1
In luence o p o ein sou ce on he cha ac e is ics o glu en- ee
laye cakes
Ma a Sahagún*, Ángela B a o, Guille mo Báscones, Manuel Gómez
Food Technology A ea. College o Ag icul u al Enginee ing. Uni e si y o
Valladolid, 34071 Palencia, Spain.
Tel: +34 979108495; ax +34 979-108302
*Co esponding au ho e-mail: [email protected]
Abs ac
The aim o his s udy was o examine he e ec o ou comme cial p o eins (pea, ice, egg whi e
and whey) on he cha ac e is ics o glu en- ee laye cakes. Rice lou was pa ially subs i u ed
wi h 15, 30 and 45% p o ein. Hyd a ion p ope ies, ba e densi y and iscosi y, cake
cha ac e is ics (weigh loss, speci ic olume, ex u e and colou ) and consume accep abili y
we e analysed. In gene al, he addi ion o p o ein inc eased he iscosi y o he ba e s, wi h
highe p o ein con en s exhibi ing g ea e e ec s and wi h pea p o ein p esen ing he highes
e ec o e all. The addi ion o egg whi e p o ein led o he ha des cakes (p<0.05) and whey
p o ein, which also inc eased he cake ha dness (p<0.05), ga e ise o cakes wi h he highes
speci ic olume. Bo h animal p o eins inc eased he cake cohesi eness and sp inginess (p<0.05).
On he con a y, pea and ice p o ein ha dly modi ied ha dness, colou and speci ic olume o
cakes o e all, bu educed hei cohesi eness (p<0.05). Rega ding senso y e alua ion, all
p o ein-en iched cakes p esen ed lowe accep abili y wi h espec o con ol cake (p<0.05), bu
his e ec was mo e p onounced when ice and egg whi e p o ein we e added due o hei as e,
odou and ex u e. Whey p o ein cakes we e, among he en iched samples, he ones wi h he
highes accep abili y.
Keywo ds: P o ein en ichmen , ba e , ex u e, olume, accep abili y.
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1. In oduc ion
O e ecen yea s, he ma ke demand o glu en- ee p oduc s has inc eased signi ican ly. One
o he easons o his inc easing end is he ise in diagnosed cases o celiac disease (Gallaghe ,
Go mley, & A end , 2004). Al hough he p e alence o celiac disease is app oxima ely 1% o
he gene al popula ion in Eu ope and he Uni ed S a es, he sole ea men is a unique glu en- ee
die (Niewinski, 2008). Howe e , he e a e also people who ollow a glu en- ee die wi hou
su e ing any celiac pa hology, as hey belie e in i s bene i s o heal h o weigh loss.
(S audache & Gibson, 2015).
Cu en ly, glu en- ee p oduc s ha e lowe p o ein con en han hei equi alen p oduc s wi h
glu en (Mi anda, Lasa, Bus aman e, Chu uca, & Simon, 2014; Wu e al., 2015). This lack
should be compensa ed, as p o eins a e one o he basic nu ien s necessa y o a ious anabolic
p ocesses in he body (Ho man & Fal o, 2004). In addi ion, some au ho s epo ed ha a
g ea e p o ein in ake could ha e bene icial heal h e ec s o a hle es (Phillips, 2014) and
elde ly people (Nowson & O’Connell, 2015). Due o his, he addi ion o di e en p o eins o
glu en- ee bake y p oduc s could be a way o add ess he po en ial consequences o he cu en
ma ke demand.
Cakes a e an in e es ing ma ix in which p o eins can be inco po a ed due o hei high
accep abili y. Fu he mo e, hei wo ldwide ma ke is cu en ly g owing a a a e o abou 1.5%
pe yea (Wilde jans, Luy s, B ijs, & Delcou , 2013). Cake ba e could be conside ed as a
complex oil-in-wa e emulsion wi h a con inuous aqueous phase con aining dissol ed o
suspended d y ing edien s (Ronda, Olie e, Gómez, Caballe o, & Pando, 2011). The co ec
o ma ion o he emulsion depends on bo h he ae a ion o he aqueous phase (B ooke , 1993)
and he e en ion o his ai inco po a ed. The e icacy o ai e en ion in he ba e is in e sely
p opo ional o ba e iscosi y (Sahi & Ala a, 2003) and i is known ha lou cha ac e is ics
a ec i (Gómez, Ruiz-Pa ís, & Olie e, 2010). I he ba e iscosi y is oo low, he ai bubbles
escape o he ba e o he su ace du ing baking, as he ba e can no e ain hem. On he o he
hand, i he ba e iscosi y is oo high, he ai bubbles can no ex end in he o en and he cake
olume is low. The e o e, he s udy o he e ec o subs i u ing he lou by di e en p o eins on
ba e iscosi y and cake olume would be needed.Rega ding cakes elabo a ed wi h whea lou ,
s udies can be ound abou subs i u ing lou wi h whey p o ein (Jyo sna, Manoha , Ind ani, &
Rao, 2007), glu en p o ein (Wilde jans, Pa ey , Goesae , B ijs, & Delcou , 2008) o soy p o ein
(Majzoobi, Ghiasi, Habibi, Hedaya i, & Fa ahnaky, 2014; Sung, Pa k, & Chang, 2006). As o
glu en- ee cakes, he e a e ew au ho s who ha e s udied he in luence o p o ein on p oduc
cha ac e is ics (Ma os, Sanz, & Rosell, 2014; Ronda e al., 2011; She kani, Kau , Kuma , &
Singh, 2015; She kani & Singh, 2014). Howe e , none o hese s udies included p o ein le els
exceeding 15%, excep ha o Ronda e al. (2011) who added 20% o p o ein, al hough s a ch
was used ins ead o lou . On he o he hand, only Ma os e al. (2014) compa ed ege al and
3
animal p o eins. To co e he exis ing gaps, he aim o his s udy was o s udy how h ee
pe cen ages (15, 30 and 45%) o di e en ege al (pea and ice) and animal (egg whi e and
whey) comme cial p o eins a ec ed ba e (densi y and iscosi y), physical cha ac e is ics
(speci ic olume, weigh loss, ex u e and colou ) and accep abili y o glu en- ee laye cakes.
2. Ma e ials and me hods
2.1 Ma e ials
Rice lou (12.83% mois u e, 8% p o ein and 85.4 μm pa icle size) was supplied by Ha ine a la
Cas ellana S.A (Medina de Campo, Valladolid, Spain), Nu alys BF pea p o ein (78.13% p o ein
and 134.0 μm pa icle size ) by Roque e (Leu em, F ance), Remyp o N80+G ice p o ein (79%
p o ein and 95.2 μm pa icle size) by Beneo (Mannheim, Ge many), egg whi e powde (81.66%
p o ein and 30.7 μm pa icle size) by EPS S.P.A (Occhiobello, I aly) and P o on 295 IP whey
p o ein (92% p o ein and 39.7 μm pa icle size) by Glanbia (Kilkenny, I eland). Pa icle size was
measu ed wi h a lase di ac ion pa icle size analyse (Mas e size 3000, Mal e n Ins umen s,
L d., Wo ces e shi e, UK) and i was exp essed as D(4;3), which e lec s he size o hose
pa icles which cons i u e he bulk o he sample olume. O he ing edien s we e whi e suga
(AB Azuca e a Ibe ica, Valladolid, Spain), UHT whole milk (P esiden , Lac alis Food Se ice
Ibe ia, S.L.U., Mad id, Spain), liquid pas eu ized egg (O opack, Ál a ez Camacho, S.L.,
Se illa, Spain), e ined sun lowe oil (Langos a, F. Faiges, S.L., Daimiel, Ciudad Real, Spain)
and baking powde “25 × 1” (Pu a os, Ge ona, Spain).
2.2 Me hods
2.2.1 Cake elabo a ion
The laye cake was elabo a ed using he ollowing o mula ion: 350 g ice lou , 315 g suga ,
210 g milk, 175 g liquid pas eu ized egg, 105 g sun lowe oil and 10.5 g baking powde . In he
p o ein-en iched o mula ions, he ice lou was eplaced by 15, 30 o 45% o each comme cial
p o ein ( ice, pea, egg whi e and whey). The mois u e o lou and lou -p o ein blends was
adjus ed o 13%. All ing edien s we e mixed using a Ki chenAid P o essional mixe (Ki chen
Aid, S . Joseph, Michigan, USA) o 10 min: 1 min a speed 4 and 9 min a speed 6. The cake
ba e (185 g) was placed in o oil-coa ed aluminium pans (159 × 119 × 35 mm) and baked a 190
°C o 25 min. A e baking, he cakes we e emo ed om he pan, le o cool o 1 h a oom
empe a u e and packaged in polye hylene bags o be s o ed a 24 ºC. All he cake elabo a ions
we e pe o med wice.
2.2.2 Ba e measu emen s
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Ba e densi y (a 20 °C) was de e mined by an Elcome e 1800 pycnome e (Manches e , UK)
wi h a known olume (100 cm3). The densi y alue was calcula ed as he ela ion o he weigh
(g) o ba e placed in he illed pycnome e and he olume capaci y o he con aine .
Ba e iscosi y was measu ed using a Rapid Viscoanalyse (RVA-4) (Newpo Scien i ic model
4-SA, Wa iewood, Aus alia). A ba e sample (28 g) we e placed in an RVA aluminum
canis e wi h a plas ic paddle and submi ed o a iscosi y analysis (160 pm a 30 °C).
Fo ba e mic os uc u e, a d op o he ba e was placed on a mic oscope slide and co e ed
wi h a co e slip. The slides we e comp essed unde a cons an weigh (1 kg) o achie e a laye
o ba e o uni o m hickness, emo ing he highes amoun o ai bubbles as possible. The
ba e samples we e examined using a DM750 mic oscope (Leica Mic osys ems, We zla ,
Ge many). The mic oscope was equipped wi h a Leica EC3 ideo came a, and images we e
cap u ed using LAS-EZ V1.7.0 o Windows so wa e (Leica Mic osys ems, Hee b ugg,
Swi ze land).
The mic oscope was also equipped wi h a PE120 Sys em equipped wi h PE95 con olle , ECP
wa e ci cula o (Linkam Scien i ic Ins umen s, Su ey, Uni ed Kingdom) and a GS3-U3-
23S6C-C came a (FLIR Sys ems, Wilson ille, USA) o cap u e he ideos. Fo ha , he ba e ,
p epa ed in he same way as ha o cap u e images, was hea ed un il eaching 30 ºC and was
hen main ained a his empe a u e o 3 min. Nex , he sample was hea ed u he un il eaching
85 ºC wi h a hea ing a e o 14 ºC/min. Finally, he sample was wa med up un il a aining 100 ºC
(a 2.5 ºC/min hea ing a e) and was main ained a his empe a u e o 10 min. This empe a u e
amp was used o simula e he hea ing p ocess ha he ba e unde goes du ing baking. All
measu emen s we e ealized wice.
2.2.3 Cake cha ac e is ics
Cake olume was ob ained om wo pieces o each elabo a ion using a lase senso wi h he
BVM-L 370 olume analyse (TexVol Ins umen s, Viken, Sweden). Speci ic olume and
weigh loss we e calcula ed acco ding o de la He a, Ma inez, Olie e and Gómez (2013).
C umb ex u e was de e mined using a TA-XT2 ex u e analyse (S able Mic osys ems, Su ey,
UK) wi h he “Tex u e P o ile Analysis (TPA)” es . A 25-mm-diame e cylind ical aluminium
p obe was used in a double comp ession es , pene a ing o 50% o he ini ial heigh a a speed
o 2 mm/s, wi h a 30-s delay be ween he i s and second comp ession and he measu emen s
we e ealized on he cen e o cake slices. F om each cake ba ch, wo cakes we e sliced in o
slices o 20 mm in hickness and he h ee cen al ones o each cake we e analysed. Ha dness
(N), cohesi eness and sp inginess we e calcula ed om he TPA g aphic.
Colou was measu ed using a Minol a CM-508i spec opho ome e (Minol a Co., L d, Japan)
wi h he D65 s anda d illuminan and he 2º s anda d obse e . C us colou was measu ed a
5
i e poin s o he su ace o wo cakes om each elabo a ion. C umb colou was ob ained om
he measu emen s o wo slices o wo cakes om each p epa a ion. Bo h esul s we e exp essed
in he CIELAB colou space wi h he ligh ness coo dina e L*, a g een- ed-o ien ed coo dina e
a* (-a*: g eenness, +a*: edness) and a blue-yellow-o ien ed coo dina e b* (-b*: blueness, +b*:
yellowness) (Wi , 2007).
The measu emen o cake cha ac e is ics was ca ied ou 24 h a e baking.
2.2.4. Consume es
Senso ial e alua ion o cakes was comple ed by 100 olun ee s, who we e om 16 o 65 yea s
o age and usual consume s o cakes. Cakes we e di ided in o pieces o 2 cm wide and
p esen ed on whi e plas ic pla es coded wi h ou -digi numbe s and se ed in andom o de .
One en i e cake was p esen ed on he p incipal able o i s appea ance o be e alua ed. The
cakes we e e alua ed based on consume accep ance o hei appea ance, odou , ex u e, as e
and o e all accep abili y. This e alua ion was comple ed by using a hedonic scale o 9 poin s.
This scale anged om “I like e y much” (9 sco e) and “I dislike e y much” (1 sco e).
2.2.5 S a is ical analysis
The esul s ob ained we e assessed by an analysis o a iance (one-way ANOVA) wi h he
Fishe ’s leas signi ican di e ences (LSD) es and wi h signi icance le el o 95% (p<0.05).
S a is ical analysis was comple ed using S a g aphics Cen u ion XVI so wa e (S a Poin
Technologies Inc, Wa en on, EEUU).
3. Resul s and Discussion
3.1. Ba e cha ac e is ics
Ba e cha ac e is ics a e shown in Table 1. In gene al, he inco po a ion o ice and egg whi e
p o eins educed he densi y o he ba e s. Conside ing ba e mic os uc u e (Figu e 1), he
inco po a ion o ice p o ein inc eased he size o bubbles due o e iden coalescence
phenomena, abo e all wi h 45% inco po a ion o p o ein. In he case o ba e s wi h egg whi e
p o ein, he addi ion o his p o ein ga e ise o he highes amoun o bubbles wi h he lowes
size because o i s e y good oaming p ope ies (Riche , 1979). In bo h cases, hese di e en
phenomena could explain he lowe densi y o he ba e . On he o he hand, pea p o ein had no
e ec on ba e densi y. The ba e s wi h pea p o ein p esen ed a g ea e numbe o bubbles,
al hough hey we e smalle han he con ol sample. This ou come was mo e p onounced wi h
highe pe cen age o p o ein. The compensa ion be ween he numbe o bubbles and hei size
lead o he e a e no signi ican di e ences o densi y in ela ion o con ol (p>0.05). Howe e ,
whey p o ein exhibi ed a di e en beha iou , as low amoun o p o ein inc eased he densi y o
he ba e s while high amoun educed i d as ically.

6
The inc emen o he p o ein added led o g ea e amoun and size o bubbles, which was ela ed
o he d op o densi y whene e he pe cen age o whey p o ein wen up. The addi ion o 45%
whey p o ein inc eased he numbe o bubbles compa ed o con ol and hei size was he
highes , which led o he ac ha his sample had he lowes densi y.
Table 1. Cha ac e is ics o ba e s and laye cakes elabo a ed wi h h ee pe cen ages o pea (P),
ice (R), egg whi e (E) and whey (W) p o eins.
Sample
Densi y
(g/ml)
Viscosi y (10-3 Pa·s)
Speci ic
olume (ml/g)
Weigh loss
(g/100g)
CONTROL
0.99±0.01e
2349.0±80.61ab
2.21±0.06bcd
10.52±0.19e
R15
0.94±0.01cd
2428.0±70.71ab
2.30±0.04de
11.79±1.00gh
R30
0.91±0.00bc
3097.5±6.36cd
2.25±0.02cde
11.13±1.17 g
R45
0.89±0.00b
3393.5±143.54de
1.99±0.01a
10.24±0.11de
P15
0.99±0.00e
3193.5±304.76cd
2.31±0.04de
10.63±0.73e g
P30
1.01±0.01
5447.5±635.69g
2.08±0.06ab
9.81±0.42cde
P45
0.99±0.03e
8375.0±601.04h
2.04±0.15a
10.19±0.34cde
E15
0.95±0.01de
2483.5±125.16ab
2.13±0.06abc
9.3±0.76bcd
E30
0.94±0.02cd
2752.5±28.99abc
2.39±0.07e
7.71±0.19a
E45
0.91±0.02bc
4277.5±118.09
2.33±0.01de
7.42±0.13a
W15
1.08±0.00g
2180.5±50.20a
2.44±0.06 g
9.03±0.08bc
W30
1.0±0.03
2802.0±67.88bcd
2.57±0.05g
8.24±0.11ab
W45
0.58±0.05a
3981.5±232.64e
3.45±0.13h
12.89±0.11h
S . E o
0.01
194.35
0.05
0.39
Da a a e exp essed as means ± SD o duplica e assays. The numbe s ha appea in he sample
name column indica e he pe cen age o p o ein added. The alues wi h he same le e in he
same column do no p esen signi ican di e ences (p<0.05).
Compa ing animal and ege al p o eins, he main di e ence be ween hem was he p esence o
coalescence phenomena, which only occu ed wi h ege al ypes. This di e en beha iou could
be explained because whey and egg whi e p o eins ha e good oaming p ope ies, a ou ing
bubble o ma ion and s abiliza ion (Riche , 1979).
Rega ding iscosi y, he addi ion o p o ein inc eased ba e iscosi y o all samples, bu his
e ec was g ea es wi h pea p o ein. In ac , he inc emen o iscosi y wi h animal p o eins only
was signi ican (p<0.05) wi h he highes pe cen age o subs i u ion. Wilde jans e al. (2008) and
Ronda e al. (2011) also obse ed an inc ease in ba e iscosi y when inc easing p o ein (glu en
and soy, espec i ely) con en in cake o mula ion. Ou esul s also ag ee wi h hose o Ma os e
al. (2014) who obse ed an inc ease in G’ and G’’ o ba e s wi h pulse p o eins, while glu en
and egg whi e p o ein did no modi y hem. She kani and Singh (2014) and She kani e al.
(2015) also obse ed and inc emen o G’ and G’’ wi h he inco po a ion o ege al p o eins.
Thus, as Majzoobi e al. (2014) epo ed, he inc ease in he wa e -binding capaci y (WBC) o
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mix u es educes he amoun o ee wa e a ailable o assis he mo emen o pa icles in ba e s
and, acco dingly, leads o highe iscosi y. This could explain he highe iscosi y o he ba e s
wi h ege al p o eins since his inc eased he WBC o he blends (Mancebo, Rod iguez, &
Gómez, 2016; Shin, Gang, & Song, 2010). Howe e , animal p o eins usually educe he WBC
(Sa abhai & P abhasanka , 2015), so he p e ious explana ion is no applicable o hese p o eins.
Thus, he e ec o animal p o eins on ba e iscosi y could be explained by hei oaming
capaci y, as his was u he suppo ed by he p esence o a g ea e amoun o bubbles in ba e s
wi h highe pe cen ages o p o ein. In ac , i is know ha he highe amoun o inco po a ed ai
in ba e s, he g ea e hei consis ency (To es, Hallma k, & Wilson, 2015).
Fig. 1. Ba e mic os uc u e 100 imes magni ica ion o laye cakes elabo a ed wi hou (con ol) and wi h h ee
pe cen ages o pea (P), ice (R), egg whi e (E), and whey (W) p o eins.
3.2. Cake cha ac e is ics
The addi ion o ege al p o eins did no modi y he speci ic olume o cakes in gene al, excep
o he highes pe cen age (45%), which educed i (Table 1). Ma os e al. (2014) also did no
obse e signi ican di e ences wi h 13% o pea p o ein (p>0.05), al hough She kani and Singh
(2014) obse ed an inc ease in mu in olume wi h he inco po a ion o ege al p o eins. These
di e ences could be a ibu ed o he lowe pe cen age o p o ein (10%) used by She kani and
Singh (2014) and he ac ha co n s a ch was used ins ead o ice lou , so i was a p oduc wi h
a lowe p o ein con en . The educ ion o speci ic olume obse ed wi h he addi ion o ege al
p o eins could be explained by he highe ba e iscosi y, and, acco dingly, his e ec was mo e
signi ican wi h he pea p o ein. The g ea e ba e iscosi y would hinde he expansion o he
bubbles du ing he i s s age o baking, compensa ing o he low ba e densi y wi h ice
p o ein, and hus he inco po a ion o ai . Ne e heless, i is impo an o conside ha when
subs i u ing a pa o he lou wi h p o ein, he s a ch con en in he phase su ounding he
8
bubbles dec eases, and he e o e, he consis ency o his phase a e s a ch gela iniza ion would
also be educed. This causes a g ea e mobili y o bubbles in he las s age o baking
(coalescence phenomena), gene a ing bubbles wi h highe size and making i possible o hem
o escape ou o he p oduc . This e ec was obse ed in he complemen a y ideos (Video 1)
and he Figu e 1. In he case o animal p o eins, a con a y e ec was obse ed, as he highe he
p o ein subs i u ion pe cen age, he g ea e he speci ic olume o cakes. The inc easing e ec
was mo e signi ican wi h 45% whey p o ein, which is he cake wi h he highes speci ic
olume, and his ac would be ela ed o he lowes ba e densi y as well as he dis ibu ion o
bubbles Howe e , he addi ion o 15% egg whi e p o ein did no p oduce signi ican di e ences
wi h espec o con ol sample (p>0.05). E en so, Ma os e al. (2014) al eady obse ed an
inc ease in mu in olume wi h 13% egg whi e p o ein. This phenomenon o inc eased olume
could be due o he s abilizing ac ion o he bubbles by p o eins. Du ing baking, he coagula ion
o egg whi e p o ein (Kiosseoglou & Pa aske opoulou, 2006) and he agg ega ion p ocess o
whey p o eins (Koo, Chung, Og en, Mu ilangi, & McClemen s, 2018) occu ed. As egg whi e
and whey a e soluble p o eins, hey could su ound he bubbles, s abilizing hem and educing
he coalescence phenomena. In ac , in he Figu e 1 and Video 1 i is obse ed ha despi e he
high mobili y o bubbles in he inal s ages o baking, once he s a ch is gela inized, he bubbles
do no join oge he and do no escape ou wa ds.
Table 2. Tex u al cha ac e is ics o laye cakes elabo a ed wi h h ee pe cen ages o pea (P),
ice (R), egg whi e (E) and whey (W) p o eins.
Sample
Ha dness (N)
Sp inginess
Cohesi eness
CONTROL
6.38±0.21abc
0.89±0.02d
0.54±0.01
R15
4.79±0.28a
0.85±0.01bc
0.45±0.01d
R30
5.49±0.23a
0.83±0.01b
0.4±0.04bc
R45
9.07±0.14bcd
0.74±0.02a
0.32±0.01a
P15
5.53±0.01ab
0.86±0.00cd
0.49±0.00e
P30
9.81±1.60cd
0.87±0.02cd
0.43±0.04cd
P45
12.30±2.44de
0.85±0.01bc
0.38±0.00b
E15
24.72±1.75g
0.94±0.00e
0.74±0.01h
E30
33.69±3.63h
0.95±0.01e
0.76±0.01h
E45
54.43±0.45i
0.94±0.01e
0.75±0.01h
W15
11.27±0.30de
0.94±0.00e
0.67±0.01g
W30
20.63±2.80
0.93±0.01e
0.67±0.00g
W45
13.79±1.53e
0.93±0.01e
0.64±0.04g
S . E o
1.17
0.01
0.01
Da a a e exp essed as means ± SD o duplica e assays. The numbe s ha appea in he sample
name column indica e he pe cen age o p o ein added. The alues wi h he same le e in he
same column do no p esen signi ican di e ences (p<0.05).
9
In di e en s udies, a posi i e co ela ion be ween speci ic olume and weigh loss was
obse ed (de la He a e al., 2013), because o a highe su ace in con ac wi h ai (Zhou &
The d hai, 2008). In ou s udy, his end was obse ed in cakes wi h ege al p o eins bu no
wi h animal p o eins. In hese cases, he highe su ace o con ac could be compensa ed o by
di e ences in he in e nal s uc u e o cakes, wi h ine cell g ain, complica ing he exi o wa e
om he in e io o he cakes.
Rega ding ex u e (Table 2), he cakes wi h ege al p o eins ollowed a end obse ed in o he
s udies (de la He a e al., 2013), in which he lowe he speci ic olume, he highe he cake
ha dness. Howe e , only he cakes wi h 45% pea p o ein showed signi ican di e ences wi h
espec o con ol (p<0.05). The e ec o animal p o eins was e y di e en because, in spi e o
hei highe speci ic olume, inc eased ha dness we e obse ed in all cases, wi h he cakes
inco po a ing egg whi e p o ein exhibi ing he highes ha dness. The e ec o whey p o ein
could be explained by Díaz-Ramí ez e al. (2016). Theses au ho s a ibu ed he inc emen o
ha dness wi h he phenomena o compe i ion be ween suga and whey p o ein. Due o he high
solubili y o whey p o ein, he a ailable wa e o suga solubili y was lowe , and c ys alliza ion
phenomenon was p oduced when suga was exposed o hea . Thus, his c ys allini y could
dec ease he quali y o he cake by modi ying he ex u e. In he case o cakes wi h egg whi e
p o ein, as well as c ys alliza ion phenomenon, a p ocess o coagula ion was p oduced whe e he
p o eins dena u ed a ound 85 ºC, o ming a p o ein ne wo k (Kiosseoglou & Pa aske opoulou,
2006; Wilde jans e al., 2013). This phenomenon oge he wi h he s a ch gela iniza ion would
inc ease he iscosi y o he ba e du ing baking and impa solid cha ac e o he cake (Guy &
Pi hawala, 1981).
The addi ion o ege al p o eins also educed he sp inginess and cohesi eness, wi h g ea e
e ec seen wi h he highes amoun o p o ein and in he case o ice p o ein be o e pea p o ein.
In ac , he cakes wi h 15 and 30% pea p o ein did no show signi ican di e ences in
sp inginess wi h espec o con ol (p>0.05). On he o he hand, he animal p o eins p esen ed a
con a y e ec , as hey inc eased he sp inginess and cohesi eness o cakes. This is in ag eemen
wi h Ma os e al. (2014) who compa ed cakes wi h 13% o pea and egg whi e p o ein.
The esul s ob ained o c us colou a e p esen ed in Table 3. The addi ion o p o ein educed
he ligh ness alues, gi ing ise o da ke cakes han con ol sample. Howe e , only he samples
wi h animal p o eins and he highes pe cen age o pea p o ein p esen ed signi ican di e ences
wi h espec o con ol (p<0.05). These samples also p esen ed highe a* alues ( eddish ones),
while no clea end o b* alues was obse ed. The lowe alues o L* align wi h o he s udies
ela ed o he addi ion o p o eins in cakes (Majzoobi e al., 2014; Subagio & Mo i a, 2008). In
gene al, he colou o c us colou is due o Mailla d eac ions, which occu s be ween educing
suga s and amino g oups du ing he baking p ocess (Pé ez, Ma a, Osella, de la To e, &
Sánchez, 2013). Thus, he g ea e amoun o p o ein inc eased amino g oups’ a ailabili y,
inc easing he colou de elopmen . Among amino acids capable o eac ing wi h educing