A social support scale for music students in music schools, academies, and conservatories: An adaptation into Spanish and a factorial invariance study

A social suppo scale o music s uden s in music schools, academies, and conse a o ies: An adap a ion in o Spanish and a ac o ial in a iance s udy San os O ejudo1 , Ca los Candela2, Osca Casano a3 and Luis Manuel Cua e o4 Abs ac Social suppo is one o he a iables ha exe he g ea es in luence on he mo i a ion o music s uden s, as well as on emo ional aspec s ha a ec hei esul s. Resea ch, howe e , is limi ed by he cu en sca ci y o e alua ion ools. This a icle hus p esen s he p ocess o adap a ion in o Spanish o he Social Suppo Scale. We epo on he elabo a ion o he ques ionnai e’s exac wo ding h ough di ec and e e se ansla ion. We subsequen ly p esen analysis o in e nal eliabili y and alidi y based on a sample o 668 music s uden s in music schools and uni e si y-le el music academies, aged 12–60 (mean 16.9). The s udy is complemen ed by an analysis o ac o ial in a iance compa ing seconda y educa ion and uni e si y. The esul s ep oduce he social suppo ac o s s emming om pa en s and eache s; pee suppo is subdi ided in o wo subca ego ies. Disc epancies wi h he o iginal e sion a e no so much due o he adap a ion p ocess, bu can be a ibu ed, o he mos pa , o di e ences be ween he sample composi ions. Ou esul s indica e ha Spanish music s uden s pe cei e a conside able amoun o social suppo o hei music lea ning ac i i ies; di e ences s and ou , howe e , in e ms o age, gende , and educa ional le el. Keywo ds social suppo scale, music s uden s, cul u al adap a ion, con i ma o y ac o analysis, in a iance 1Depa men o Psychology and Sociology, Uni e si y o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain 2Depa men o Heal h Psychology, Uni e si y Miguel He nández, Elche, Spain 3Depa men o Didac ics o he Body, Plas ic and Musical Exp ession, Uni e si y o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain 4P o essional Conse a o y o Music o Alcañiz, Go e nmen o A agon, Alcañiz, Spain Co esponding au ho : San os O ejudo, Depa men o Psychology and Sociology, Uni e si y o Za agoza, Za agoza, Spain. Email: [email p o ec ed] 2 ! In o de o g asp he ac o s ha can play a ole in young people’s mo i a ion o lea ning as well as in hei academic esul s, an analysis o eaching p ocedu es and academic pe o mance does no su ice; i is also necessa y o ake he s uden s’ psychological and social en i onmen in o accoun (Gae ne & Mccla y, 2015; Song, Bong, Lee, & Kim, 2015). Such ac o s a e especially ele an in he case o music s uden s. When seeking o add ess hose social and psychological dimensions, one o he a iables ha seems o play a c ucial ole is social suppo (Hallam e al., 2016; Lehmann & K is ensen, 2014), which can s em om indi iduals who a e desc ibed by some au ho s as “pe sons in he shadow” (G ube , Leh inen, Palonen, & Degne , 2008). Social suppo can be unde s ood as he ela i e p esence o absence o psychological sup- po s emming om signi ican hi d pa ies (Caplan, 1974) who help sa is y he s uden ’s basic need o in e ac ion wi h o he s. Cobb (1976) de ines he cons uc o social suppo as he in o ma ion which enables people o eel ha someone is aking ca e o hem, has conce n o hei needs, lo es hem, app ecia es hem, and alues hem; hey need o eel ha hey o m pa o a communica ion ne wo k whe e hey can ul ill mu ual obliga ions. Mo eo e , social suppo is gene ally de ined as he exis ence o a ailabili y o people in whom we can us ; people who le us know ha we ma e o hem, ha hey che ish and lo e us (Sa ason, Pie ce, & Sa ason, 1990). The concep o social suppo is cha ac e ized by i s mul idimensionali y. Ou in es iga ion on he subjec o social suppo akes he ollowing p incipal dimensions in o accoun : he di e en ypes o social suppo and he agen s om whom such suppo can s em, along wi h he way ha suppo is e alua ed—be i in he o m o a ailable esou ces, o in he manne in which he la e a e subjec i ely pe cei ed. Se e al au ho s ha e posi ed he di e en ypes o social suppo ha can be analyzed. In he con ex o music educa ion, C eech (2009) p o ides one sole heo e ical model o desc ibe he a i ude o pa en s owa d hei child en’s musical educa ion. His model akes h ee ypes o social suppo in o accoun : beha io al suppo , cogni i e-in ellec ual suppo , and pe sonal suppo . Beha io al suppo is he kind o suppo in which he pa en s play a ole simila o ha o a p o esso , bu a home: assis ance wi h s udies, helping he young pe son o ganize his o he wo k, and so on. Cogni i e o in ellec ual suppo consis s in planning all ypes o ac i i- ies ha can s imula e and help he young pe son de elop musical abili ies: a ending conce s, lis ening o eco dings, o pa icipa ing in ex acu icula musical ac i i ies. Pe sonal suppo means he kind o help ha encou ages he young pe son o o mula e expec a ions and es ab- lish goals, while unde s anding and mo i a ing he child ega ding he successes he o she is able o achie e. The di e en agen s capable o p o iding social suppo ha e likewise been analyzed. Pa en s, he eache o he ins umen , o he eache s, iends, colleagues, and siblings ha e all been men ioned as po en ial sou ces o suppo , al hough no all o hem ha e he same ele- ance in he achie emen o academic success, o as sou ces o di e en ypes o suppo (Nogaj & Ossowski, 2015). Lehmann and K is ensen (2014) sugges ha pa en s, eache s, and pee s can be ega ded as he h ee mos in luen ial social agen s wi hin he con ex o music educa- ion: hose same agen s a e he ones lis ed as sou ces o social suppo in he Social Suppo Scale p oposed by Ryan, Boul on, O’Neill, and Sloboda (2000), which is he ool we ha e adap ed o a Spanish con ex in his a icle. Sichi i sa (2007) coincides wi h hese sugges ions when she designa es h ee sou ces o suppo as he ones which play he mos ele an ole in omen ing musical mo i a ion; she also men ions ha he e can be a ela ion be ween pa en al suppo and eache suppo , and ha he pa en s’ deg ee o in ol emen wi h music can be a key ac o in c ea ing ha suppo . This la e aspec , he pa en s’ ela ion wi h music, is ega ded by Jeppsson and Lindg en (2018) as a c ucial elemen ha ans e s a g ea amoun O ejudo e al. 3 ! o “cul u al baggage” o he child, hus become a key o he child o achie e success in he musical domain. Se e al s udies, om bo h an empi ical and a heo e ical pe spec i e, ha e asce ained he ele ance o social suppo o ce ain achie emen s in he musical domain. Thus, o ins ance, Moo e, Bu land, and Da idson (2003) ound ha , among o he ac o s, he eache ’s iend- liness as pe cei ed by he s uden is a a iable ha can help p edic p og ess in musical aining— along wi h wo u he ac o s: (1) being able o coun on ma e nal suppo du ing he i s s ages o aining and (2) ha ing “pushy,” demanding p o esso s in he mo e ad anced s ages. Mo e ecen ly, in a s udy o adolescen Polish music pupils, Nogaj and Ossowski (2015) ound a signi ican ela ion be ween he pupils’ academic success and he deg ee o social sup- po hey had ecei ed; he au ho s asce ained ha such suppo mainly comes om pa en s and om music ins umen eache s. To a g ea e deg ee han e alua i e o ins umen al sup- po , he mos ele an ype o suppo in all o hese sou ces is emo ional suppo . Sichi i sa (2007) es ima es ha pa en al suppo is a majo ac o in o ming a s uden ’s musical sel - concep . Fu he e isions and heo e ical app oaches can be ound in C eech and Hallam (2003), McPhe son (2009), and Lehmann and K is ensen (2014). Ce ain issues ha eme ge along hese lines a e ela ed wi h he manne in which di e en ypes o suppo adap p og essi ely o he music s uden s’ own needs; he impo ance o di e - en ypes o suppo a ies widely in he cou se o many yea s o musical aining, and s uden expec a ions a y depending on he kind o suppo . Thus, o example, Bloom (1985) poin s ou ha he mos sui able kind o pedagogue is a kind, iendly eache in he i s yea s, hen, in he in e media e yea s, a eache who ocuses on de eloping he s uden ’s abili ies, and, owa d he end o aining, a p o esso who is uly in ol ed, as a colleague, in ac i ely suppo - ing he s uden ’s p o essional ca ee . Moo e e al. (2003) supply u he e idence along hese lines. Family suppo has been clea ly iden i ied as an ex emely impo an ac o in he i s s ages o musical aining (Da idson, Howe, Moo e, & Sloboda, 1996; Ma gio a, 2011); less da a a e a ailable, howe e , on he subjec o he impo ance o amily suppo du ing he pe iod o ad anced aining. In o de o in es iga e he ole o social suppo in he a ea o musical educa ion, we need o ha e alid and eliable measu emen ools a ou disposal. In his ield, howe e , hey a e qui e sca ce. Ou e iew o he subjec has only yielded wo ex an scales: he Social Suppo Scale by Ryan e al. (2000) and he Social Suppo Scale by Gluska (2011). Bo h scales ha e good psy- chome ic p ope ies and a e simila in e ms o design. They ga he social suppo da a in ela- ion o h ee di e en sou ces: pa en s, eache s, and pee s. Gluska (2011), howe e , di e en ia es be ween social suppo on he pa o he ins umen eache and ha p o ided by o he eache s. Fo his a icle, we ha e adap ed he scale concei ed by Ryan e al. (2000), since i is w i en in a language mo e accessible o us han ha used by Gluska (English ins ead o Romanian); a he same ime, i has been alida ed o a much wide sample ha includes younge subjec s who a e close in age o hose ea u ed in ou cu en s udy. The Ryan scale bea s upon aspec s ela ed o suppo in he lea ning o an ins umen as well as wi h suppo associa ed wi h e alua ion o achie emen s. The p oposal we p esen he e inc eases he alida ion p ospec s o he scale concei ed by Ryan e al. (2000) by ex ending he age g oup o include pupils om he age o 12 onwa d. Ou sample included pupils wi h di e en goals and expec a ions, anging om hose who wish o pu sue a p o essional ca ee and a e en olled in uni e si y-le el music conse a o ies and academies o hose who a e me ely unde going music aining as a hobby, o as a p elimina y s age o p o essional s udies: in Spain, he la e a e en olled in music schools ha a e called conse a o ios p o esionales. 4 ! Ma e ials and me hods Pa icipan s Pa icipan s in his s udy we e 668 music s uden s en olled in six Spanish ins i u ions o musi- cal lea ning: ou o hose ins i u ions con e a music school diploma, while he wo o he s con e a uni e si y-le el diploma. In Spain, in e media e-le el music schools (conse a o ios p o esionales) a e mo e widesp ead han uni e si y-le el music academies, and hey a ac s u- den s wi h p o iles ha a e mo e di e se. They ange om hose who a e s udying wi h he goal o con inuing on a uni e si y le el (in conse a o ios supe io es) and who wan o become music p o essionals, o o he s who a e me ely lea ning o play an ins umen as pa o hei o e all educa ion, as an ex acu icula ac i i y, o as a me e pas ime. Ou o a o al o 668 pa ici- pan s, 70.9% o hese sample subjec s (Age: M = 16.90, SD = 5.33, 71.3% we e 17 yea s old o younge ) we e en olled in seconda y-le el music schools (conse a o ios p o esionales), and 29.2% (Age: M = 21.44, SD = 4.58, 98.4% we e 18 yea s o olde ) we e en olled in uni e si y- le el music academies (conse a o ios supe io es). Among he sample subjec s, 47% we e male and 53% we e emale. No signi ican di e ences o gende dis ibu ion be ween he seconda y school le el and he uni e si y le el we e asce ained (χ2 = 0.514, p = .468). Boys gene ally ended o be olde (M = 19.17, SD = 6.81) han gi ls (M = 17.43, SD = 3.88). The sample was made up o a ious ins umen al special ies: keyboa d (n = 113), s ings (n = 231), b ass (n = 99), woodwind (n = 172), pe cussion (n = 29), oice (n = 12), conduc ing (n = 2), composi- ion (n = 1), and con empo a y music (n = 8). The academies we e chosen acco ding o accessibili y. The ins i u ions we selec ed we e loca ed in h ee di e en Spanish egions whe e membe s o ou eam we e pa icipa ing in collabo a i e p ojec s designed o imp o e s uden s’ musical aining, ei he by o ien ing he eache s o wo king oge he di ec ly wi h he s uden s. A e a pe iod o 3 mon hs had elapsed, a subsample o 75 s uden s comple ed he same ques ionnai e in o de o gene a e da a ega ding i s s abili y o e ime. Tha subsample was ex ac ed om he ini ial sample, once mo e acco ding o he a ailabili y c i e ion. We hus e- con ac ed wo o he six ins i u ions ha had o iginally pa icipa ed in he s udy: a music school (36 pa icipan s) and a uni e si y-le el conse a o y (38 pa icipan s). We ga he ed da a om hose s uden s who we e a ailable in class on he days when ou esea ch eam isi ed he schools. Va iables and ins umen s The Social Suppo Scale p oposed by Ryan e al. (2000) was designed o e alua e he le el o social suppo pe cei ed by music s uden s. I measu es ha suppo h ough a se ies o inde- penden scales co esponding o each o he social agen s: pa en s, p o esso s, and pee s, co - esponding wi h 12, 9, and 10 i ems, espec i ely, measu ed on a 7-poin Like - ype-s yle scale ( om 1 = no e y much o 7 = a lo ). The i ems o he equi alen e sion in English a e shown in Table 2. In o de o elabo a e he Spanish language e sion o he Social Suppo Scale, we imple- men ed a se ies o p ocedu es (Abad, Olea, Ponsoda, & Ga cía, 2011; Ca e e o & Pé ez, 2007; Muñiz, Elosua, & Hamble on, 2013). The ou membe s o ou esea ch eam s a ed by ans- la ing a i s e sion o he scale om English o Spanish which main ained all 31 i ems o he o iginal. On he basis o ha ansla ed e sion, we ca ied ou a pilo es on a sample o 100 music school s uden s in o de o gua an ee he i ems’ comp ehensibili y as well as hei ini ial O ejudo e al. 5 ! in e nal eliabili y, while ensu ing a he same ime ha he es esul s would no p oduce widely a ying esul s when compa ed wi h he o iginal. Tha Spanish e sion o he ques ionnai e (see Supplemen al Ma e ials online) was he e- upon submi ed o he p ocess o e e se ansla ion by expe s, as au ho s ecommended. Two bilingual expe s in Spanish and English— a psychologis and a musician—p oceeded o ans- la e he Spanish e sion back in o English, a e which hey compa ed he new English e sion wi h he o iginal by Ryan e al. (2000). As a inal ask, hey we e asked o e alua e he deg ee o ag eemen among he wo scales: e e se- ansla ed English and o iginal English. As a con- sequence o hei judgmen s, wo i ems we e modi ied. We ob ained a u he indica o o alida e he scale: he deg ee o he amily’s in ol emen wi h music and music educa ion. The ela ion o each pa en wi h music was aken in o accoun : (1) passi e music ans (who lis en o o a end conce s), (2) ama eu s (who play a music ins umen as a pas ime), (3) p o essional musicians o music eache s, and (4) indi idu- als who a e p o essional musicians and eache s a he same ime. As a esul o ha in o ma- ion, we g ouped he s uden s in o wo en i ely sepa a e ca ego ies: (1) hose wi h musician pa en s (when one o he wo pa en s plays an ins umen , is a p o essional musician, o eaches music) and (2) hose wi h pa en s who a e me ely passi e consume s o music (when- e e he abo e ca ego ies did no apply). P ocedu e Da a collec ion p ocedu e. A e ha ing ecei ed an a i ma i e esponse om he abo e-ci ed ins i u ions o musical lea ning, we p oceeded o ga he he da a in pe son, on he p emises. The esea ch eam isi ed he academies in o de o ope a e in si u, wi h he excep ion o he Conse a o ies o Pamplona and Elche, whe e a local p o esso was en us ed wi h he ask o adminis e ing and ga he ing he ques ionnai es. S uden s pa icipa ed on a olun a y, anony- mous basis. The au ho iza ion o he esea ch p ojec was ob ained om he Doc o a e in Edu- ca ion P og am o he Uni e si y o Za agoza. S a is ical p ocedu e. We ca ied ou an ini ial analysis o he i ems wi h mean and s anda d de ia ion alues, along wi h skewness and ku osis indices. We also ob ained in e nal consis - ency esul s h ough C onbach’s Alpha and co ec ed i em- o al co ela ions. All o hese a e good p elimina y op ions p io o subsequen le els o analysis (Llo e , Fe e es, He nández, & Tomás, 2014). In o de o ob ain he ac o ial s uc u e o he se o esul s, we an an explo a- o y p ocedu e (EFA) and a con i ma o y analysis (CFA) on wo andomly gene a ed independ- en subsamples. Such an app oach is jus i ied, e en when cu en in e media e al e na i es be ween bo h op ions exis (such as en i onmen al scanning elec on mic oscope (ESEM) anal- ysis), p o ided ha he sample is su icien ly la ge and can be andomly subdi ided in o de o apply he adi ional alida ion p ocedu e (By ne, 2012; Llo e e al., 2014). This i s po ion o he analysis was ca ied ou wi h he SPSS s a is ical app in i s 22.00 e sion. The so wa e gene a es a a iance-co a iance ma ix and is adequa e o Like -s yle scales o a leas 7 poin s, as in his case, and when i ems ha e no mal dis ibu ion, which is he case o all 31 i ems in he es excep o h ee. In o de o apply CFA o he second subsample, we used he M-plus p og am. I is a obus p ocedu e capable o es ima ing maximum likelihood, and is no a ec ed i he assump ion o mul i a ia e no mal dis ibu ion is no me . Finally, o ca y ou a s udy o ac o ial in a iance wi h he pu pose o ollowing he ecommenda ions p oposed by By ne (2012), we i s es ab- lished he model in each one o he g oups, a e which we p oceeded o apply a global 6 ! Table 1. In e nal consis ency analysis (C onbach’s α). Ini ial ques ionnai e Re ised ques ionnai e Scale No. o i em s To a l samp le Conse . p o essi onal Conse . supe io No. o i em s To al sample Conse . p o essi onal Conse . supe io Pa en al suppo 12 .836 .829 .843 11 .849 .840 .866 I ems 2, 3, 5 I em 2 I em 2 wi ho u I em 2 wi ho u I em 2 wi ho u I em 2 Teach e suppo 9 .866 .869 .867 9 Pee suppo 10 .859 I em 2 .855 I em 2 .870 I ems 2 and 3 8 .866 .879 .862 wi ho u I em 2 wi ho u I em 2 wi ho u I em 2 .868 .864 .886 wi ho u I ems 2 and 3 wi hou I ems 2 and 3 wi ho u I ems 2 and 3 Pee suppo 1 5 .785 .770 .819 Pee suppo 2 3 .935 .934 .938 adjus men . Following Elosúa (2005), he le els o in a iance we ook in o conside a ion e e o con igu al in a iance as well as o me ic and s ic in a iance. Resul s The ini ial analysis o he i ems shows he ollowing: he ones which a e associa ed wi h amily suppo ha e high median alues anging om 5.50 o 6.47 o all i ems excep o I ems 2 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”) and 5 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”) (which do no su pass 3.46 and 3.97, espec i ely). The median alues a ained in eache suppo i ems a e also high, bu o a lesse deg ee: hey a e age om 4.86 o 6.40, whe eby none o he i em sco es is exceedingly dis an om he o he s. Values associa ed wi h pee suppo display a pa - e n simila o amily suppo i ems: medium–high alues anging om 4.35 o 5.26 hold o mos i ems, excep o I ems 2 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”) and 3 (“wan you o play an ins umen mo e han o he ac i i ies you do?”), which do no ollow he same endency and p esen much lowe sco es anging om 2.65 o 3.67. Table 1 p esen s he esul s o he in e nal consis ency o he subscales, on a global le el as well as di ided in o educa ional le els. The pa en suppo scale has good ini ial in e nal con- sis ency (α = .836), and i imp o es by elimina ing I ems 2 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”), 3 (“wan you o pass you exams?”), and 5 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”) (α = .849): I em 3 had a much highe mean sco e and less a iance han he o he s; I em 2 s ands ou o ha - ing a much lowe sco e and a lowe co ec ed i em- o al co ela ion han he es , e en hough he la e exceeds .30. The eache suppo scale has good in e nal consis ency (α= .866), and i s esul s canno be imp o ed by elimina ing any speci ic i em. The mean o i em alues, lying be ween 4.86 and 6.41, deno es ha he s uden s also pe cei e ha hey ecei e suppo om hei eache s. The co ec ed i em- o al co ela ion exceeds .53 on all i ems. O ejudo e al. 7 ! As a hi d majo g oup, he pee suppo alues display a high in e nal consis ency (α = .859). This g oup imp o es by elimina ing I em 2 (“help you o play an ins umen ?”). The la e i em, wi h a con en simila o I em 2 in pa en al suppo , has a lowe alue (2.62); he same applies o I em 3, “wan you o play an ins umen mo e han o he ac i i ies you do?” (3.64). Thei co ec ed i em- o al co ela ions a e lowe han hose o he o he i ems, lying be ween .345 and .446. By successi ely omi ing I ems 2 and 3, in e nal consis ency imp o ed conside ably, leading o an ul ima e alue o α = .868. The EFA and CFA esul s a e ea u ed in Supplemen al Ma e ials. The conclusions d awn om hem a e in line wi h he analysis o he i ems commen ed abo e ega ding he pa en and eache suppo scale. Those scales’ i ems g oup oge he (Table 2), excep o he h ee p e i- ously men ioned pa en suppo i ems: he esul is hus a scale wi h nine i ems o pa en sup- po and 10 i ems o eache suppo . Howe e , he pee suppo scale deli e s a no el esul : he wo p ocedu es (EFA and CFA) suppo a di ision o he i ems in his g oup in o wo subg oups. The i s ac o g oups i e i ems oge he (α = .785): hey a e ela ed o pee suppo o musical asks and ac i i ies. The second ac o g oups h ee i ems oge he (α= .935), e e ing o pee suppo in he ace o aun s and insul s. In a iance analysis by educa ional le els is likewise p esen ed in Supplemen al Ma e ials; he pa e n we ha e elucida ed shows a high deg ee o s abili y, since in a iance analysis ep o- duces he ou - ac o s uc u e on bo h le els. Only h ee i ems p esen ce ain a ia ions. When we compa e he di e en ypes o suppo pe cei ed by he s uden s, we can con i m ha hey ind hei mos impo an sou ce o suppo in hei pa en s (6.03 on a scale om 1 o 7), ollowed by pee suppo in he ace o aun s and insul s (5.15) and by pee suppo o musical asks (4.99) oge he wi h eache suppo (4.96), wi hou s a is ically signi ican di - e ences be ween he las wo ( = 0.469, p = .639). The co ela ion pa e n be ween he sou ces o social suppo pe cei ed by he s uden s is o g ea ele ance. We ind a high co ela ion ( = .525) be ween pee suppo o musical asks and ac i i ies (F1) and pee suppo in he ace o aun s and insul s (F2). Howe e , pa en sup- po has signi ican co ela ions, bu o a lesse deg ee, wi h eache suppo ( = .334) as well as wi h pee suppo o musical asks ( = .308). The emaining co ela ions, al hough s a is i- cally signi ican , ha e lowe sco es. Thus, pa en and pee suppo in he ace o aun s and insul s has a alue o = .197, eache and pee suppo o musical asks has a alue o = .169, and eache and pee suppo in he ace o aun s and insul s has a alue o = .104. This co ela ion pa e n, obse ed ac oss he en i e sample, yields some di e ences i we analyze i by age g oups; he g ea es di e ences appea in he g oup o 16- o 17-yea -olds. In hei g oup, he co ela ion be ween pee suppo o musical asks (F1) and pee suppo in he ace o aun s and insul s (F2) descends o = .360. The co ela ion be ween pa en suppo and pee suppo emains abo e 0.30 ( = .308), bu he co ela ion be ween pa en suppo and pee suppo F1 descends o .200. The emaining co ela ions a e no longe s a is ically signi ican . Table 3 displays he ANOVA esul s o a ac o wi h which we analyzed he ool’s capaci y o de ec di e ences among a iables in cases whe e such di e ences would no mally be expec ed, he eby sea ching o addi ional e idence o alidi y. Thus, we ound di e ences in he Pa en suppo scale (F(1, 607) = 26.863, p < .001, η2 = .042) depending on whe he he pa en s a e me e passi e music consume s (M = 53.11) o ha e a close ac i e connec ion wi h music (M = 56.44). Age- ela ed di e ences also su aced (F(3, 638) = 4.902, p = .002, η2 = .023), whe eby he g oup o younge s uden s, ages 11–15, epo ed a g ea e amoun o suppo om pa en s (M = 56.20) han he es . Finally, uni e si y-le el s uden s pe cei e a g ea e