A social suppo scale o music s uden s in music
schools, academies, and conse a o ies: An adap a ion
in o Spanish and a ac o ial in a iance s udy
San os O ejudo1 , Ca los Candela2,
Osca Casano a3 and Luis Manuel Cua e o4
Abs ac
Social suppo is one o he a iables ha exe he g ea es in luence
on he mo i a ion o music s uden s, as well as on emo ional aspec s ha
a ec hei esul s. Resea ch, howe e , is limi ed by
he cu en
sca ci y o e alua ion ools. This a icle hus p esen s he p ocess o
adap a ion in o
Spanish o he Social Suppo Scale. We epo on he
elabo a ion o he ques ionnai e’s exac
wo ding h ough di ec and
e e se ansla ion. We subsequen ly p esen analysis o in e nal
eliabili y and alidi y based on a sample o 668 music s uden s in music
schools and uni e si y-le el
music academies, aged 12–60 (mean 16.9). The
s udy is complemen ed by an analysis o ac o ial
in a iance compa ing
seconda y educa ion and uni e si y. The esul s ep oduce he social
suppo
ac o s s emming om pa en s and eache s; pee suppo is
subdi ided in o wo subca ego ies.
Disc epancies wi h he o iginal
e sion a e no so much due o he adap a ion p ocess, bu can be
a ibu ed, o he mos pa , o di e ences be ween he sample
composi ions. Ou esul s indica e ha Spanish music s uden s pe cei e
a conside able amoun o social suppo o hei music lea ning
ac i i ies; di e ences s and ou , howe e , in e ms o age, gende , and
educa ional le el.
Keywo ds
social suppo scale, music s uden s, cul u al adap a ion, con i ma o y ac o
analysis, in a iance
1Depa men o Psychology and Sociology, Uni e si y o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain
2Depa men o Heal h Psychology, Uni e si y Miguel He nández, Elche, Spain
3Depa men o Didac ics o he Body, Plas ic and Musical Exp ession, Uni e si y
o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain
4P o essional Conse a o y o Music o Alcañiz, Go e nmen o A agon, Alcañiz,
Spain
Co esponding au ho :
San os O ejudo, Depa men o Psychology and Sociology, Uni e si y o
Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
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In o de o g asp he ac o s ha can play a ole in young people’s
mo i a ion o lea ning as
well as in hei academic esul s, an analysis o
eaching p ocedu es and academic pe o mance
does no su ice; i is also
necessa y o ake he s uden s’ psychological and social en i onmen
in o
accoun (Gae ne & Mccla y, 2015; Song, Bong, Lee, & Kim, 2015). Such
ac o s a e
especially ele an in he case o music s uden s. When seeking
o add ess hose social and
psychological dimensions, one o he a iables
ha seems o play a c ucial ole is social suppo
(Hallam e al., 2016;
Lehmann & K is ensen, 2014), which can s em om indi iduals who a e
desc ibed
by some au ho s as “pe sons in he shadow” (G ube , Leh inen, Palonen, &
Degne ,
2008).
Social suppo can be unde s ood as he ela i e p esence o absence o
psychological sup-
po s emming om signi ican hi d pa ies (Caplan, 1974)
who help sa is y he s uden ’s basic
need o in e ac ion wi h o he s. Cobb
(1976) de ines he cons uc o social suppo as he
in o ma ion which
enables people o eel ha someone is aking ca e o hem, has conce n o
hei needs, lo es hem, app ecia es hem, and alues hem; hey need o
eel ha hey o m
pa o a communica ion ne wo k whe e hey can ul ill
mu ual obliga ions. Mo eo e , social
suppo is gene ally de ined as he
exis ence o a ailabili y o people in whom we can us ;
people who le us
know ha we ma e o hem, ha hey che ish and lo e us (Sa ason, Pie ce,
& Sa ason, 1990). The concep o social suppo is cha ac e ized by i s
mul idimensionali y.
Ou in es iga ion on he subjec o social suppo akes
he ollowing p incipal dimensions in o
accoun : he di e en ypes o
social suppo and he agen s om whom such suppo can
s em, along wi h
he way ha suppo is e alua ed—be i in he o m o a ailable esou ces, o
in he manne in which he la e a e subjec i ely pe cei ed.
Se e al au ho s ha e posi ed he di e en ypes o social suppo ha can
be analyzed. In he
con ex o music educa ion, C eech (2009) p o ides one
sole heo e ical model o desc ibe he
a i ude o pa en s owa d hei
child en’s musical educa ion. His model akes h ee ypes o
social suppo
in o accoun : beha io al suppo , cogni i e-in ellec ual suppo , and
pe sonal
suppo . Beha io al suppo is he kind o suppo in which he
pa en s play a ole simila o
ha o a p o esso , bu a home: assis ance
wi h s udies, helping he young pe son o ganize his o he wo k, and so on.
Cogni i e o in ellec ual suppo consis s in planning all ypes o ac i i-
ies ha can s imula e and help he young pe son de elop musical abili ies:
a ending conce s, lis ening o eco dings, o pa icipa ing in
ex acu icula musical ac i i ies. Pe sonal suppo
means he kind o help
ha encou ages he young pe son o o mula e expec a ions and es ab-
lish
goals, while unde s anding and mo i a ing he child ega ding he successes
he o she is
able o achie e.
The di e en agen s capable o p o iding social suppo ha e likewise
been analyzed.
Pa en s, he eache o he ins umen , o he eache s,
iends, colleagues, and siblings ha e all
been men ioned as po en ial sou ces
o suppo , al hough no all o hem ha e he same ele-
ance in he
achie emen o academic success, o as sou ces o di e en ypes o suppo
(Nogaj
& Ossowski, 2015). Lehmann and K is ensen (2014) sugges ha pa en s,
eache s, and pee s
can be ega ded as he h ee mos in luen ial social
agen s wi hin he con ex o music educa-
ion: hose same agen s a e he
ones lis ed as sou ces o social suppo in he Social Suppo
Scale
p oposed by Ryan, Boul on, O’Neill, and Sloboda (2000), which is he ool
we ha e
adap ed o a Spanish con ex in his a icle. Sichi i sa (2007)
coincides wi h hese sugges ions
when she designa es h ee sou ces o suppo
as he ones which play he mos ele an ole in
omen ing musical mo i a ion;
she also men ions ha he e can be a ela ion be ween pa en al
suppo and
eache suppo , and ha he pa en s’ deg ee o in ol emen wi h music can be
a
key ac o in c ea ing ha suppo . This la e aspec , he pa en s’
ela ion wi h music, is
ega ded by Jeppsson and Lindg en (2018) as a
c ucial elemen ha ans e s a g ea amoun
O ejudo e al.
3
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o “cul u al baggage” o he child, hus become a key o he child o
achie e success in he
musical domain.
Se e al s udies, om bo h an empi ical and a heo e ical pe spec i e, ha e
asce ained he
ele ance o social suppo o ce ain achie emen s in he
musical domain. Thus, o ins ance,
Moo e, Bu land, and Da idson (2003) ound
ha , among o he ac o s, he eache ’s iend-
liness as pe cei ed by he
s uden is a a iable ha can help p edic p og ess in musical
aining—
along wi h wo u he ac o s: (1) being able o coun on ma e nal suppo
du ing
he i s s ages o aining and (2) ha ing “pushy,” demanding
p o esso s in he mo e ad anced
s ages. Mo e ecen ly, in a s udy o adolescen
Polish music pupils, Nogaj and Ossowski (2015)
ound a signi ican ela ion
be ween he pupils’ academic success and he deg ee o social sup-
po hey
had ecei ed; he au ho s asce ained ha such suppo mainly comes om
pa en s
and om music ins umen eache s. To a g ea e deg ee han
e alua i e o ins umen al sup-
po , he mos ele an ype o suppo in
all o hese sou ces is emo ional suppo . Sichi i sa (2007) es ima es ha
pa en al suppo is a majo ac o in o ming a s uden ’s musical sel -
concep . Fu he e isions and heo e ical app oaches can be ound in
C eech and Hallam
(2003), McPhe son (2009), and Lehmann and K is ensen
(2014).
Ce ain issues ha eme ge along hese lines a e ela ed wi h he manne in
which di e en
ypes o suppo adap p og essi ely o he music s uden s’ own
needs; he impo ance o di e -
en ypes o suppo a ies widely in he
cou se o many yea s o musical aining, and s uden
expec a ions a y
depending on he kind o suppo . Thus, o example, Bloom (1985) poin s ou
ha he mos sui able kind o pedagogue is a kind, iendly eache in he
i s yea s, hen,
in he in e media e yea s, a eache who ocuses on
de eloping he s uden ’s abili ies, and,
owa d he end o aining, a
p o esso who is uly in ol ed, as a colleague, in ac i ely suppo -
ing he
s uden ’s p o essional ca ee . Moo e e al. (2003) supply u he e idence
along hese
lines. Family suppo has been clea ly iden i ied as an ex emely
impo an ac o in he i s
s ages o musical aining (Da idson, Howe,
Moo e, & Sloboda, 1996; Ma gio a, 2011); less
da a a e a ailable, howe e ,
on he subjec o he impo ance o amily suppo du ing he
pe iod o
ad anced aining.
In o de o in es iga e he ole o social suppo in he a ea o musical
educa ion, we need o
ha e alid and eliable measu emen ools a ou
disposal. In his ield, howe e , hey a e qui e
sca ce. Ou e iew o he
subjec has only yielded wo ex an scales: he Social Suppo Scale by
Ryan e
al. (2000) and he Social Suppo Scale by Gluska (2011). Bo h scales ha e
good psy-
chome ic p ope ies and a e simila in e ms o design. They ga he
social suppo da a in ela-
ion o h ee di e en sou ces: pa en s,
eache s, and pee s. Gluska (2011), howe e ,
di e en ia es be ween social
suppo on he pa o he ins umen eache and ha p o ided
by o he
eache s. Fo his a icle, we ha e adap ed he scale concei ed by Ryan e al.
(2000),
since i is w i en in a language mo e accessible o us han ha used
by Gluska (English ins ead
o Romanian); a he same ime, i has been
alida ed o a much wide sample ha includes
younge subjec s who a e
close in age o hose ea u ed in ou cu en s udy. The Ryan scale
bea s
upon aspec s ela ed o suppo in he lea ning o an ins umen as well as
wi h suppo
associa ed wi h e alua ion o achie emen s.
The p oposal we p esen he e inc eases he alida ion p ospec s o he
scale concei ed by
Ryan e al. (2000) by ex ending he age g oup o include
pupils om he age o 12 onwa d. Ou
sample included pupils wi h di e en
goals and expec a ions, anging om hose who wish o
pu sue a p o essional
ca ee and a e en olled in uni e si y-le el music conse a o ies and
academies o hose who a e me ely unde going music aining as a hobby, o as
a p elimina y
s age o p o essional s udies: in Spain, he la e a e
en olled in music schools ha a e called
conse a o ios p o esionales.
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Ma e ials and me hods
Pa icipan s
Pa icipan s in his s udy we e 668 music s uden s en olled in six Spanish
ins i u ions o musi-
cal lea ning: ou o hose ins i u ions con e a
music school diploma, while he wo o he s
con e a uni e si y-le el diploma.
In Spain, in e media e-le el music schools (conse a o ios
p o esionales) a e
mo e widesp ead han uni e si y-le el music academies, and hey a ac s u-
den s wi h p o iles ha a e mo e di e se. They ange om hose who a e
s udying wi h he goal
o con inuing on a uni e si y le el (in conse a o ios
supe io es) and who wan o become music
p o essionals, o o he s who a e
me ely lea ning o play an ins umen as pa o hei o e all
educa ion, as
an ex acu icula ac i i y, o as a me e pas ime. Ou o a o al o 668
pa ici-
pan s, 70.9% o hese sample subjec s (Age: M = 16.90, SD = 5.33,
71.3% we e 17 yea s old o
younge ) we e en olled in seconda y-le el music
schools (conse a o ios p o esionales), and
29.2% (Age: M = 21.44, SD = 4.58,
98.4% we e 18 yea s o olde ) we e en olled in uni e si y-
le el music
academies (conse a o ios supe io es). Among he sample subjec s, 47% we e male
and 53% we e emale. No signi ican di e ences o gende dis ibu ion be ween
he seconda y
school le el and he uni e si y le el we e asce ained (χ2 =
0.514, p = .468). Boys gene ally
ended o be olde (M = 19.17, SD = 6.81)
han gi ls (M = 17.43, SD = 3.88). The sample was
made up o a ious
ins umen al special ies: keyboa d (n = 113), s ings (n = 231), b ass
(n =
99), woodwind (n = 172), pe cussion (n = 29), oice (n = 12), conduc ing (n =
2), composi-
ion (n = 1), and con empo a y music (n = 8).
The academies we e chosen acco ding o accessibili y. The ins i u ions we
selec ed we e
loca ed in h ee di e en Spanish egions whe e membe s o
ou eam we e pa icipa ing in
collabo a i e p ojec s designed o imp o e
s uden s’ musical aining, ei he by o ien ing he
eache s o wo king
oge he di ec ly wi h he s uden s.
A e a pe iod o 3 mon hs had elapsed, a subsample o 75 s uden s
comple ed he same ques ionnai e in o de o gene a e da a ega ding i s
s abili y o e ime. Tha subsample was
ex ac ed om he ini ial sample,
once mo e acco ding o he a ailabili y c i e ion. We hus e-
con ac ed wo o
he six ins i u ions ha had o iginally pa icipa ed in he s udy: a music
school
(36 pa icipan s) and a uni e si y-le el conse a o y (38
pa icipan s). We ga he ed da a om
hose s uden s who we e a ailable in
class on he days when ou esea ch eam isi ed he
schools.
Va iables and ins umen s
The Social Suppo Scale p oposed by Ryan e al. (2000) was designed o
e alua e he le el o
social suppo pe cei ed by music s uden s. I measu es
ha suppo h ough a se ies o inde-
penden scales co esponding o each
o he social agen s: pa en s, p o esso s, and pee s, co -
esponding wi h 12,
9, and 10 i ems, espec i ely, measu ed on a 7-poin Like - ype-s yle scale
( om 1 = no e y much o 7 = a lo ). The i ems o he equi alen e sion in
English a e shown in
Table 2.
In o de o elabo a e he Spanish language e sion o he Social Suppo
Scale, we imple-
men ed a se ies o p ocedu es (Abad, Olea, Ponsoda, & Ga cía,
2011; Ca e e o & Pé ez, 2007;
Muñiz, Elosua, & Hamble on, 2013). The ou
membe s o ou esea ch eam s a ed by ans-
la ing a i s e sion o he
scale om English o Spanish which main ained all 31 i ems o he
o iginal.
On he basis o ha ansla ed e sion, we ca ied ou a pilo es on a
sample o 100
music school s uden s in o de o gua an ee he i ems’
comp ehensibili y as well as hei ini ial
O ejudo e al.
5
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in e nal eliabili y, while ensu ing a he same ime ha he es esul s
would no p oduce widely a ying esul s when compa ed wi h he o iginal.
Tha Spanish e sion o he ques ionnai e (see Supplemen al Ma e ials
online) was he e-
upon submi ed o he p ocess o e e se ansla ion by
expe s, as au ho s ecommended. Two
bilingual expe s in Spanish and English—
a psychologis and a musician—p oceeded o ans-
la e he Spanish e sion
back in o English, a e which hey compa ed he new English e sion
wi h he
o iginal by Ryan e al. (2000). As a inal ask, hey we e asked o e alua e
he deg ee
o ag eemen among he wo scales: e e se- ansla ed English and
o iginal English. As a con-
sequence o hei judgmen s, wo i ems we e
modi ied.
We ob ained a u he indica o o alida e he scale: he deg ee o he
amily’s in ol emen
wi h music and music educa ion. The ela ion o each
pa en wi h music was aken in o
accoun : (1) passi e music ans (who
lis en o o a end conce s), (2) ama eu s (who play a
music ins umen as
a pas ime), (3) p o essional musicians o music eache s, and (4) indi idu-
als who a e p o essional musicians and eache s a he same ime. As a esul
o ha in o ma-
ion, we g ouped he s uden s in o wo en i ely sepa a e
ca ego ies: (1) hose wi h musician
pa en s (when one o he wo pa en s
plays an ins umen , is a p o essional musician, o
eaches music) and (2)
hose wi h pa en s who a e me ely passi e consume s o music (when-
e e he
abo e ca ego ies did no apply).
P ocedu e
Da a collec ion p ocedu e. A e ha ing ecei ed an a i ma i e esponse om
he abo e-ci ed
ins i u ions o musical lea ning, we p oceeded o ga he he
da a in pe son, on he p emises.
The esea ch eam isi ed he academies in
o de o ope a e in si u, wi h he excep ion o he
Conse a o ies o
Pamplona and Elche, whe e a local p o esso was en us ed wi h he ask o
adminis e ing and ga he ing he ques ionnai es. S uden s pa icipa ed on a
olun a y, anony-
mous basis. The au ho iza ion o he esea ch p ojec was
ob ained om he Doc o a e in Edu-
ca ion P og am o he Uni e si y o
Za agoza.
S a is ical p ocedu e. We ca ied ou an ini ial analysis o he i ems wi h
mean and s anda d
de ia ion alues, along wi h skewness and ku osis indices.
We also ob ained in e nal consis -
ency esul s h ough C onbach’s Alpha and
co ec ed i em- o al co ela ions. All o hese a e
good p elimina y op ions
p io o subsequen le els o analysis (Llo e , Fe e es, He nández, &
Tomás,
2014). In o de o ob ain he ac o ial s uc u e o he se o esul s, we
an an explo a-
o y p ocedu e (EFA) and a con i ma o y analysis (CFA) on wo
andomly gene a ed independ-
en subsamples. Such an app oach is jus i ied,
e en when cu en in e media e al e na i es
be ween bo h op ions exis (such
as en i onmen al scanning elec on mic oscope (ESEM) anal-
ysis), p o ided ha
he sample is su icien ly la ge and can be andomly subdi ided in o de o
apply he adi ional alida ion p ocedu e (By ne, 2012; Llo e e al., 2014).
This i s po ion
o he analysis was ca ied ou wi h he SPSS s a is ical
app in i s 22.00 e sion. The so wa e
gene a es a a iance-co a iance ma ix
and is adequa e o Like -s yle scales o a leas 7
poin s, as in his
case, and when i ems ha e no mal dis ibu ion, which is he case o all 31
i ems in he es excep o h ee.
In o de o apply CFA o he second subsample, we used he M-plus p og am.
I is a obus
p ocedu e capable o es ima ing maximum likelihood, and is no
a ec ed i he assump ion o
mul i a ia e no mal dis ibu ion is no me .
Finally, o ca y ou a s udy o ac o ial in a iance
wi h he pu pose o
ollowing he ecommenda ions p oposed by By ne (2012), we i s es ab-
lished
he model in each one o he g oups, a e which we p oceeded o apply a
global

6
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Table 1. In e nal consis ency analysis (C onbach’s α).
Ini ial ques ionnai e Re ised ques ionnai e
Scale
No.
o
i em
s
To a
l
samp
le
Conse .
p o essi
onal
Conse
.
supe
io
No.
o
i em
s
To al
sample
Conse .
p o essi
onal
Conse
.
supe
io
Pa en
al
suppo
12
.836
.829
.843
11
.849
.840
.866
I ems
2,
3, 5
I em 2
I em 2
wi ho
u
I em
2
wi ho
u
I em
2
wi ho
u
I em
2
Teach
e
suppo
9
.866
.869
.867
9
Pee
suppo
10
.859
I em 2
.855
I em 2
.870
I ems
2
and 3
8
.866
.879
.862
wi ho
u
I em
2
wi ho
u
I em
2
wi ho
u
I em
2
.868
.864
.886
wi ho
u
I ems
2
and 3
wi hou
I ems 2
and 3
wi ho
u
I ems
2
and 3
Pee
suppo 1
5
.785
.770
.819
Pee
suppo 2
3
.935
.934
.938
adjus men . Following Elosúa (2005), he le els o in a iance we ook in o
conside a ion e e
o con igu al in a iance as well as o me ic and s ic
in a iance.
Resul s
The ini ial analysis o he i ems shows he ollowing: he ones which a e
associa ed wi h amily
suppo ha e high median alues anging om 5.50 o
6.47 o all i ems excep o I ems 2
(“help you o play an ins umen ?”)
and 5 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”) (which do no
su pass 3.46 and
3.97, espec i ely). The median alues a ained in eache suppo i ems a e
also high, bu o a lesse deg ee: hey a e age om 4.86 o 6.40, whe eby
none o he i em
sco es is exceedingly dis an om he o he s. Values
associa ed wi h pee suppo display a pa -
e n simila o amily suppo
i ems: medium–high alues anging om 4.35 o 5.26 hold o
mos i ems,
excep o I ems 2 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”) and 3 (“wan you o play
an
ins umen mo e han o he ac i i ies you do?”), which do no ollow he
same endency and
p esen much lowe sco es anging om 2.65 o 3.67.
Table 1 p esen s he esul s o he in e nal consis ency o he subscales,
on a global le el as
well as di ided in o educa ional le els. The pa en
suppo scale has good ini ial in e nal con-
sis ency (α = .836), and i
imp o es by elimina ing I ems 2 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”), 3 (“wan
you o pass you exams?”), and 5 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”) (α =
.849): I em 3 had a much highe mean sco e and less a iance han he o he s;
I em 2 s ands ou o ha -
ing a much lowe sco e and a lowe co ec ed i em-
o al co ela ion han he es , e en hough
he la e exceeds .30.
The eache suppo scale has good in e nal consis ency (α= .866), and i s
esul s canno be
imp o ed by elimina ing any speci ic i em. The mean o i em
alues, lying be ween 4.86 and
6.41, deno es ha he s uden s also pe cei e
ha hey ecei e suppo om hei eache s. The
co ec ed i em- o al
co ela ion exceeds .53 on all i ems.
O ejudo e al.
7
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As a hi d majo g oup, he pee suppo alues display a high in e nal
consis ency (α = .859).
This g oup imp o es by elimina ing I em 2 (“help you o
play an ins umen ?”). The la e i em,
wi h a con en simila o I em 2 in
pa en al suppo , has a lowe alue (2.62); he same applies
o I em 3, “wan
you o play an ins umen mo e han o he ac i i ies you do?” (3.64). Thei
co ec ed i em- o al co ela ions a e lowe han hose o he o he i ems,
lying be ween .345
and .446. By successi ely omi ing I ems 2 and 3, in e nal
consis ency imp o ed conside ably,
leading o an ul ima e alue o α = .868.
The EFA and CFA esul s a e ea u ed in Supplemen al Ma e ials. The
conclusions d awn
om hem a e in line wi h he analysis o he i ems
commen ed abo e ega ding he pa en and
eache suppo scale. Those scales’
i ems g oup oge he (Table 2), excep o he h ee p e i-
ously men ioned
pa en suppo i ems: he esul is hus a scale wi h nine i ems o pa en
sup-
po and 10 i ems o eache suppo .
Howe e , he pee suppo scale deli e s a no el esul : he wo p ocedu es
(EFA and CFA)
suppo a di ision o he i ems in his g oup in o wo
subg oups. The i s ac o g oups i e
i ems oge he (α = .785): hey a e
ela ed o pee suppo o musical asks and ac i i ies. The
second ac o
g oups h ee i ems oge he (α= .935), e e ing o pee suppo in he ace
o
aun s and insul s.
In a iance analysis by educa ional le els is likewise p esen ed in
Supplemen al Ma e ials;
he pa e n we ha e elucida ed shows a high deg ee o
s abili y, since in a iance analysis ep o-
duces he ou - ac o s uc u e on
bo h le els. Only h ee i ems p esen ce ain a ia ions.
When we compa e he di e en ypes o suppo pe cei ed by he s uden s, we
can con i m
ha hey ind hei mos impo an sou ce o suppo in hei
pa en s (6.03 on a scale om 1 o
7), ollowed by pee suppo in he ace
o aun s and insul s (5.15) and by pee suppo o
musical asks (4.99)
oge he wi h eache suppo (4.96), wi hou s a is ically signi ican di -
e ences be ween he las wo ( = 0.469, p = .639).
The co ela ion pa e n be ween he sou ces o social suppo pe cei ed by
he s uden s is o
g ea ele ance. We ind a high co ela ion ( = .525)
be ween pee suppo o musical asks and ac i i ies (F1) and pee suppo
in he ace o aun s and insul s (F2). Howe e , pa en sup-
po has
signi ican co ela ions, bu o a lesse deg ee, wi h eache suppo ( =
.334) as well
as wi h pee suppo o musical asks ( = .308). The emaining
co ela ions, al hough s a is i-
cally signi ican , ha e lowe sco es. Thus,
pa en and pee suppo in he ace o aun s and
insul s has a alue o
= .197, eache and pee suppo o musical asks has a alue o
=
.169, and eache and pee suppo in he ace o aun s and insul s has a
alue o = .104.
This co ela ion pa e n, obse ed ac oss he en i e
sample, yields some di e ences i we
analyze i by age g oups; he g ea es
di e ences appea in he g oup o 16- o 17-yea -olds. In
hei g oup, he
co ela ion be ween pee suppo o musical asks (F1) and pee suppo in he
ace o aun s and insul s (F2) descends o = .360. The co ela ion
be ween pa en suppo
and pee suppo emains abo e 0.30 ( = .308), bu
he co ela ion be ween pa en suppo
and pee suppo F1 descends o
.200. The emaining co ela ions a e no longe s a is ically
signi ican .
Table 3 displays he ANOVA esul s o a ac o wi h which we analyzed he
ool’s capaci y o
de ec di e ences among a iables in cases whe e such
di e ences would no mally be expec ed,
he eby sea ching o addi ional
e idence o alidi y. Thus, we ound di e ences in he Pa en
suppo scale
(F(1, 607) = 26.863, p
<
.001, η2 = .042) depending on whe he he pa en s
a e
me e passi e music consume s (M = 53.11) o ha e a close ac i e
connec ion wi h music
(M = 56.44). Age- ela ed di e ences also su aced
(F(3, 638) = 4.902, p = .002, η2 = .023),
whe eby he g oup o younge
s uden s, ages 11–15, epo ed a g ea e amoun o suppo
om pa en s (M
= 56.20) han he es . Finally, uni e si y-le el s uden s pe cei e a
g ea e