.Mo [email protected] , ORCID: 0000-0002-1581-7131
2
Josepha Milazzo, Uni e si y Aix-en-P o ence, F ance; e-mail: josepha.milazzo@yahoo. , ORCID: 0000-0002-4439-
4705
3
F ancesc Romagosa Casals, Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona, Spain; e-mail: ancesc. [email protected] ,
ORCID: 0000-0002-9963-4227
4
Gio gos Kallis, Au onomous Uni e si y o Ba celona, Spain, and ICREA, Spain; e-mail: Geo [email protected] ,
ORCID: 0000-0003-0688-9552
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Recei ed 17 No embe 2020, Re ised 20 Feb ua y 2021, Accep ed 29 Ma ch 2021
Abs ac : In ecen decades, small illages in some moun ainous egions in Eu ope ha e been
su e ing om ageing and depopula ion, ye a he same ime, immig an s ha e been
a i ing and se ling he e. This pape sheds ligh on he pe cep ions o sus ainable
u al de elopmen among in e na ional immig an s li ing in municipali ies wi h ewe
han 500 inhabi an s, which a e al eady he home o some ‘cosmo illage s’. I
immig an s’ iews a e le una ended, an impo an pa o eali y will be lacking in
he pic u e o moun ainous a eas because oday immig a ion is quali a i ely ele an
in u al Eu ope. This pape aims o answe he ollowing ques ions, among o he s:
Wha dimensions o sus ainabili y a e unde sco ed? Wha a e he main challenges o
sus ainabili y and he p oposals o imp o emen ? Wha a e he local sus ainabili y
challenges? This pape p o ides esea ch esul s and insigh s based on o iginal da a
ga he ed du ing ieldwo k in he Py enees as well as analyses o documen s, maps
and s a is ics. Speci ically, he main ocus is on some se e al spa sely popula ed
a eas in he Lleida Py enees, e.g. dozens o municipali ies in Al U gell, Ce danya,
Palla s Sobi à and Val d’A an. Thus his pape aims o help ill ha ela i e gap in
he exis ing academic li e a u e by o e ing o iginal quali a i e in o ma ion.
Keywo ds: Moun ainous Eu ope, sus ainable u al de elopmen , human epopula ion,
in e na ional immig an s, small illages, hamle s, cosmo illage s, u al
cosmopoli anism
Highligh s:
 Immig a ion is quali a i ely ele an o sus ainabili y in hamle s o he Lleida Py enees
 Immig an en ep eneu s can be cosmo illage s, u al cosmopoli ans and/o na ionalis ic
ac o s
 Land abandonmen , sewage disposal and o es managemen a e pe cei ed as
en i onmen al challenges
 Seasonali y, DIY cul u e, di e si ica ion, ICT and in e na ionalisa ion a e pe cei ed as
economic challenges
 Ageing, acism, lack o housing and sca ce u al schools a e pe cei ed as social
challenges
1. In oduc ion
“Could you on his ai moun ain lea e o eed
And ba en on his moo ?”
(William Shakespea e, Hamle , III, 4)
In William Shakespea e’s comple e wo ks, one can ind a leas 71 di ec e e ences o ‘moun ain’
o ela ed e ms, including a ew men ions o hem in The T agedy o Hamle , P ince o Denma k.
In he English language, hamle means ‘small illage’, ye Hamle is also he main cha ac e in
ha exis en ial Shakespea ean agedy. In pa s o B i ain, ‘hamle ’ may mean a illage wi hou
a chu ch o i s own, bu his pape adhe es o he gene al meaning o ‘hamle ’ in he English
language: any li le illage in he coun yside. Speci ically, he ocus is on hamle s loca ed wi hin
municipali ies wi h ewe han 500 inhabi an s. In many egions in Eu ope, sus ainable
de elopmen in small illages is unde h ea , due o ac o s like depopula ion and ageing, which
make hese (o en u al) places mo e ulne able o na u al haza ds (e.g., wild i es), uncon olled
specula ion o abandonmen (e.g., Badia e al., 2014; González Hidalgo e al., 2014). Howe e ,
in some illages, including in a ious moun ainous a eas, immig a ion (bo h in e nal and
in e na ional) can be pa o he solu ion o hese p oblems. The po en ial o in e na ional
immig an s o p e en ing (o a leas slowing down) depopula ion has been inc easingly
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ecognised in he li e a u e (Bayona-i-Ca asco & Gil-Alonso, 2013; Woods, 2016; Mo én-Aleg e ,
2008; Cama e o & Samped o, 2019; Mendoza e al., 2020). The a i al o in e na ional immig an s
o u al a eas has been a c i ical pa o ag icul u al es uc u ing and wide socio-poli ical and
economic ans o ma ions. This has led o p o ound changes in some illages ac oss Eu ope.
A g owing body o li e a u e examines a ange o di e en ypes o in e na ional immig an s in
u al a eas, including hose wo king in ag i- ood o ou ism, li e-s yle/ameni y immig an s and
e ugees (e.g. Ba oš e al., 2009; McA ea ey, 2017; Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019; Mendoza
e al., 2020).
In his con ex o bo h u al depopula ion conce ns and in e na ional immig a ion a i al in some
sou he n Eu opean coun ies, including Spain (Bayona & Gil, 2013; Cama e o & Samped o,
2019), a ela i ely new e m has been ci cula ing in some egional mass media and u al ai s:
‘cosmopuebli a’ (e.g., Fue es, 2019). This neologism can be ansla ed in o English as
‘cosmo illage ’ and has also been sp ead by geog aphe s (e.g., Benedí, 2019) as a posi i e e m.
They iew ‘cosmo illage s’ as ac i e inhabi an s aiming o e i e u al a eas and who a e open
o he wo ld, including bo h some well- a elled people bo n in he illage and some newcome s
om o he egions and na ions
5
. This social and economic openness can be ela ed o
he de elopmen o in e na ionalised sec o s like expo ag icul u e o s ockb eeding and
in e na ional ou ism (Lampič & M ak, 2012; Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019; Pe lik & Memb e i,
2018; Tulla, 2019; Romagosa e al., 2020). ‘Cosmo illage ’ is complemen a y o he e m ‘ u al
cosmopoli ism’, which i s appea ed in academic jou nals some yea s ago (e.g., Cid-Aguayo,
2008) in ela ion o di e en places a ound he wo ld, bo h in coas al a eas and in inland lowlands
and moun ains (Milazzo, 2015; Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019). Acco ding o Cid-Aguayo’s
(2008) dis inc ion be ween global and globalised places, bo h key in e egional and in e na ional
connec ions and eal ela ions can help o os e ac i e ‘global illages’ ins ead o passi e
‘globalised illages’. In b ie , in some ypes o globalisa ion, local leade s and inhabi an s can lose
and no longe con ol hei illage’s space (globalised illages), o con e sely, he inhabi an s can
ake ad an age o globalisa ion in o de o sus ainably de elop hei li ing space (global illages).
Thus, in each case, capi al, cul u al p oduc s and symbols can al e he li elihoods o illage s in
di e en ways. In his sense, i is impo an o highligh ha social ela ions among a a ie y o
inhabi an s a e key componen s o u al and moun ain sus ainabili y, including in e na ional social
ela ions (McA ea ey, 2017; Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019; Woods, 2016).
Thus, ‘cosmo illage s’ can ac i ely os e sus ainable and ac i e global illages ins ead o jus
con ibu ing o u banising he coun yside like some ‘ u al cosmopoli ans’ may be doing in many
ways. The concep o ‘polis’ included in he e m ‘cosmopoli an’ comes om he ancien G eek
e m o ci y, while ‘cosmo illage ’ highligh s he impo ance o he illage as a small human
popula ion se lemen ha can also be connec ed o mos o he g ea e wo ld, in ha he e m
‘cosmos’ also comes om ancien G eek and means he (o de ed) wo ld. Howe e , his s udy
does no assume ha ‘cosmo illage s’ a e hose who do ‘good’ hings (p oducing global illages),
unlike u al cosmopoli ans. In eali y, dis inc ions migh no be sha p and he same people migh
do a a ie y o ac ions, o hey migh do one hing, which depending on how hings go migh
e ol e in o a con ex o globalised illage o global illage (assuming also ha he wo can be
sha ply dis inguished). This pape does no judge pe sons o places, bu explo es on-going
complex p ocesses and gi es oice o in e na ional immig an en ep eneu s.
Some u al a eas in a a ie y o Eu opean Union (EU) coun ies oday a e he home o mo e
in e na ional mig an s han o he s. As Cha alambos Kasimis (2010) s a ed, Spain is one o
he sou he n Eu opean coun ies known o i s ela i ely long expe ience o hos ing in e na ional
immig an s in illages, pa icula ly in some inland lowlands and low moun ainous egions loca ed
ela i ely nea he coas (Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019; Mendoza e al., 2020). Howe e , less
a en ion has been paid o in e na ional immig an s li ing in some highe moun ainous egions
loca ed u he om he coas , as in some hamle s in he Lleida Py enees, a moun ainous a ea in
no he n Spain (e.g., Solé, 2013) ha bo de s on F ance and Ando a. Some o hese newcome s
can be conside ed ‘cosmo illage s’ and/o u al cosmopoli ans, and hey may be con ibu ing o
5
This does no necessa ily include hough all immig an s and he e migh be a ‘class’, en ep eneu ial o income
dimension.
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he u banisa ion and he in e na ionalisa ion o he coun yside (Hal ac ee, 2008), as well as o
he e i al o u al o na u al a eas (Connel & McManus, 2011).
The a o emen ioned changes in he Eu opean coun yside occu while a a ie y o ac o s y o
inco po a e he se en een Uni ed Na ions (UN)’ Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) in
policies a local, egional, na ional and in e na ional le el. These SDGs should be achie ed by
yea 2030 wo ldwide.
6
The 2nd SDG o he 2030 UN De elopmen Agenda pays explici a en ion
o u al issues (UN, 2015; Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019). Addi ionally, wi hin he con ex o
he EU, he impo ance o people-cen ed u al de elopmen and p omo ion o sus ainable ood
p oduc ion sys ems ha e been unde sco ed (EUROSTAT 2016; 2017), while FAO (2018) has
no ed ha ‘one o he key challenges acing sus ainable u al de elopmen is in o ma ion sha ing
and dissemina ion’. In his sense, as s a ed in a epo on mig a ion and 2030 SDGs agenda
(Mosle Vidal, 2018; p. 31), ‘da a gaps include he impac o mig a ion policy, mig a o y
mo emen s o and om u al a eas’ (Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019). In addi ion, i in e na ional
immig an s’ iews a e le una ended, an impo an pa o eali y will be lacking in he pic u e o
moun ainous and u al a eas because oday immig a ion is quali a i ely ele an in u al Eu ope
(Woods, 2016; Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019). Pa icula ly, in e na ional immig an
en ep eneu s li ing in u al a eas a e a ela i ely unde - esea ched g oup ha can con ibu e o
sus ainable de elopmen , c ea i i y and inno a ion (Kalan a idis and Bika, 2011; Ca son e al.,
2018; Mendoza e al., 2020).
Thus, his pape aims o help ill ha ela i e gap in he exis ing academic li e a u e on immig a ion
in u al moun ainous egions. Speci ically, bea ing he 2030 SDGs in mind, his pape sheds ligh
on he pe cep ions o in e na ional immig an en ep eneu s li ing in hamle s in he Lleida
Py enees: Wha dimensions o sus ainabili y a e unde sco ed? Wha a e he main challenges o
sus ainabili y and he p oposals o imp o ing human li e in he moun ains? Wha a e he local
sus ainabili y challenges? This pape o e s answe s o hese and o he ela ed ques ions by
p o iding esea ch esul s and insigh s mainly based on o iginal quali a i e in e iew da a
ga he ed du ing ieldwo k in he Py enees, as well as analyses o documen s, maps and o icial
s a is ics.
2. Theo e ical and concep ual backg ound on sus ainabili y, human
depopula ion and epopula ion in Eu opean moun ains
Some moun ainous egions wi h ‘genius loci’ ha e a po en ial compe i i e ad an age as desi able
des ina ions o (en ep eneu ial) immig an s, as hei socio-cul u al, na u al and economic
a ibu es may be app op ia e o commodi y and e alo ise he place (Ba oš e al., 2009). In pa s
o Eu ope, including he Lleida Py enees, he consump ion o moun ain municipali ies as ‘ ou is ic
p oduc s’ whe e one can ‘disconnec ’ is widely p omo ed by some go e nmen s and p i a e
companies in o de o a ac isi o s om big ci ies o u al e i o ies (Má mol, 2019). Howe e ,
e i o ies a e no (only) (commodi y) p oduc s, bu also p ocesses comp ised o a ange o
pe cep ions, p ac ices and echniques, including bo de ing, enclosing, excluding, su eying and
mapping (Elden, 2018). Moun ainous e i o ies ha e been inhabi ed by a wide a ie y o human
popula ions h oughou his o y and p ehis o y, and u ban p ejudices abou hem a e di e se as
well. The ela i ely ecen huge li e a y success o James Rebanks (2015), a moun ain shephe d
himsel , unde sco es a pa adoxical si ua ion: depending on he poin o iew, he a ea in which
he li es has been conside ed ‘poo , unp oduc i e, p imi i e, ha sh, ugly and backwa d’ o , in
con as , ‘beau i ul’, ‘s imula ing’, ‘ideal’ and ‘a model o a good socie y’ (Mo én-Aleg e
& Wladyka, 2019). Somehow, his pa adox can also be ound in se e al o he li e a y places,
including William Shakespea e’s comple e wo ks (see Ba e & Rasmussen, 2007): moun ains can
be linked o s e eo ypical ill-manne ed ca e-dwelle s as in Twel h Nigh , as well as o ich
ag icul u al ields in The Tempes , which is appa en ly he las play William Shakespea e w o e.
In any case, oday, moun ainous a eas a e c ucially connec ed o di e en deba es and
challenges wi hin he sus ainable de elopmen agenda (e.g., FAO, 2011: 5): “Ha sh clima ic and
en i onmen al condi ions, emo eness and o en di icul access hampe de elopmen in
6
See: h ps://sus ainablede elopmen .un.o g
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moun ain egions… Moun ain communi ies li e a om he cen es o comme ce and powe , so
hey ha e li le in luence on he policies and decisions ha a ec hei li es, and hei oices o en
go unhea d”.
The e m ‘sus ainable’ comes om La in sus ine e (made o sub + ene e: hold, keep) and, as
William Shakespea e poe ically sugges ed in Timon o A hens, ‘ o p e en ’ is use ul in o de o
‘sus ain’ ou ‘unce ain’ human li e and he challenges ha eme ge on ea h (Mo én-Aleg e
& Wladyka, 2019). These challenges may include he en i onmen al, cul u al and socio-economic
impac o human depopula ion in u al and moun ainous a eas (Que al , 1999; Mac a lane, 2015;
La diés, 2018). Thus his pape aims o p e en he oices o a ious moun ain inhabi an s bo n
ab oad om con inuing o be unhea d and ins ead allow hem o in o m policy-make s, academics
and o he eade s in e es ed in immig a ion in moun ainous a eas. I immig an s’ iews a e le
una ended, an impo an pa o eali y will be lacking in he pic u e o moun ainous a eas
because oday immig a ion is o ging a ‘new eali y’ in di e en places in u al Eu ope (Woods,
2016). This is ue o bo h immig an women and men, and o bo h in e nal and in e na ional
immig an s. Fo ins ance, in 2019, a ai named ‘La Cosmopuebli a’ was o ganised as he Ru al
Li e Fai (in a posi i e sense) in Bu báguena, a hamle in Te uel p o ince (A agon, Spain).
The Sou he n Spa sely Popula ed A eas ne wo k (SSPA) suppo ed he ai . I s i s edi ion was
dedica ed o Ru al Women and discussed expe iences unde aken by young en ep eneu s,
businesswomen, cul u al p omo e s, media p o essionals, u al policy-make s and a is s.
7
As
sugges ed a ha ime, sus ainabili y and c ea i i y go hand in hand and in ol e bo h u al na i es
and newcome s.
The concep o ‘sus ainabili y’ is a neologism, he b ainchild o he na u e conse a ion mo emen ,
illus a ing he shi om ‘wildli e conse a ion’ o a b oade mo emen in a ou o a heal hy
plane , including humans in he deba e (UN, 2015). In gene al e ms, he e is a undamen al
emphasis in sus ainabili y discou se on in e connec edness and uni y (Adams, 2006; Becke e
al., 1997). On s i ing no o “up oa he uni e sal peace, con ound / All uni y on ea h” (William
Shakespea e’s Macbe h, IV, 3). In his ega d, sus ainabili y – he commi men o he long- e m
con inui y o wha is alued, keeping he bes o wha is al eady he e bu allowing and o en
p omo ing ce ain ypes o change – mus be seen as always si ing in he mids o ‘social’,
‘economic’ and ‘en i onmen al’ conside a ions, wi h any displacemen in o jus one sec o , such
as ‘economic sus ainabili y’, leading o a loss o his holis ic app oach (e.g. Adams, 2006; Mo én-
Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019). Thus human popula ion s udies, including immig a ion s udies, should
be pa o he sus ainabili y deba es abou he moun ainous a eas o he u u e. Au ho s like Pe lik
and Memb e i (2018) ha e ocused on how he new ends in li es yle mig a ions in o u al
moun ainous egions like he Alps a e embedded in global alue chains by p omo ing economic
egene a ion. The e o e, hose mig an s b ing pu chasing powe in o hei communi ies and a e
desi able asse s o some local go e nmen s and businesses (Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019).
Howe e , some imes he e is also a lack o b oade local dialogue ha would esul in a mo e
sus ainable app oach o his phenomenon. Moun ains can be ‘commodi ied’ as landscape
p oduc s c ea ing he so-called ‘ u al idyll’ o ameni y mig an s (G e e e al., 2017), o , as
Benson & Osbaldis on (2014) pu i , li es yle mig an s. In ha case, newcome s a e ela ed o
pu chasing powe o in es men and di e si ica ion a he han labou mig a ion. This kind o
mig a ion, especially i managed in a sus ainable manne , has he po en ial o imp o e u al
economies (Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019; Romagosa e al., 2020). Howe e , Pe lik and
Memb e i (2018) discuss se e al challenges ela ed o his ype o mig a ion, especially long-
e m e ec s on in la ed p ope y p ices and he displaced local wo king class because o
he gen i ica ion p ocess hey induce. Subsequen ly, he ailu e o sus ainably manage di e si y
can igge con lic s and impose compe i ion be ween na i es and immig an s. O en he in-
g oup/ou -g oup men ali y plays a pa in whe he newcome s a e accep ed o ejec ed. Pe lik
and Memb e i (2018) indica e ha socie al s a egies like a welcoming cul u e can elimina e
he nega i e lens ha pe cei es mig an s as dis u bing and he e o e excluded. Ye , ha is no
necessa ily s aigh o wa d because, unlike u ban loca ions, in he pas , many u al a eas did no
iew immig a ion as bene icial o b inging new knowledge (Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019). In
7
See: h p://sspa-ne wo k.eu/en/ he-cosmopuebli a- he- ai -o - he-posi i eness-o - u al-li e/

272/491
addi ion, G e e e al. (2017) also analyse immig a ion managemen in Eu opean moun ainous
a eas by highligh ing he di e en ypes o mig an s ha ha e a i ed mos ly in he 21s cen u y,
including ameni y mig a ion, ou ism wo ke s, economic mig an s, as well as e ugees and asylum
seeke s. Go e nmen , non-p o i , and p i a e ac o s play a p ominen ole alongside policy.
Impo an ly, G e e e al. (2017) s a ed ha success ul welcome and inclusion p ocesses a e no
only social (suppo i e social en i onmen , de elopmen o he ela ionships wi h local agen s
ocused on b idging he gap be ween he g oups), bu also en i onmen al and spa ial, including
app op ia e loca ions o immig an s o se le and ind suppo (Mo én-Aleg e & Wladyka, 2019).
In con as o o he Eu opean moun ain anges like he Alps, o o o he pa s o he Py enees
(e.g., o he F ench Py enees see: Be homiè e & Imbe , 2020), he e a e ela i ely ew s udies
o books abou ecen human popula ion changes (e.g. Aldomà, 2015; Bielza de O y, 1993;
Gui ado & Tulla, 2010; O di e al. 2015; So iano e al., 1994) and immig a ion in he Lleida
Py enees (e.g., Lu ich & O ega, 2004; Solé, 2013). Thus, his pape aims o help ill ha ela i e
gap by o e ing o iginal quali a i e in o ma ion abou in e na ional immig an s’ pe cep ions o
he cu en en i onmen al, economic and social sus ainabili y challenges in he Lleida Py enees.
3. Me hodology, esea ch me hods, da a sou ces and egion s udied
This a icle is based on he esea ch p ojec i led “HAMLETS: Immig a ion and Sus ainable
De elopmen in Small Villages”,
8
which mainly ocuses on Ca alonia (Spain). This p ojec aims o
con ibu e o imp o ing e i o ial ela ions and in eg a ion in Ca alonia beyond he so-called u al-
u ban di ide (Champion & Hugo, 2004) wi hin he con ex o a changing, mul i- ela ed wo ld.
The p ojec me hodology consis ed in mul i-si ed esea ch ha elies on bo h quan i a i e and
quali a i e me hods and echniques applied o ca e ully p e-selec ed case s udies. The p ojec is
based on p e ious epis emological wo k and p e ious p ac ical expe ience on mig a ion and geo-
en i onmen al s udies ca ied ou by he esea ch eam (e.g. Kallis e al., 2013; Mendoza
& Mo én-Aleg e , 2013). I s sou ces o inspi a ions include humanis ic geog aphy and poli ical
ecology. This a icle s udies o eign-bo n immig an s and sus ainabili y in municipali ies wi h ewe
han 500 inhabi an s (i.e., ‘mic o- illages’ o hamle s), ollowing he de ini ion used by he Guild
o Geog aphe s o Ca alonia (Col·legi de Geòg a s, 2013), he Ca alan Associa ion o Small
Villages and some egional publica ions, e.g., Se ena & Baye , 2016 (Mendoza e al., 2020;
Romagosa e al., 2020). Acco ding o o icial s a is ics, 337 ou o he 947 municipali ies in
Ca alonia ha e ewe han 500 inhabi an s. While hese spa sely popula ed municipali ies
comp ise o e one- hi d (36%) o he Ca alan municipali ies and land (INE, 2018), only 1.08% o
he Ca alan popula ion esides in hem. In his ega d, Map 1 shows he loca ion o hese
337 spa sely popula ed municipali ies in Ca alonia as a whole ( hey a e loca ed mainly in
moun ainous and inland a eas) as well as he pe cen age o o eign-bo n esiden s li ing in hem,
which in a ew cases can be upwa ds o almos one- hi d o he popula ion.
8
See: h p://a lan is.uab.ca /hamle s/en/index.h ml
273/491
Fig 1. Fo eign-bo n esiden s in 337 municipali ies wi h ewe han 500 inhabi an s in Ca alonia.
274/491
3.1 Region s udied: he Lleida Py enees
In Spain, he 50 p o inces a e he key e i o ial uni ecognised in he 1978 Cons i u ion o
he coun y as a whole, and p o incial go e nmen s (Dipu aciones P o inciales) a e pa icula ly
impo an public adminis a i e bodies o municipali ies wi h ewe inhabi an s. In addi ion, in
Ca alonia (and in some o he o he 17 Spanish au onomous egions), coun y councils (consells
coma cals / consejos coma cales) a e also impo an in managing some public se ices in
spa sely popula ed municipali ies.
In his pape , he ocus is on Lleida p o ince, one o he Spanish p o inces wi h a ela i ely low
popula ion densi y and he Ca alan p o ince wi h he lowes popula ion densi y. The Lleida
Py enees a e si ua ed in no hwes Ca alonia (an au onomous egion in no h-eas Spain), and
as also shown in Map 1, hey a e home o se e al small illages wi h a signi ican numbe o
in e na ional immig an s. Speci ically, he case s udy on which his pape is based ocused on
municipali ies in he h ee moun ainous coun ies (o coma cas) ha ha e signi ican amoun s o
‘mic o- illages’ loca ed in Lleida p o ince (see Map 2): i s ly, Al U gell (12 ou o 19
municipali ies), whose coun y capi al is La Seu d’U gell; secondly, Palla s Sobi à (12 ou o 15
municipali ies), whose coun y capi al is So ; and, hi dly, Val d’A an (5 ou o 9 municipali ies),
whose capi al is Vielha. In addi ion, a en ion was paid o he ou municipali ies in he Ce danya
coma ca ha belong o Lleida p o ince ( he es o ha coun y belongs o he Spanish Gi ona
p o ince in Spain and he Eas e n Py enees Depa men in F ance). Las bu no leas , a en ion
was also paid o Gósol, a municipali y in Be guedà coun y belonging o Lleida p o ince as well
( he es o Be guedà belongs o Ba celona p o ince in Spain). A e i o ial le el, bo h Spanish
and Ca alan a e co-o icial languages in Ca alonia as a whole, bu Val d’A an is an o icially
ilingual egion whe e Occi an is also co-o icial. Thus, he ieldwo k was conduc ed in a mul i-
lingual con ex .
The coun ies o Al U gell, Ce danya, Palla s Sobi à and Val d’A an sha e an in e na ional bo de
wi h F ance, and Al U gell and Palla s Sobi à also sha e an in e na ional bo de wi h Ando a,
which is no ye a EU membe . As shown in Table 1, du ing he pe iod 1990–2016, he hamle s
in Al U gell los popula ion (422 ewe inhabi an s, ha is, in yea 2016, he popula ion was 15.5%
lowe han in 1990), bu he es o he e i o ies in Lleida Py enees ha e gained inhabi an s,
mainly due o immig a ion. In absolu e numbe s and gene al e ms, in 2016, he hamle s in Palla s
Sobi à had a highe numbe o o eign-bo n esiden s (266) han he o he s, bu , in ela i e
numbe s, he hamle s in Al U gell had a highe a e age pe cen age o o eign-bo n esiden s
(10.6%) han he o he e i o ies s udied he e. Howe e , ha pe cen age is s ill much lowe han
he a e age numbe o o eign-bo n esiden s in Lleida p o ince as a whole (18%), which is
a symp om o he moun ains’ di icul ies o a ac ing and e aining in e na ional immig an s.
Rega ding places o bi h, mos immig an s in he hamle s in he Lleida Py enees come om o he
Eu opean coun ies (mainly om o he EU membe s a es) and om he Ame icas, p ima ily
Sou h Ame ica. Thus, ou main ocus in his case s udy is on immig an s wi h hese wo
geog aphical o igins. In e es ingly, he numbe o immig an s bo n in A ica is sca ce in he Lleida
Py enees, bu in Lleida p o ince as a whole he numbe o EU immig an s is simila o he numbe
o A ican immig an s ( hese popula ion g oups each encompass mo e han 27,000 esiden s
each). In con as , in Lleida p o ince as a whole, he numbe o immig an s bo n in he Ame icas
is signi ican ly lowe han EU immig an s and A ican immig an s (15,055 esiden s). I should be
aken in o accoun ha some ski eso s in he Py enees ec ui immig an wo ke s om
moun ainous a eas in Sou h Ame ica, and some o hem may la e se le in he Py enees as
en ep eneu s.
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Fig 2. Loca ion o municipali ies wi h ewe han 500 inhabi an s in he Lleida Py enees.
282/491
aining ou doo s, lea ning om expe iences in o he coun ies. In La Seu d’U gell, he e is al eady
an o ice o e ing a ew deg ees om he Spanish dis ance-lea ning uni e si y known as UNED,
15
and he e a e plans o he Lleida Uni e si y Spo s Facul y in La Seu d’U gell.
16
Howe e , apa
om coun y, on-si e uni e si y aining could also be o e ed in moun ain hamle s in a wide a ie y
o disciplines, lea ning om he expe ience o ecen and cu en ( empo a y) expe iences ha
usually ake place in he summe only. In his sense, in o de o sp ead uni e si y eaching and
esea ch ac oss spa sely popula ed moun ainous a eas, lessons can be lea n om he UAB-
ICTA campus in Alinyà, a hamle in Al U gell
17
. This small ( empo a y) campus has been
ope a ing he e pe iodically since 1999.
4.2 Economic dimension o sus ainabili y
4.2.1 DIY men ali y, seasonali y, economic di e si ica ion, labou condi ions and
sus ainable business de elopmen
Pa icula ly in emo e hamle s loca ed a om big ci ies and u ban a eas, seasonali y is a majo
economic challenge o ha ing mo e pe manen human inhabi an s wo king all yea ound, which
would also educe pollu ion: “Suddenly… o ins ance, in his es au an … in summe , we ha e
300 people asking o ha e lunch a once, i ’s b u al… Tou ism could be managed acco ding o
a dis ibu ion o places… like in F ance [wi h school holidays]… I he holidays we e sp ead o e
he yea , he e would be wo k all he yea ound. I only ha e one wo ke employed all he yea
ound, bu wi h ou is s coming h oughou he yea , I could ha e wo wo ke s all he yea ound…
i would be a way o a oid so many empo a y jobs in moun ains and alleys like his” (EC-43-SA-
emale-NC). Howe e , hanks o weekende s, seasonali y is less impo an in illages ha a e
well connec ed o u ban a eas by main oads o loca ed close o ci ies: “Tou ism he e is
concen a ed in Augus . Howe e , he e a e lo s o pe iods in he es o he yea when people
come up he e: in sp ing, he wea he is nice and in summe , i ’s an as ic, in au umn, you ha e
mush oom ga he e s… in win e , he e a e skie s a ound… so he e is ou ism all yea ound.
The e a e abou 200 egis e ed inhabi an s in he illage, bu he e a e mo e han 300 houses, so
he e a e lo s o second homes o people li ing in ci ies who come a weekends, Ch is mas,
Eas e , summe …” (EC-22-SA-male-NC). As explained in ano he sec ion below, second homes
also ha e side e ec s o human popula ion sus ainabili y in hamle s.
In any case, among immig an s li ing in moun ain illages, he e is somehow a need o a ‘Do-i -
you sel ’ (DIY) men ali y and implemen ing he a o imp o isa ion, economic di e si ica ion,
aus e i y and some so o in e na ionalisa ion: “I canno only depend on wo king in he es au an
o ea n a li ing because summe is he high season he e. The es o he yea you can go o wo k
in he ski eso s [loca ed in he su ounding a eas], o else i ’s e y di icul o ea n money… bu
he good hing abou li ing he e is ha you spend less money han in he ci y… and he quali y o
li e is much be e he e… A i s , I go a [pa - ime] job in he es au an , and hen people lea n
abou my skills, so I was asked o each a wo kshops and English” (EC&SC-31-SA- emale-NC).
In he UK, he need o a DIY men ali y in some u al a eas was also acknowledged in he epo
w i en by he Selec Commi ee on he Ru al Economy linked o he House o Lo ds (2019), which
says ha “ unning a business in a u al a ea equi es a ‘do-i -you sel ’ men ali y and ha ge ing
suppo o ac ion om local au ho i ies o ge some hing done in ol ed an amoun o pushing ha
should no be necessa y” (p. 209).
15
See: h p://www.unedseudu gell.es
16
See: h ps://www.udl.ca /ca/se eis/o icina/No icies/Ciencies-de-lac i i a - isica-i-lespo -simpa i a-a-La-Seu-
dU gell-el-cu s-2021-2022/
17
See: h p://ic a.uab.es/CampusAlinya/index.h m

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Fig 11. Tou is ic sign in Guingue a d’Àneu, Palla s
Sobi à (@Rica dMo en, 2019)
Fig 12. Ca le on a a m in Es ama iu, Al U gell
(@Rica dMo en, 2020).
In some cases, mul iple jobs, DIY and in e na ionalisa ion as ways o o e coming seasonali y a e
made possible hanks o he In e ne , pa icula ly in hamle s wi h a as and eliable b oadband
connec ion.
This is he case, o ins ance, o an immig an en ep eneu who combines sel -employmen as
compu e scien is (o e ing compu e se ices om home o di e en o ganisa ions based bo h
in Spain and in Sou h Ame ica) wi h a sala ied job as wai e in a es au an in he coun y capi al
du ing he peak summe ou is ic season: “I ha e my own company [as a compu e p og amme ]
bu my child en a e olde now, las summe my mo he came o isi us o h ee mon hs [wi h
a ou is ic isa, willing o ake ca e o he g andchild en] and mos o he o ganisa ions I wo k o
a e ac i e only du ing he school yea . So I looked o a complemen a y summe job and I was
hi ed as a wai e in a es au an ” (EC&ENV-33-SA-male-YC). In o he wo ds, one has o adap o
a place whe e i is di icul o ea n money, and a pe sonal o amily le el, economic di e si ica ion
is a mus , bu hamle s a e pe cei ed as places whe e one can sa e money compa ed o la ge
illages o owns, because he e a e ewe places o spend i (EC&SC-45-EU- emale-YC).
In o he cases, he combina ion o s ockb eeding, ag icul u e and u al ou ism is an ‘op ion’ o
a a ie y o inhabi an s (Tulla, 2019), including o some immig an en ep eneu s who ha e
access o land and p ope ies (e.g., h ough ma iage o a na i e inhabi an ) and li e a ela i ely
aus e e way o li e: “When he ca le p ices dec ease, ob iously ou income dec eases, bu
he p oduc ion cos s a e he same o mo e expensi e. This is a challenge. And i we do no
di e si y ou economic ac i i y, we would be o e -dependen on luc ua ing ood p ices, so we
now wo k in ou ism [ u al apa men s o en ]… Ou main aim is no o buy he la es spo s ca ,
bu o b ea he his ai , ea ing his ood, ha e his quie ness, in e ac wi h iends” (EC&ENV-34-
SA-male-NC).
In his sense, some hamle s a e seen as lands o oppo uni y whe e d eams o he ‘slow li e’
(Mancuso & Pe ini, 2015) and some DIY en ep eneu ial p ojec s can come ue someday: “In
a big ci y, I can’ do my p ojec s because he e a e al eady a lo o p o essionals… we can do
mo e hings o ou sel es he e, we can ind mo e communi y suppo he e. In he ci y, when you
lea e home, e e y hing is eady o be consumed” (SC-42-EU- emale-YC). Howe e , he e a e
also newcome s in used wi h he so-called oman ic ‘ u al idyll’ (Bunce, 2003; Fa ell e al., 2012;
Lampič & M ak, 2012; Rye, 2014) who do no a i e wi h a DIY men ali y. Tha passi e, idyllic
ision may make ha hei (long e m) immig a ion p ojec ails because hey a e no able o
ac i ely adap o he eal li e in he moun ain hamle s. “[In ecen yea s] he e ha e been a lo o
people [bo h om he Ba celona egion and o he places] who ha e come o his illage wi h hei
hands in hei pocke s, asking: ‘Wha a e you going o gi e us?’ They come he e wi h an idea…
hey come he e because hey like moun ains and such, bu hey assume ha local inhabi an s
should ake ca e o hem, ha jobs should be o e ed o hem. Come on! Look, I had o igh and
ind my own way, nobody o e ed me a job!” (SC&EC-68-SA-male-YC).
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Fig 13. Picasso Museum in Gósol,
Be guedà (@Rica dMo en, 2018)
Fig 14. Deli e yman in Es Bò des, Val d’A an
(@Rica dMo en, 2020)
Bea ing ha in mind, some immig an en ep eneu s sugges ed, he ‘place b anding’, anspo
se ices and in e na ional p omo ion o hamle s in need o epopula ion should be imp o ed. This
would also be help ul o complemen ing/compe ing wi h Ando a, he closes ‘cosmopoli an’
e i o y. In addi ion, be e in o ming ci izens abou he eal socio-economic si ua ion and se ices
a ailable in hamle s would help o p epa e po en ial immig an s o wha hey can expec o ind
in daily li e in he moun ains (e.g., he hones p os and cons o young people hinking abou
mo ing o he moun ains in o de o s a li e p ojec s): “P oposals like building new moun ain
ailways o a mo e e icien bus sys em and a be e p omo ion o he hamle s on he In e ne a e
undamen al” (EC-22-SA-male-NC).
In his ega d, ano he economic challenge ci ed by some immig an en ep eneu s is how o
o ganise (in e na ional) ma ke ing campaigns p omo ing he cul u al dimension o small illages
in o de o suppo a isans and a is s’ p oduc s and se ices: “Mo e space should be gi en o
local cul u al exhibi ions, and cul u al p omo ion should be be e han i is now… mos people [in
he Ba celona egion] do no know abou he exhibi ions p esen ed in he illage museum”
(EC&SC-31-SA- emale-NC). Du ing ieldwo k, he esea che s isi ed he o icial ou is ic o ices
in he ci ies o Lleida and Ba celona and acknowledged ha he ela i ely sca ce ou is p omo ion
o he Lleida hamle s is usually ocused on he (na u al and/o u al) landscapes.
This lack o enough cul u al dynamism and in e ela ion wi h o he egions is pe cei ed oge he
wi h he economic challenge posed by he ac ha mos jobs a e in he coun y capi als and la ge
illages, which u ns some hamle s in o sa elli e esiden ial illages o la ge human se lemen s
(wi hou endogenous economic de elopmen ): “People go o wo k ou side o he illage. No hing
is de eloped he e economically. The e a e no se ices in he illage whe e you can wo k” (SC-
42-EU- emale-YC). In addi ion, he wo s may be ye o come o some adi ional local
businesses, because in some hamle s wi h as In e ne connec ions, he inc ease in online
shopping may make su i al e en mo e di icul o some emaining local shops and se ices:
“Wi hou In e ne , we would no li e in his hamle . We a e big In e ne shoppe s… Yes e day
nigh , I bough shoes o my daugh e s because i sa es me ime; o he wise I would ha e o go
o Ando a o o he coun y capi al, bu he goods a ailable in he coun y capi al a en’ e y
di e si ied” (SC-42-EU- emale-YC).
In his sense, when a hamle has a ba o a es au an , hese businesses can become poin s
whe e packages om online shopping a e collec ed, some imes o ee. This happens hanks o
mu ual help and communi y li e among illage esiden s: “E e y hing is mo e expensi e in
he shops in his coun y han on he In e ne , so e e ybody ies o shop on he In e ne and you
can see deli e ymen unning a ound he illage… Deli e ymen know ha we a e open e e yday,
so hey ask me: ‘Can I lea e he esiden ’s package he e?’ And I say ‘OK’… Ano he day i may
be he o he way ound, and a neighbou can help us” (EC-28-EU- emale-YC)
285/491
Ano he economic challenge o sus ainabili y exp essed by immig an en ep eneu s is os e ing
mo e long- e m p ojec s adap ed o moun ain li e ha can b ing mo e new pe manen inhabi an s.
Fo ins ance, in hamle s whe e he e is a lo o unde used woodland, ideas we e sugges ed o
sma ha es ing o imbe o kindling o hea ing: “The ski eso hea ing sys em al eady wo ks
wi h kindling. I ha wo ks up he e, why can’ i wo k in he illage? … Woodlands a e di y.
I ag ee ha his is a di icul moun ain, bu i you b ing a wo k eam he e o clea he o es s [ o
bo h p omo e kindling as uel and p e en ing wild i es], ell hem ha hey will ha e a job he e o
15 o 20 yea s and ha hey can buy o en a house he e… hen you would ha e h ee o ou
amilies wo king he e all yea ound. And in win e , when i ’s e y ha d o wo k in he o es , hese
wo ke s could be employed in he ski eso ” (SC&EC-68-SA-male-YC). In ha sense, apa om
secu ing mo e long- e m p ojec s, ano he pe cei ed challenge o economic sus ainabili y is how
highe sala ies and/o mo e p o i able ac i i ies could be o e ed in moun ainous a eas: “Some
people pay nex o no hing. I seems like you’ e doing hem a a ou . No, come on, pay good
sala ies, wo king people need o ea n a li ing, people need o li e decen ly in o de o p o ide
a good se ice… Some people say: ‘You don’ ha e so many needs up in he moun ains’. Why
no ? I need o ge away om ime o ime and I like o go o he hea e” (SC&EC-68-SA-male-
YC). In ac , as ano he immig an en ep eneu s a ed, imp o ing incomes would help o a ac
and e ain a pe manen young popula ion, bo h o oca ional and o he jobs: “This is a job ha is
no well paid, we can ba ely li e on i … Wha young people would wan o do his job wi h his
pa he ic income? This is my ques ion. The olde people s a ed he e as hippies, ea ning nex o
no hing, and hey a e s ill he e o he cul u e and he coun y… Righ now, ca ying ou his p ojec
in he moun ains… should be like a mission” (SC&EC-52-EU- emale-YC).
4.2.2 Business logis ics, In e ne connec ion, access o suppo /ne wo ks/c edi and
bu eauc acy
In some hamle s loca ed in he Lleida Py enees, immig an en ep eneu s highligh a ious
business- ela ed challenges o economic sus ainabili y, like ex ao dina y logis ical di icul ies o
businesses loca ed in hamle s ha a e a away om he coun y capi al and he main oads. Fo
ins ance, his is a eal challenge o some businesses in he es au an sec o , pa icula ly in hei
i s yea o exis ence: “The logis ics o b inging goods o ou es au an [loca ed in he cen e o
he hamle ] is e y ha d. In summe , ou only op ion was o go down o he coun y capi al e e yday
in o de o buy supplies in shops and supe ma ke s… Some supplie s don’ come he e” (EC-43-
SA- emale-NC). In his sense, some immig an en ep eneu s acknowledge ha he coun y
council helped hem wi h he ed ape o hei en ep eneu ial p ojec s, bu hey claim ha public
adminis a ions should o e mo e economic suppo o businesses s a -ups in hamle s: “The e
a e plen y o oppo uni ies o new p ojec s he e. Wi h a li le bi o imagina ion, you can se up
a new business one way o ano he , bu money is lacking. The e should be a g an om he s a e
o a subsidy” (EC-22-SA-male-NC). In a simila ein, ano he immig an en ep eneu
acknowledged ha e e y yea hey ha e o isi se e al municipal councils in he Py enees
begging o a subsidy o suppo hei p ojec s (SC&EC-52-EU- emale-NC). In addi ion o
he nume ous ie s o public adminis a ion exis ing in he Lleida Py enees, some immig an
en ep eneu s belie e ha he g oups linked o he Eu opean LEADER p og amme
18
a e help ul
o business sus ainabili y in hamle s.
Howe e , o he immig an en ep eneu s hink ha hey should become mo e long- e m men o s
and suppo g oups, pa icula ly o young en ep eneu s: “LEADER g oups a e e y impo an ,
bu mo e isibili y is needed. Fo ins ance, i a Ca alan iend om he coun y capi al had no
in oduced me o he people in he LEADER g oup, I would no ha e known abou i . Take in o
accoun ha I wo k wi h ICT and I am online all day… Once I go in ouch wi h hem, hey helped
me a lo , because hey o e you isibili y and ne wo king” (EC&ENV-33-SA-male-YC). In his
sense, apa om his ins i u ional and economic suppo , ha ing access o local pe sonal o
social ne wo ks is pe cei ed as mo e di icul in some hamle s in he Py enees han in la ge
illages and owns: “The e a e jobs he e, bu hey a e closed hings, hey a e amily jobs.
Someone om elsewhe e canno gain access o a job in a hamle like his. I someone comes o
18
See: h ps://en d.ec.eu opa.eu/leade -clld/leade - oolki /leade clld-explained_en
286/491
li e he e om he ou side, hey should look o a job in he coun y capi al, in la ge illages o
somewhe e else” (SC&EC-52-EU- emale-YC). This is a eason why some immig an
en ep eneu s li ing in hamle s pe cei e ha LEADER g oups could be e y impo an o o he
immig an s, pa icula ly i men o ship is ein o ced wi h a long- e m pe spec i e: “I know abou
some g ea p ojec s. A ew mon hs ago, o ins ance, I o e ed echnical suppo o a couple o
young guys who came om Ba celona a e g adua ing om uni e si y… bu h ee mon hs la e
hey hadn’ ound any ins i u ional suppo , e e y hing was so slow, he e we e so many
p ocedu es… ha hei p ojec died… They we e lacking a local men o ” (EC&ENV-33-SA-male-
YC).
Thus pa ience and adap a ion o a slow pace o li e a e also impo an skills when de eloping new
businesses in moun ain hamle s, including some imes adap ing o slow and in e mi en In e ne
and WiFi connec ions: “Fo my a is ic business, I ha e a websi e and social media like Facebook
and Ins ag am… Mobile phones wo k well in his pa o he illage, bu no in he ou ski s. When
he e a e snows o ms, he elec ical g id b eaks down… Anyway, I know ha he In e ne is no
going o wo k he e like i does in he ci y. The In e ne is no as as , bu … you can ge used o
slow In e ne access” (EC&SC-31-SA- emale-NC).
Fig 15. A s & c a s in La Vansa-Fó nols, Al U gell
(@Rica dMo en, 2019)
Fig 16. Ruin o an old house in Vilamòs, Val d’A an
(@Rica dMo en, 2019)
Apa om adap ion o slowness, one way o ha e as e b oadband In e ne access is by
implemen ing u al DIY In e ne connec ions, as i happened in he UK (Moss, 2015). In any case,
his is an issue ha he Ca alan Go e nmen ’s 5G s a egy has been ying o ackle since 2019,
19
albei s ill wi h unce ain esul s. In addi ion o 5G, a semi-public Spanish hi- ech company is
planning o open new a enues o businesses in u al Spain by o e ing ib e op ic o b oadband
se ices (Ál a ez, 2020). Howe e , o some immig an en ep eneu s wi h e ail business
p ojec s, one o he g ea es challenges o economic sus ainabili y is he local bu eauc acy in
some municipali ies. Thus, sea ching o en ep eneu - iendly illages can become a p io i y
be o e mig a ing: “We we e looking o a quie place... We we e looking o small businesses
oppo uni ies. We wan ed o wo k o ou sel es. Some ime la e we ound ha in a illage nea
he e he municipal council was looking o amilies wi h child en, bu hey old us ha we had o
submi a [business] p ojec . I old hem ha I didn’ wan o w i e p ojec s, and we kep on
sea ching un il we ound a business oppo uni y in his hamle ” (EC-37-SA- emale-YC). In o he
wo ds, he a i ude o municipal go e nmen s ma e s.
Las bu no leas , ano he economic challenge o sus ainabili y in hamle s is gaining access o
buildings o lands ( o en o o buy) whe e (new) businesses can be de eloped. “Many p ope ies
he e a e owned by an Ando an amily because he old landlo d died and his p ope ies we e
inhe i ed by his daugh e s. They li e in Ando a and ha e se e al p ope ies he e: hey own
a es au an ha is now emp y; hey own ( ou is ) apa men s in he main illage squa e; hey also
19
See: h p://poli iquesdigi als.genca .ca /web/.con en /Telecomunicacions/5G/Es a egia-5G-de-Ca alunya.pd
287/491
own a house in ha squa e… I mean ha hey ha e a lo o money and a lo o p ope ies he e.
They don’ wan o sell” (SC&EC-52-EU- emale-YC).
This issue is no a pa icula i y o he Lleida Py enees, bu simila p oblems o access o p ope y
( o bo h en and sell) in hamle s can be ound in o he pa s o u al and semi- u al Spain as
well
20
.
4.3 Social dimension o sus ainabili y
4.3.1 Ageing popula ion, u al schools and you h’s p ospec s
Among some in e iewed immig an en ep eneu s, he inc ease in he ageing popula ion in
he moun ains is a pe cei ed social challenge wi h se e al causes, including low bi h a es [“in
he u u e, he e will be Mo occans, black people and Chinese olks because many Spanish
people do no ha e child en” (EC&ENV-60-SA- emale-YC)] as well as he emig a ion elsewhe e
o na i es and child en o o eign immig an s: “My 23-yea -old son doesn’ wan o s ay in
he illage. The e is no li e o him he e anymo e… because he si ua ion he e is sad o you h…
when he comes o isi us [ om Ando a] he ells us ha he doesn’ wan o wo k he e, e en i he
was o e ed a job” (EC&SC-45-EU- emale-YC).
Fo young immig an en ep eneu s who can be conside ed ‘cosmo illage s’ one challenge is,
combining he possibili y o a elling o o he places ( om ime o ime) wi h ha ing pe manen
jobs o long- e m p ojec s in illages o moun ainous a eas whe e he e a e o he well- a elled
people open o he wo ld: “A i s i was ha d, I missed ha ing o he people my age a ound and
no being able o sha e ce ain hings, like he a s, museums, exhibi ions... Bu ecen ly, mo e
cul u e-wise newcome s ha e a i ed. Mo e open-minded people a e coming he e, mo e well-
a elled people... Now I don’ wan o lea e he e anymo e... I can a el om ime o ime, bu
when I come back he e, I eel happie han anywhe e else” (EC&SC-31-SA- emale-NC).
In addi ion, as men ioned in ano he sec ion abo e, ha ing a ca o ge a ound (o li ing in
a hamle wi h equen public anspo se ices) is also impo an o young people and he ac i e
popula ion: “Young people a e ew and a be ween he e. I am he only one o my age g oup in
his hamle . The e a e o he young people in o he illages, and o he s come a weekends, bu
he e a e no many… Now I am com o able, we ha e a ba … I ’s like a social club… bu I know
ha his is no he bes place o be o people my age because I wan o be wi h mo e people…
I eel isola ed, bu i ’s my aul . I I had my d i ing license, I could ge a ound…” (EC-22-SA-male-
NC).
Ha ing places o socialisa ion is impo an no only o young people bu also o he bu geoning
e i ed popula ion. The sca ci y o lack o social enues in moun ain hamle s may mean ha
he ew ba s o es au an s a ailable a e o e - equen ed by he ageing popula ion, pu ing a lo
o p essu e on some immig an ba ende s. P oblems like wo king long hou s wi h ha dly a single
day o may make i di icul o immig an en ep eneu s who un ba s o es au an s ha e (mo e)
child en in hamle s: “The e should be a social cen e… o en i I wan o close he ba because
I need o ake a b eak, I can’ do i because hen I would lea e he elde ly olks wi hou co ee and
wi hou he ime o socialise, wa ch TV, commen on he news, alk. The ba is a social space...
Some imes in he summe I am jus abou bu n ou , I wo k 17 hou s… Some imes I hink ha
I should close he ba and I would only keep he es au an and he u al apa men s, bu ha
would be pain ul o he elde ly people” (EC-43-SA- emale-NC). Howe e , in hamle s loca ed nea
ski eso s o o he ou is de elopmen s, social enues o young people, he elde ly and o he
illage s a e much mo e equen han in o he hamle s.
20
E.g., see: h ps://ib3.o g/pobles-bui s-he encies- unes-cen ena s-cases-abandonades-pa - o ana-mallo ca

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Fig 17. Elde ly man walking in Canejan,
Val d’A an (@Rica dMo en, 2018)
Fig 18. Pubs, es au an s & ho els in Espo , Palla s Sobi à
(@Rica dMo en, 2020)
In o de o eju ena e moun ain popula ions in he sho o middle e m, a ac ing amilies wi h
small child en is a mus , which makes access o schools a key challenge. The impo ance o
he u al schools goes beyond jus he educa ional op ions a ailable. Ru al schools a e pe cei ed
as sociocul u al engines and as seeds o (possible) u u e sus ainable de elopmen o he whole
illage: “When I a i ed he e [in he mid 1980s], we [as pa en s] had a lo o cul u al ini ia i es in
he school, and oday some o hem a e s ill he e” (SC&EC-68-SA-male-YC). Thus, a a ie y o
oices say ha a ac ing new child en o he illage is a p io i y challenge: “Mo e amilies should
be encou aged o come he e in o de o eju ena e he illage. The school is small and should be
enla ged. This would make mo e amilies wi h child en come he e” (EC&ENV-33-SA-male-YC).
Fo some, hamle s ha al eady ha e a u al school could be made mo e appealing o amilies by
holding mo e local ac i i ies o child en, because pa en s o en ha e o o ganise ee- ime
ac i i ies hemsel es (e.g., EC-37-SA- emale-YC) and no e e ybody has ime o do so.
In addi ion, ha ing mo e playg ounds and spo s acili ies would help, oo (e.g., EC&ENV-33-SA-
male-YC; EC-28-EU- emale-YC). Howe e , many hamle s do no ha e hei own school. In some
coun ies, one e ec i e measu e o encou age amilies wi h child en o mo e o li e in hamle s
ha do no ha e hei own school is o e ing hem ee school meals and a school bus o
he coun y capi al: “Mo e amilies wi h child en a e coming o li e in his hamle because he bus
om he illage o he school in he coun y capi al is ee o hem, and he child en egis e ed
he e a e gi en ee meals a school” (EC-43-SA- emale-NC). Howe e , his kind o policy can be
p oblema ic o u al schools in la ge illages i he only way o ha e a ee school bus o meals
is by sending he child en o schools in he coun y capi al: “The e is no school he e, and we always
wan ed o egis e ou child en in a u al school [in a la ge illage] because he school bus is only
ee i you send you child en o he schools in he coun y capi al. Du ing p ima y school, we d o e
ou child en o he o he illage e e yday. The e we e o he amilies a ound wi h he same idea,
so we se hings up o ca sha ing” (SC&EC-52-EU- emale-YC).
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Fig 19. Ru al school in Tuixen , Al U gel (@Rica dMo en,
2019)
Fig 20. Second home housing es a e in P a s
i Sanso , Ce danya (@Rica dMo en, 2019)
4.3.2 (Social) housing, indi idualism, isola ion, open/closed social li e and (middle class)
‘new’ (second home) pa - ime inhabi an s om u ban a eas
The sca ci y o housing bo h o en and o sell, ising housing p ices and he lack o social housing
a e also p io i y challenges o immig an en ep eneu s li ing in hamle s in he Lleida Py enees.
Some imes he blame is placed on he la ge numbe o second homes, which inc ease he p ices
o all housing in hamle s, as well as he ac ha he ew la s a ailable o immig an s a e oo small
o house amilies wi h child en all yea ound because hey we e o iginally designed as (sho -
e m) holiday apa men s (EC-37-SA- emale-YC; EC&SC-40-EU-male-YC). People looking o
housing in he a ea o en con ac immig an en ep eneu s unning businesses like illage shops,
ba s o es au an s: “People a e always calling me: ‘Do you know o any hing a ailable?’ ‘No,
he e is almos no hing’ [ei he o buy o o en ]… We would like o buy a home he e o in ano he
hamle nea by, bu i ’s ha d o ind any hing” (EC-43-SA- emale-NC). In o he wo ds, icious
ci cles should become i uous ci cles, bu public au ho i ies ha e o encou age mo e landlo ds
and emp y house owne s o en o sell hei p ope ies wi h incen i es (e.g., by o e ing hem
gua an ees o insu ances) o penal ies: “Finding en al housing now is e y di icul , no ma e
he illage, in he coun y as a whole, almos no hing can be ound… and e e y hing is e y
expensi e… The e a e jobs he e, bu he e a e no la s whe e you can li e… Then people en
a la o a house and e e ybody li es he e, so hey des oy he place because he e a e oo many
people, hen landlo ds don’ wan o en anymo e” (EC-28-EU- emale-YC). The lack o su icien
housing is an issue ha also a ec s bo h Spanish-bo n and immig an en ep eneu s wan ing o
hi e ( empo a y) wo ke s du ing he peak ou is o a ming seasons.
Some imes in connec ion wi h he inc easing numbe o second homes and gen i ica ion
p ocesses (see Pe lik & Memb e i, 2018), a slow decay o ans o ma ion o social li e is
pe cei ed in some hamle s in he Lleida Py enees. A a communi y le el, one immig an esiding
in a hamle o mo e han 15 yea s (EC&SC-45-EU- emale) old us ha he e has been a e i al
o he local social-cul u al associa ion (Comissió de Fes es o es i als commission), which was
echoed in o he s o ies hea d du ing ieldwo k. In he pas , when she a i ed, mos cul u al
pa icipan s we e pe manen inhabi an s (bo h na i es and immig an s), bu in ecen yea s, hei
numbe has been dec easing (due o emig a ion o dea h) and he emaining ones a e ageing
and/o becoming passi e (sel -isola ing a home, wi hou he in e es in o possibili y o ha ing
ela ions wi h weekende s).
The new cul u al ac i is s in he illage a e he (Ca alan) second home’s owne s who usually li e
in he Ba celona me opoli an egion, and mos o hem only eside in he illages some weekends
and holidays. Howe e , adi ional cul u al ac i i ies and celeb a ions whe e na i es and
newcome s om o he pa s o Ca alonia, Spain o ab oad sha e ime and space a e conside ed
a means o social in eg a ion, bu only up o ce ain poin : “I keep on hinking ha people a e qui e
closed and ha I will always be pe cei ed as someone om ab oad, e en i I wo k, o ganise
hings, ha e child en and amily he e… This happens in his illage and in o he illages: he e
a e inside s and ou side s. Howe e , we a e qui e ac i e in o ganising Ca alan cul u al ac i i ies,
290/491
which makes me mo e accep ed by he na i e inhabi an s [and in e nal Ca alan immig an s]… bu
I guess he e a e hings ha hey don’ ell me” (SC&EC-52-EU- emale-YC).
Excep in Val d’A an, a e i o y ha is pa o he Occi an linguis ic a ea, in ecen yea s
he sepa a is mo emen has been g owing in Ca alonia (e.g. Cas añeda & Megens-Sedo , 2020).
This is a socio-poli ical mo emen mainly comp ised o an impo an sec o o he middle class
who wan s an independen Ca alonia. This mo emen includes pa - ime u ban inhabi an s wi h
second homes in he illages o u al Ca alonia (e.g., in he Py enees). In his con ex , one
challenge o social sus ainabili y in hamle s is how o o e come he linguis ic p oblems ela ed
o poli ical con lic s like ha : “I ne e el bad o no speaking Ca alan, bu a week ago in
a communi y lunch held in he illage, I said ‘in Spain people ea a lo o b ead’ and someone in
he able asked me: ‘Spain?” I didn’ unde s and i I had said some hing w ong… I comple ely
o go he issue o Ca alonia, o me his is Spain oo… I did no unde s and ha ques ion and he
asked me again, and again, un il I unde s ood wha he mean . I knew no hing abou ha pe son.
He is ela ed o his illage bu is li ing in Ando a” (EC&SC-31-SA- emale-NC). This
‘cosmo illage ’ immig an en ep eneu a i ed in he hamle a ew yea s ago, bu she has esided
se e al yea s in a ious coun ies apa om he home coun y in Sou h Ame ica, including
he USA, he UK, I aly and Spain.
In a small illage, almos e e ybody knows each o he , and a imes o poli ical pola isa ion
ocused on a single issue (e.g., na ionalism), poli ics ma e in a di e en way han in a own o
ci y. In con as , when a o eign immig an speaks Ca alan, he eac ion can be qui e di e en :
“I speak Ca alan and especially na i e elde ly people a e a ec ed and mo ed when hey hea
me. A Sou h Ame ican speaking Ca alan is some hing excep ional he e! This is due o he ac
ha I speak Ca alan well [because I a ended school in Ca alonia o some yea s], I speak like
a na i e speake ” (EC-22-SA-male). In e es ingly, his young Ca alan-speaking immig an
en ep eneu had also li ed in se e al places h oughou his li e, in bo h Ca alonia and Sou h
Ame ica, and could be conside ed a ‘cosmo illage ’ o a ansa lan ic ‘neo-nomad’: “I am a neo-
nomad… he e a e a lo o people like me. I ha e li ed in many places… I am 22 yea s old and
I ha e mo ed 18 imes” (EC-22-SA-male-NC). In his sense, some u al schools can be
conside ed mic o-machines making ‘new Ca alans’ om he child en o immig an s hanks o he
linguis ic imme sion and he sociocul u al-poli ical mo emen s o ecen yea s in Ca alonia: “Mos
people he e o ed [on he 1s o Oc obe 2017]; ob iously I wasn’ able o o e, bu we helped ou .
We unde s and ha eeling ha people ha e he e, and ou child en ell us: ‘We a e Ca alans’.
Hones ly, e e ybody was wo king oge he a ha ime. We occupied he school o 3 days [a ound
ha illegal e e endum o independence] (EC&ENV-33-SA-male-YC). In he nex sub-sec ion,
o he social challenges connec ed o poli ics a e ackled.
4.3.3 Opening municipal poli ics up and encou aging espec o o he s, ins ead o
p ejudice, gossip, acism, classism and sexism
Fo some immig an en ep eneu s, social ela ions in hamle s a e like a ‘ olle coas e ’ because
gossip can be di icul o o e come o de use in spa sely popula ed egions, whe e inhabi an s
a e sp ead ac oss huge a eas: “They [locally-bo n esiden s] a e e y closed. A he beginning
e e ybody is nice and kind, bu hey keep a dis ance un il hey know you. Some imes I ha e had
discussions wi h people bo n in he illage because I hea d om h ee sou ces ha hey we e
sp eading gossips abou me… bu I asked hem di ec ly wha was going on… now hey’ e mo e
ca e ul” (EC-37-SA- emale-YC). As William Shakespea e pu i in Much Ado abou No hing (V, 1),
ha ‘cosmo illage ’ migh ha e said o gossipe s in he hamle : “I will lea e you now o you
gossip-like humou . You b eak jes s as b agga s do hei blades
21
, which God be hanked, hu
no ”. In any case, adap ing an i- umou s a egies like he ones al eady implemen ed in some
ci ies
22
o moun ain hamle s would be help ul in e aining and inc easing he popula ion di e si y
he e. Howe e , ul ima ely, in emo e hamle s whe e people need each o he because ou side
suppo is sca ce and di icul o ind in ha d imes (e.g. snows o ms), immig an en ep eneu s
21
In o he wo ds, as boas e s damage o b eak hei swo ds hemsel es o make i look as i hey had been igh ing
(Ba e & Rasmusen, 2007).
22
See: h ps://www.coe.in /en/web/in e cul u alci ies/an i- umou s
291/491
eel he ad an age o being pa o a communi y, pa icula ly in municipali ies whe e ou ism is
no oo seasonal: “In he illage, people ha e a na ow mind-se , hey a e suspicious and less
wa m, bu a he same ime people a e uni ed. The e is gossip… bu he e people a e obliged o
in e ac wi h each o he due o he clima ic condi ions, like he snow, which makes people come
oge he … mo e han in coas al illages whe e people wo k h ee mon hs ull ime and he es o
he yea , he illages a e almos emp y” (EC-22-SA-male-NC).
Unexpec edly, some imes he ‘ olle coas e ’ may b ing immig an s o eally dange ous si ua ions
linked o acism and classism, which in a small illage may be a se ious p oblem, pa icula ly
when is ela ed o heal h issues: “Mos people in he hamle a e no educa ed, bu when hey see
ha you a e a good wo ke and ha you a e no a bad pe son, hey s a opening doo s o you. In
con as , in he beginning, I wen o he doc o [a he local heal h cen e] because my daugh e
had some hing and I wan ed o know wha was going on, and he old me: ‘B ing he o
he paedia ician’. He old me ha he didn’ see child en… bu la e I me mo e people he e and
I lea n ha ha doc o was seeing kids in he illage, bu he o he [Spanish] kids. Why no my
daugh e ? Racism... Ano he Sou h Ame ican esiden had he same p oblem” (EC-37-SA-
emale-YC). In o he cases, acism and classism a e ‘ amed’ hanks o he ac ha some
immig an s ha e ‘s a egic’ jobs (e.g. unning he only ba o dozens o kilome es a ound): “Wi h
me he e is no disc imina ion because I am who I am, I un he ba , bu i I we e someone else,
who knows… The e is a Romanian gi l. The e a e commen s abou he … S e eo ypes… All ha
upse s me. In a di e se hamle like his one he e should no be ha kind o s e eo ypes because
almos nobody was bo n he e… Some imes I ha e h own people ou o he ba , hey upse me
and I do no wan hose kinds o [ acis and sexis ] commen s he e” (EC-43-SA- emale-NC).
Some imes acism o xenophobia can also be ound oge he wi h gossip and sexism, bu a kind
o s oicism can also be he (sus ainable) esponse o ugly umou s: “The e was whispe ing, bu
I don’ pay much a en ion. I ake ca e o my amily whe e e I am… I don’ wan o a gue o igh ,
and i I ha e o help hem, I help hem. Full s op… My [Spanish bo n] husband has helped me
a lo , oo. We ha e helped each o he ... Some people said ha I was only going o s ay he e
a couple o yea s, ha I would s eal his money and hen mo e away, silly hings. I hey’ e w ong,
why should I pay a en ion o ha whispe ing?” (EC&ENV-60-SA- emale-YC). The ac is ha ha
in e na ional couple has been li ing oge he in he illage o mo e han 20 yea s. In any case,
socially, apa om imp o ing e hnic ela ions, ano he pe cei ed challenge among immig an
en ep eneu s in some hamle s is how o imp o e gende ela ions, pa icula ly among adul s who
could become ole models o he younge gene a ions: “The e a e eally no associa ions he e.
The women in he illage ha e a Wha sApp g oup and hey ge oge he once a mon h o ha e
dinne a he ba om 10 pm o 2am, bu jus women. I you wan o ha e a social li e wi h men
he e, you ha e o go o he ba and alk abou oo ball, poli ics o wha e e . I don’ like o go o
he ba … Men’s and women’s ac i i ies a e sepa a e” (EC&SC-40-EU-male-YC).
In o de o imp o e social ela ions in illages, and o boos he economic and en i onmen al
sus ainabili y in he moun ains, opening up municipal poli ics is sugges ed as a key challenge ha
has ecen ly s a ed o be slowly ackled in some hamle s a e 40 yea s o democ acy in Spain:
“He e, he mayo had been in powe om he s a o democ acy [in 1979] un il he momen he
died [when he was mo e han 80 yea s old], abou h ee yea s ago. Fo ins ance, in he las
elec ions, I saw mo e mo emen han be o e because he e wasn’ jus a single pe son unning
o o ice bu a g oup o people [ om he same Conse a i e poli ical pa y as he p e ious mayo ]”
(EC&ENV-33-SA-male-YC). In some moun ain hamle s, municipal elec ions held in May 2019
ha e comple ely o e hauled he illage councils, which some imes means ha younge people
wi h p og essi e, inno a i e ideas a e aking o ice. Howe e , some imes he poli ical ansi ion
can be complica ed due o a numbe o easons, pa icula ly amily ma e s: “Municipal poli ics
di ide people a lo he e. I can see hings wi h pe spec i e because I canno o e… I unde s and
bo h ac ions, bu he e is a s uggle ha is a challenge o he illage… Why do he ollowe s
make he p oblem bigge ? ... Like in a Shakespea e’s play…” (EC-43-SA- emale-NC). When
possible, one hing ha is pe cei ed as helping o o e come old adi ional ine ias and/o ancien
amily euds in illages is he inco po a ion o mo e (in e nal/in e na ional) immig an s on
he illage councils (i.e. Ayun amien os): “People on he local council should ge mo e in ol ed.
They ha e o keep on opening he council o he illage s; hey a e s ill qui e closed, bu his yea
o he i s ime, councillo s bo n in o he pa s o he coun y we e elec ed… They a e mo e open;