Ga cía-Pé ez, A.M., e al.
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Economics & Sociology, Vol.16, No. 4, 2023
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SOCIAL CAPITAL IN
COOPERATIVES: A TYPOLOGY AND
INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE
Ana M. Ga cía-Pé ez
Dp o. Di ección de Emp esas e
His o ia Económica-IUDE,
Uni e sidad de La Laguna, Spain
E-mail: [email protected]
ORCID 0000-0003-4252-8340
Cándido Román-Ce an es
Dp o. Di ección de Emp esas e
His o ia Económica-IUDE,
Uni e sidad de La Laguna, Spain
E-mail: c [email protected]
ORCID 0000-0002-1697-3988
En ique González-Dá ila
Dp o. de Ma emá icas, Es adís ica
e In es igación Ope a i a,
Uni e sidad de La Laguna, Spain
E-mail: egonza[email p o ec ed]
ORCID 0000-0002-0781-9161
Vanessa Yanes-Es é ez*
Dp o. Di ección de Emp esas e
His o ia Económica-IUDE,
Uni e sidad de La Laguna, Spain
E-mail: [email protected]
ORCID 0000-0002-4834-7199
* Co esponding au ho
Recei ed: No embe , 2022
1s Re ision: Oc obe , 2023
Accep ed: Decembe , 2023
DOI: 10.14254/2071-
789X.2023/16-4/7
ABSTRACT. One o he dis inc i e cha ac e is ics o
coope a i es is hei social capi al. This a icle con ibu es
o he li e a u e by p oposing a classi ica ion o
coope a i es acco ding o hei social capi al: in e nal
social ne wo ks ( ela ionships be ween hei membe s,
and be ween hei membe s and hei manage s) and/o
ex e nal social ne wo ks ( ela ionships wi h cus ome s,
o he coope a i es, ins i u ions e c.).
The sample comp ised manage s om 50 ag i ood
coope a i es loca ed in he Cana y Islands (Spain) who
answe ed a ques ionnai e designed on he basis o he
exis ing li e a u e. Desc ip i e s a is ics such as means and
non-pa ame ic es (Pea son's Chi-squa e es ) we e used
o p ocess he in o ma ion.
The la ges g oup o coope a i es de eloped s ong
in e nal and ex e nal social ne wo ks (i.e., a b oad social
ne wo k). The second g oup was he opposi e: social
ne wo ks we e weak in e nally as well as ex e nally ( he
so-called na ow social ne wo k). The esul s also showed
ha when coope a i es de eloped only one ype o
ne wo k, hey ocused on a s ong in e nal ne wo k
(asymme ic in e nal social ne wo k).
The only di e ence in he pe o mance o coope a i es
depending on hei social ne wo k was obse ed in
coope a i es wi h an asymme ic ex e nal social ne wo k.
Such coope a i es had a be e public image han hei
compe i o s.
JEL Classi ica ion
: P13,
M10, Q12
Keywo ds
: social capi al, social ne wo ks, social en e p ise,
coope a i es, pe o mance
Ga cía-Pe ez, A.M., Román-Ce an es, C., González-Dá ila, E., & Yanes-
Es é ez, V. (2023). Social capi al in coope a i es: A ypology and hei in luence
on pe o mance. Economics and Sociology, 16(4), 155-177. doi:10.14254/2071-
789X.2023/16-4/7
Ga cía-Pé ez, A.M., e al.
ISSN 2071-789X
RECENT ISSUES IN SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Economics & Sociology, Vol.16, No. 4, 2023
156
In oduc ion
This pape ocuses on one o he de ining cha ac e is ics o coope a i es as social
en e p ises – hei social ne wo ks (Puusa e al., 2013; Ruben & He as, 2012). Coope a i es
canno be s udied wi hou conside ing hei social con ex (Deng & Hend ikse, 2018) and he
analysis o social ne wo ks as hei dis inc i e ea u e and esou ce base (Nilsson e al., 2012)
p o ides insigh s in o hei s a egic beha iou as social en e p ises and, ul ima ely, in o how o
imp o e hei pe o mance. Ou p ima y objec i e he e o e is o s udy he social ne wo ks o
ag i ood coope a i es, p o ide a classi ica ion o hem and link he de i ed ypes o
coope a i es’ pe o mance.
This pape ollows he social capi al app oach o make an explo a o y s udy o
coope a i es’ social ne wo k. This app oach –widely applied in gene al business
adminis a ion– has no o en been used o explain his impo an dimension o coope a i es
(Nilsson e al., 2012; Ruben & He as, 2012; S oop e al., 2021). In his heo e ical con ex ,
social capi al has been de ined as he bene i ha ac o s (indi iduals and o ganisa ions) ob ain
om hei social ela ions (Nahapie & Ghoshal, 1998; Oh e al., 2006). The main bene i is he
in o ma ion p o ided by hese ela ions (Adle & Kwon, 2002; Coleman, 1990). Au ho s like
Spea (2000) ha e s a ed ha social capi al ep esen s he main compa a i e ad an age o
coope a i es is-à- is o he o ms o owne ship and o ganisa ion. Coope a i es de elop social
capi al in he o m o in e o ganisa ional and in e pe sonal social ne wo ks –bo h in e nal and
ex e nal– which se e as a way o ansmi a g ea olume and di e si y o in o ma ion.
Ex e nal social ne wo ks a e hose es ablished by coope a i es wi h o he agen s a ound
hem, such as hei cus ome s, supplie s, ins i u ions, egula o s o any o he ex e nal socie al
g oups. Fo example, wi h cus ome s, he objec i e is o sha e ideas, u u e plans o decisions
ha allow –among o he hings– coope a i es o adop a g ea e app oach o he e e -inc easing
demands and needs o end cus ome s. Some o he in o ma ion o be exchanged will, o
example, in ol e changes in end consume habi s, new laws, c ises o ood ale s. Gi en he
need o coope a i es o be ma ke -o ien ed and aking in o accoun he in o ma ion ha lows
h ough hese ex e nal ne wo ks, such ne wo ks p o e i al in he p esen compe i i e con ex .
Fo hei pa , in e nal social ne wo ks a e he ies de eloped be ween he membe s in a
coope a i e (ho izon al links), o be ween membe s o he coope a i es and hei manage s
( e ical links). Likewise, hese in e ela ions seek o sha e expe iences abou ma ke
condi ions, new de elopmen s in p ocesses and p oduc s, as well as any o he in o ma ion ha
allows cohesi e, in eg a ed, and s a egically well-o ien ed o ganisa ions o be c ea ed.
Nahapie and Ghoshal (1998) a gue ha o ganisa ional social capi al has h ee ela ed
dimensions: he s uc u al dimension (links be ween ac o s), he ela ional dimension ( us
be ween ac o s) and he cogni i e dimension (goals and alues sha ed among ac o s). These
dimensions will shape ideas and in o ma ion low and also impac coope a i es’ pe o mance.
Coope a i es a e encou aged o g ow as his seems o gene a e bene i s o hem, such
as economies o scale and scope, he possibili y o hi ing p o essional manage s o he chance
o y and ma ch he ba gaining powe o la ge e ail dis ibu o s on a mo e e en playing ield.
Howe e , some s udies ail o demons a e he ela ionship be ween coope a i e size and hei
pe o mance (Campos-Climen & Sanchis-Palacio, 2015). G ow h and expansions can also
inc ease he di e si y o hei social base and al e hei democ a ic na u e (Nilsson e al., 2012).
As a esul , he g ea e he numbe o membe s and o ganisa ions in ol ed in he coope a i es,
he mo e complex and cos ly hei managemen will be. No all coope a i es ha e he capaci y
o de elop and manage hei in e nal and ex e nal social ne wo ks co ec ly, wi h he impac
ha his can ha e in e ms o hei pe o mance. In sum, he social capi al o ag i ood
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coope a i es no only o e s bene i s bu also pi alls (Xu e al., 2018); hence he impo ance o
s udying said capi al.
Wi hin he gene al aim o analysing he social ne wo ks o coope a i es in an
explo a o y manne , he main con ibu ion o his wo k is o p opose a classi ica ion o ag i ood
coope a i es acco ding o hei in e nal and/o ex e nal social ne wo ks –an issue which has
hus a no been add essed by he s a egic li e a u e on coope a i es. This is he added alue
o e ed by his pape . Mo eo e , bea ing in mind ha social ne wo ks a e a key ea u e o
coope a i es as well as a po en ial sou ce o compe i i e ad an age, we also examine he
di e ences in pe o mance ha such coope a i es ob ain depending on he social ne wo k hey
mos de elop. This wo k he e o e ills a signi ican gap in ou cu en knowledge o he
managemen and posi ioning o coope a i es. Empi ical s udies ha employ manage ial heo y
o explain coope a i es’ esul s a e sca ce (A cas-La io & He nández-Espalla do, 2003). Mo e
speci ically, he s a egic managemen pe spec i e has o da e no been used o s udy
coope a i es ei he (Mazza ol, 2009). Inclusion o he social ne wo ks app oach hus ills a gap
in he li e a u e add essing s a egic managemen o ag i ood coope a i es (Talamini &
Fe ei a, 2010).
This a icle is s uc u ed in i e pa s. Following his in oduc ion, he heo e ical
amewo k on in e nal and ex e nal social ne wo ks o ag i ood coope a i es is p o ided,
oge he wi h he main esea ch ca ied ou in o how hei de elopmen has impac ed
coope a i es' pe o mance. We hen explain he me hodology used. Finally, he esul s a e
p esen ed, wi h he las sec ion o e ing some conclusions and implica ions.
1. Li e a u e e iew
1.1. Social capi al and social ne wo ks in coope a i es
Social capi al has been s udied in di e se a eas o knowledge wi h di e en s eams
such as he sociological and he economic (Coleman, 1988). These pe spec i es ha e
con ibu ed by adding a p elimina y heo e ical amewo k o explo e social capi al in
o ganisa ions ha has ecei ed special a en ion om esea che s. In he business ield, social
capi al has acqui ed ce ain ele ance because i has been ecognized as key o imp o ing
compe i i eness and pe o mance by es ablishing a ne wo k o s a egic ela ionships (Wang &
Chen, 2016). Social capi al is hus es ablished as he sum o “ he ac ual and po en ial esou ces
embedded wi hin, a ailable h ough and de i ed om he ne wo k o ela ionships possessed
by an indi idual o social uni ” (Nahapie & Ghoshal, 1998, p. 243). Social capi al is commonly
iewed as a aluable asse based on in e pe sonal ela ions and whose main bene i is he
in o ma ion i p o ides (Adle & Kwon, 2002; Coleman, 1990). This social ne wo k c ea es a
pla o m o in o ma ion sha ing and exchange (Spa owe e al., 2001; Walke e al., 1997).
In his sense, coope a i es a e an associa ion o pa icipan s wi h a social ne wo k (Deng
& Hend ikse, 2018), and a e ega ded as a e e ence in social capi al (Valen ino , 2004).
Compa ed o o he o ms o en e p ise, hey ha e a g ea e abili y o os e social capi al
(Saba ini, 2014). Social capi al he e o e p o ides he basis o di e en ia ing coope a i es
om capi alis ic o ganisa ions (Valen ino , 2004). Howe e , his di e ence could disappea i
social capi al is no managed co ec ly.
Many app oaches ha e ocused on he mul idimensional na u e o social capi al (Deng,
2015). Acco ding o Nahapie and Ghoshal (1998), social capi al is composed o h ee
dimensions: s uc u al, cogni i e, and ela ional. In line wi h ha p oposal –and applying i o
coope a i es– he social ies be ween he membe s o a coope a i e can be ega ded as he
s uc u al dimension o social capi al (Deng & Hend ikse, 2018). The cogni i e dimension
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e lec s he iew, pu pose, codes and goals sha ed by he coope a i e's membe s, while he
ela ional dimension's main componen is us (Nahapie & Ghoshal, 1998), which o ms he
co ne s one o hei decision o coope a e. These dimensions a e closely in e connec ed, making
i di icul o gauge wha e ec s each one has sepa a ely on he coope a i es and on hei
pe o mance. Howe e , when such analyses ha e been ca ied ou , i has been con i med ha
he impac on he o ganisa ions' pe o mance di e s (Lee & Tam ake , 2018).
In his a icle, he h ee dimensions o he social capi al iden i ied by Nahapie and
Ghoshal (1998) a e adap ed o he coope a i e con ex . The s uc u al and ela ional dimensions
a e hus explici ly aken in o accoun in he analysis. The s uc u al dimension is included as
he exis ence and equency o social ela ionships (Nilsson e al., 2012) –bo h ho izon al and
e ical (Peng e al., 2016). T us is also inco po a ed in o his wo k as he main ep esen a ion
o he ela ional dimension (Lee & Tam ake , 2018; Nahapie & Ghoshal, 1998). The cogni i e
dimension is also p esen in his esea ch, albei implici ly because o he pa icula dis inc i e
cha ac e is ics o coope a i es. I he membe s ha e decided o join a coope a i e i is p ecisely
because hey sha e simila isions, goals and, o cou se, coope a i e p inciples; ha is, he
cogni i e dimension o social capi al. Mo eo e , he geog aphical and indus ial p oximi y o
he ag i ood coope a i es analysed (Hend ikse & Feng, 2013) ein o ces he exis ence and
impo ance o he hi d dimension o social capi al.
F om a s a egic poin o iew, wha also seems in e es ing is o iden i y he o igin o
social capi al. In his sense, some exis ing classi ica ions allow social capi al o be ca ego ised
as in e nal and ex e nal (Adle & Kwon, 2002; Deng, 2015; Leana & Pil, 2006) [
1
]. In e nal
social capi al desc ibes he social ela ionships be ween he o ganisa ions' membe s and hei
alue (Coleman, 1990; Pu nam, 1993). Fo i s pa , ex e nal social capi al e lec s he ela ions
be ween he o ganisa ion and o he ex e nal ac o s (Bu , 2009; Uzzi, 1996). In he case o
coope a i es, Lame s (2012) also ega ds hem as a ne wo k o in e nal and ex e nal
ela ionships.
This pape he e o e conside s and in eg a es he classi ica ion o bo h in e nal and
ex e nal social capi al ( o example, Adle & Kwon, 2002; Deng, 2015; Leana & Pil, 2006) as
well as he s uc u al, ela ional and cogni i e dimensions iden i ied by Nahapie and Ghoshal
(1998). This in eg a ion gi es ise o ex e nal social ne wo ks and in e nal social ne wo ks, each
wi h he elemen s ha de ine hem in he coope a i e con ex , as shown in Table 1.
1
The e is ano he classi ica ion o social capi al –some imes applied o coope a i es– which iden i ies bonding
social capi al and b idging social capi al. The o me es ablishes ies be ween indi iduals who sha e simila
objec i es and ha esul in close in e nal ela ions, whe eas he second ype c ea es ies wi h agen s ex e nal o
he o ganisa ion (Ruben & He as, 2012).
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Table 1. Social capi al ypes and social capi al dimensions
SOCIAL CAPITAL DIMENSIONS
(Nahapie & Ghoshal, 1998)
STRUCTURAL
DIMENSION
RELATIONAL
DIMENSION
SOCIAL CAPITAL
TYPES
(Adle & Kwon, 2002;
Deng, 2015; Leana &
Pil , 2006)
EXTERNAL
SOCIAL
CAPITAL
Ex e nal ies
(among he coope a i e and
ex e nal agen s such as
cus ome s, o he ag i ood
coope a i es, o he ag i ood
o ganisa ions, public
ins i u ions….)
T us (ex e nal)
(be ween he coope a i e and
i s main cus ome s:
dis ibu o s, la ge
dis ibu ion…)
INTERNAL
SOCIAL
CAPITAL
In e nal ies
(be ween he membe s o he
coope a i e and be ween
hem and manage s)
T us (in e nal)
(be ween he membe s o he
coope a i e and be ween
hem and manage s)
COGNITIVE DIMENSION (sha ed alues and goals
be ween he membe s o he coope a i e)
Sou ce: adap ed om Adle and Kwon (2002), Deng (2015), Leana and Pil (2006), Nahapie
and Ghoshal (1998), and Ruben and He as (2012).
1.2. Classi ica ion o coope a i es acco ding o hei social ne wo ks
Following his app oach (Table 1), in e nal social ne wo ks and ex e nal social ne wo ks
ha e been conside ed in his wo k o p oposing a classi ica ion o coope a i es acco ding o
he g ea e o lesse ex en o which hese ypes o social ne wo ks a e de eloped. Coope a i es
can hus be classi ied in o he ollowing ypes o social ne wo ks (Table 2):
- Coope a i es wi h a na ow social ne wo k: coope a i es wi h ew kinship/ iendship
ies among hei membe s; whose membe s in e ac e y li le and whe e he e is a low
le el o mu ual us , bo h inside and ou side he coope a i e.
- Coope a i es wi h an asymme ic ex e nal social ne wo k: coope a i es whose membe s
in e ac a lo and whe e he e is a high le el o us wi h ex e nal agen s. I is no he
same among he coope a i e's membe s.
- Coope a i es wi h an asymme ic in e nal social ne wo k: coope a i es whose membe s
ha e kinship/ iendship ies, in e ac a lo wi h each o he and display a high le el o
us . I is no he same ou side.
- Coope a i es wi h a b oad social ne wo k: coope a i es wi h many kinship/ iendship
ies among hei membe s, whose membe s in e ac a lo and who display a high le el
o us , bo h among hemsel es and ex e nally.
Table 2. Classi ica ion o coope a i es acco ding o hei social ne wo ks
EXTERNAL
SOCIAL
NETWORK
S ong
COOPERATIVES WITH AN
ASYMMETRIC EXTERNAL
SOCIAL NETWORK
COOPERATIVES WITH A
BROAD SOCIAL NETWORK
Weak
COOPERATIVES WITH A
NARROW SOCIAL NETWORK
COOPERATIVES WITH AN
ASYMMETRIC INTERNAL
SOCIAL NETWORK
Weak
S ong
INTERNAL SOCIAL NETWORK

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1.3. In e nal social ne wo ks, ex e nal social ne wo ks and pe o mance in coope a i es
The exis ing gene al li e a u e suppo s he ela ionship be ween social ne wo ks and
di e en o ganisa ional ou pu s, such as business pe o mance ( o example, And ews, 2010;
Hsu & Hung, 2013; Wang & Chen, 2016). Rowley e al. (2000) analysed he s uc u al and
ela ional dimensions o social capi al in s a egic alliances in s eel and semiconduc o
indus ies, and concluded ha bo h s ong and weak ies a e posi i ely ela ed o pe o mance.
Pi olo and P esu i (2010) also ound a posi i e impac o bo h s ong and weak ies on
pe o mance o e he en i e li e-cycle o he company, wi h he au ho s examining he s uc u al
dimension o social capi al in he ela ionships be ween high echnology i ms and hei main
cus ome s.
The e is also subs an ial consensus in he li e a u e conce ning he ele ance o social
capi al o coope a i es ( o example, Deng & Hend ikse, 2018; Feng e al., 2016). Howe e ,
only ecen ly has he s udy he eo and i s link o o he coope a i e a ibu es begun o s and
ou . Social ies hus ha e a po en ial impac on coope a i es’ pe o mance (Deng, 2015; Deng
& Hend ikse, 2018; Liang e al., 2018; Nilsson e al., 2012; Ruben & He as, 2012), among o he
aspec s owing o how hey in luence he low and quali y o in o ma ion (G ano e e , 2005).
A he same ime, his also de e mines he inno a ions o be de eloped and can shape decision-
making.
Among a coope a i e's membe s (in e nal social ne wo k) social ies no only acili a e
he exchange o in o ma ion bu could also se e as a sou ce o social mo i a ion o he
membe s’ p oduc ion ac i i ies (Deng & Hend ikse, 2018). The la e au ho s p esen a game
heo y model o e lec he social in e ac ions o a coope a i e's membe s and he decisions
ela ed o he quali y o i s p oduc s unde di e en pooling policies. The au ho s ind ha social
ies ha e a posi i e e ec on membe s' p oduc ion ac i i ies, on o e all use ulness and on
economic paymen s.
The g ow h o coope a i es is also linked o hei social capi al. In a s udy o ag i ood
coope a i es in Sweden, Feng e al. (2016) ind ha membe s in smalle coope a i es a e mo e
in ol ed in he go e nance he eo , display g ea e us in he leade ship, a e mo e sa is ied,
and exhibi s onge loyal y. The au ho s conclude ha he smalle he coope a i e, he la ge
i s social capi al. A simila inding was epo ed by Valen ino (2004), o whom main aining
social capi al as a coope a i e's main esou ce p o es di icul due o he ise in he numbe o
membe s and he subsequen g ow h in he e ogenei y and he inc eased complexi y o
objec i es and ac i i ies. When he membe s o a coope a i e a e unknown o each o he , i is
ha de o hem o in e ac (Deng & Hend ikse, 2018). In ac , he pa adigm o social capi al
helps o explain why some o he la ges and adi ionally mo e complex ag i ood coope a i es
ha e ailed (Nilsson e al., 2012). On occasions –as o example when coope a i es g ow– he
in luence o social ies on hei pe o mance may ul ima ely e en become nega i e.
In any case, wi hou ac i e membe pa icipa ion (in e nal social ne wo k), he
coope a i e would no su i e in he long e m (Bhuyan, 2007). Encou aging and main aining
ela ions be ween membe s hus p o es c ucial i coope a i es a e o emain ocused on hei
membe s (Hooks e al., 2017) and so achie e he goals se ou by hem. Managing such ies o
in e nal ne wo ks in he coope a i e's s a egy is he e o e a key issue.
The impo ance o coope a i es' ex e nal social ne wo ks also me i s highligh ing, since
he need eme ges o coope a i es o adop ma ke -o ien ed s a egies in esponse o e e -
inc easing compe i i e p essu e (Deng & Hend ikse, 2018) –especially oday. In his sense,
al hough all ex e nal ies a e impo an , e ical coo dina ion wi h he o he agen s in ol ed in
hei supply chain (ups eam and downs eam) will be c ucial in o de o ensu e ha end
consume s' needs a e sa is ied. This e ical coo dina ion en ails g ea e alignmen be ween he
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ac i i ies and in es men s o he di e en membe s in he chain (p oduce s, wholesale s o
e aile s). This coo dina ion in ol es he exchange o complex in o ma ion, no only wi h
ega d o supply and demand bu also in e ms o quali y equi emen s om cus ome s and inal
consume s (Bijman e al., 2011). Ma ke ends hus demand ha ag i ood coope a i es de elop
ex e nal social ne wo ks wi h hei supplie s and cus ome s so ha hese ne wo ks can hen
acili a e op imal coo dina ion h oughou he supply chain and so become a key ac o in
sa is ying hei clien s' needs.
In a case s udy o dai y coope a i es in China, Zhong e al. (2018) ind ha coope a i es’
deg ee o e ical coo dina ion along hei supply chain –in o he wo ds, how de eloped hei
ex e nal social ne wo k is– a ec s he coope a i e's global pe o mance and he bene i s
dis ibu ed o i s membe s. In he i s case, a linea ela ion is obse ed: he g ea e he e ical
coo dina ion and he ex e nal social ne wo k, he g ea e he bene i s he coope a i e ob ains.
Howe e , he in luence o e ical coo dina ion on he bene i s dis ibu ed o membe s has a
di e en ype o ela ion: membe s o coope a i es who e idence a medium e ical
coo dina ion ob ain he highes bene i s, ollowed by membe s o coope a i es wi h a high
e ical coo dina ion and, las ly, membe s o coope a i es wi h a lowe de elopmen o hei
ex e nal social ne wo k. Wha e e he case, co ec ly managing his ype o ex e nal social
ne wo k should also be included in he coope a i e's s a egic plan.
The s udy by Ruben and He as (2012) in o he co ee sec o in E hiopia is one o he
ew o link coope a i es' social capi al (in e nal and ex e nal) o hei pe o mance. The au ho s
conclude ha coope a i es' p oduc i i y and economic pe o mance imp o e conside ably
when de eloping in e nal social capi al, and ha hese wo indica o s a e also a ec ed by
ex e nal social ne wo ks. In addi ion, when compa ing he g ea e o lowe p esence o bo h
ypes o capi al, hey ind ha when in e nal social capi al is s onge han ex e nal social
capi al, collec i e ac ions a e mo e easible and iable. On he o he hand, when ex e nal social
capi al p e ails, people place g ea e us in indi idual solu ions based on hei ex e nal
ne wo ks.
In conclusion, social capi al could p o ide bene i s bu also cos s and/o isks.
The e o e, each ype o social ne wo k (in e nal and ex e nal) could ha e di e en implica ions
o he coope a i e's pe o mance. We hus p opose he ollowing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1: coope a i es wi h di e en in e nal and ex e nal social capi al ne wo ks
pe o m di e en ly
The g ea e o lesse de elopmen o one o ano he social ne wo k mus he e o e be
guided by an unde s anding o hei di e en con ibu ions o he o ganisa ion’s objec i es
(Adle & Kwon, 2002) and mus p ima ily be amed wi hin he coope a i e's s a egic plan.
2. Me hodological app oach
2.1. The in o ma ion
This explo a o y analysis s ems om a esea ch line de eloped wi hin he amewo k o
he esea ch “Size, s a egy and esul s o ag i ood coope a i es in he Cana y Islands (Spain)”.
I s aim is o iden i y ac o s (such as size, s a egy o en i onmen al unce ain y) ha ha e made
i possible o ce ain ag i ood coope a i es o pe o m be e han o he s. In his s udy, he
coope a i es' in e nal and ex e nal social ne wo ks a e analysed. This p ojec was ca ied ou in
he Cana y Islands (Spain) which –acco ding o he Spanish Minis y o Employmen and Social
Se ices – is one o he egions wi h he lowes numbe o ag i ood coope a i es in Spain. O
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he 202 coope a i es in he Cana y Islands in 2016, 64 we e ag i ood coope a i es (31.68%).
These coope a i es employ a o al o 1,664 employees, and ep esen 1.96% o all ag i ood
coope a i es in Spain.
Wi hin he amewo k o he abo e p ojec , an ad hoc da abase was designed wi h he
in o ma ion on coope a i es ha was equi ed o he p ojec ’s aims, gi en ha he in o ma ion
needed was no ound in he da abases a ailable in he ma ke . A specialised i m conduc ed
he su eys by e-mail and elephone calls in Sep embe 2017. The inal alid sample comp ised
50 ag i ood coope a i es o he 64 ha exis ed in he Cana y Islands in ea ly 2017. O he 50
coope a i es su eyed, 17 we e ishe men’s associa ions, and he es we e ag i ood
coope a i es, o which wo we e second- ie coope a i es and he es i s - ie coope a i es.
Acco dingly, he sample used in his s udy comp ised 78% o ag i ood coope a i es in he
Cana y Islands (Spain).
2.2. The ques ionnai e
The heo e ical e iew o he li e a u e and he e lec ion ha made he design o he
ques ionnai e possible we e conduc ed unde he s a egic managemen app oach and
pe spec i e, which has sca cely been applied in he ield o coope a i es (Mazza ol e al., 2011).
F om he ques ionnai e ha was designed, he ollowing sec ions a e used in his wo k:
− Coope a i es' cha ac e is ics: hei age (yea s om hei c ea ion up o 2017), hei size
(in e ms o he numbe o employees [
2
], as a p oxy indica o , and he numbe o
membe s), he p oduc s hey sell and he ma ke s in which hese a e o e ed.
- Membe s’ cha ac e is ics: one o he majo challenges acing coope a i es is o cope
wi h he dispe se na u e o hei membe s (Höle and Kühl, 2018). As coope a i es g ow
in sea ch o g ea e e iciency, hei manage s mus cope wi h a g ea e di e si y o
membe s (G ashuis, 2018). Following his easoning, his s udy conside s he g ea e o
lesse he e ogenei y o coope a i e membe s –adap ed om Ma cos-Ma ás e al. (2014)
and Ös e be g and Nilsson (2009)– in e ms o hei age, educa ion, in e es ,
con ibu ions o he coope a i e (e.g. kilos o li es o p oduc s) and pa icipa ion in he
coope a i e's go e ning bodies. The scale used anged om e y di e en /di e en o
simila / e y simila .
- Coope a i es' social ne wo ks (Table 3): he ques ion add essing in e nal social
ne wo ks is a mul i-i em ques ion ( ou i ems) based on he wo ks o Peng e al. (2016),
Os gaa d and Bi ley (1996), and Ös e be g and Nilsson (2009). Manage s s a e how
o en hey es ablished he di e en ypes o con ac s men ioned o hem: ela ions
be ween membe s (ho izon al) (Peng e al., 2016), ela ions be ween membe s and
managemen eam ( e ical) (Peng e al., 2016), he deg ee o kinship o iendship, and
he deg ee o us among membe s. The i s h ee i ems allow us o app oach Nahapie
and Ghoshal’s (1998) s uc u al dimension o social capi al. The ou h is linked o he
ela ional dimension h ough us . Finally, he cogni i e dimension is conside ed
implici ly in all he i ems because he membe s o he coope a i es a e assumed o sha e
common alues, in e es s and goals, as well as a common language (Deng e al., 2020).
The scale used anged om no link/con ac a all o e y low us ( alue 1) o e y
equen links/con ac s o e y high us ( alue 5).
2
Following he Eu opean Union Recommenda ion o 6 May 2005 (OJEU 20.05.2003), en e p ises a e classi ied
acco ding o size in o mic o-en e p ises (0-9 employees), small en e p ises (10-49 employees), and medium
en e p ises (50-250 employees).
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As o ex e nal social ne wo ks, ou i ems a e adap ed, mainly om he con ibu ions
o Valle -Bellmun (2010) and Spo lede and Pe e son (2003) (Table 3). Responden s
s a e how o en hey made con ac wi h hei main cus ome s and o he ex e nal agen s
linked o he coope a i e (such as o he coope a i es o any o he ag i ood o ganisa ion,
p o essional and ade associa ions, local go e nmen s, public adminis a ions…) in
o de o exchange ideas, in o ma ion (changes in ea ing habi s, new ood laws, ood
ale s, e c.), objec i es, plans o decisions. Finally, he ou h i em assesses he deg ee
o us be ween he coope a i e and i s main cus ome s. The i s h ee i ems allow us
o app oach Nahapie and Ghoshal’s (1998) s uc u al dimension o social capi al. The
ou h is linked o he ela ional dimension h ough us .
The scale used anges om ne e making con ac wi h he main cus ome s, o ha ing
low us in hem ( alue 1) o making con ac equen ly wi h he main cus ome s, o
ha ing e y high us in hem ( alue 5).
Table 3. Scale o he coope a i e's social ne wo ks
SOCIAL CAPITAL TYPES
(Adle & Kwon, 2002; Deng, 2015; Leana & Pil, 2006)
COOPERATIVE'S INTERNAL SOCIAL
NETWORK
(among membe s/managemen eams)
(adap ed om Peng e al., 2016; Os gaa d &
Bi ley, 1996; Ös e be g & Nilsson, 2009)
COOPERATIVE'S EXTERNAL SOCIAL
NETWORK
(wi h agen s ex e nal o he co-ope a i e)
(adap ed om Spo lede & Pe e son, 2003;
Valle -Bellmun , 2010).
SOCIAL CAPITAL DIMENSIONS (Nahapie & Ghoshal, 1998)
COGNITIVE DIMENSION
(sha ed goals and alues)
STRUCTURAL
DIMENSION
1. A e he e kinship
o iendship ies,
among he membe s
o you coope a i e?
STRUCTURAL
DIMENSION
1. You coope a i e sha es
ideas and in o ma ion wi h
i s main cus ome s (whe he
dis ibu o s, la ge
dis ibu ion…)
2. F equency o
con ac s among he
membe s o you
coope a i e is….
(ho izon al)
2. You coope a i e se s
objec i es, es ablishes plans
and makes decisions
oge he wi h i s main
cus ome s (whe he
dis ibu o s, la ge
dis ibu ion…)
3. F equency o
con ac s among he
membe s and he
managemen eam o
you coope a i e
is…. ( e ical)
3. You coope a i e
in e ac s wi h o he
su ounding agen s such as
o he coope a i es
unconnec ed o you s o any
o he ag i ood o ganisa ion,
p o essional and ade
associa ions, local
go e nmen s, public
adminis a ions…
RELATIONAL
DIMENSION
4. T us among he
membe s o he
coope a i e is
usually…
RELATIONAL
DIMENSION
4. T us be ween he
coope a i e and i s main
cus ome s (whe he
dis ibu o s, la ge
dis ibu ion…) is usually….
- Coope a i es' pe o mance: manage ial pe cep ions – including hose conce ning
pe o mance– a e “pi o al” o unde s anding s a egic aspec s o o ganisa ions (Ishak
e al., 2020). In his pape , he coope a i e's pe o mance is hus add essed om a
subjec i e pe spec i e ( o example, Benos e al., 2016), and in ela i e e ms wi h
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Table 8. Analysis o signi ican di e ences in pe o mance acco ding o social ne wo ks:
economic and inancial s eng h
Typology o social ne wo ks
To al
Na ow
social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
in e nal social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
ex e nal social
ne wo k
B oad
social
ne wo k
Much wo se/wo se
han compe i o s
0
1 (10%)
0
5 (29.4%)
6 (13.6%)
Same as compe i o s
7 (63.6%)
5 (50%)
2 (33.3%)
6 (35.3%)
20 (45.4%)
Be e /much be e
han compe i o s
4 (36.4%)
4 (40%)
4 (66.7%)
6 (35.3%)
18 (40.1%)
TOTAL
11 (100%)
10 (100%)
6 (100%)
17 (100%)
44 (100%)
Pea son's Chi-squa e 8.105 d 6 p- alue= 0.231 > 0.05 Asymp o ic signi icance ( wo-sided) No signi ican
Sou ce: own da a
- Membe sa is ac ion (Table 9):
Membe sa is ac ion in hal o he coope a i es analysed is be e o much be e han
ha o hei compe i o s. This is also e lec ed in all ypes o coope a i es, excep o
coope a i es wi h a na ow social ne wo k, whe e mos membe s eel as equally sa is ied as
hei compe i o s. Signi ican di e ences a e no obse ed in his indica o ei he (p-
alue=0.490 > 0.05).
Table 9. Analysis o signi ican di e ences in pe o mance acco ding o social ne wo ks:
membe sa is ac ion
Typology o social ne wo ks
To al
Na ow social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
in e nal social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
ex e nal
social
ne wo k
B oad
social
ne wo k
Much
wo se/wo se han
compe i o s
1 (9.1%)
1 (10%)
0
3 (17.6%)
5 (11.4%)
Same as
compe i o s
7 (63.6%)
3 (30%)
2 (33.3%)
5 (29.4%)
17 (38.6%)
Be e /much be e
han compe i o s
3 (27.3%)
6 (60%)
4 (66.7%)
9 (52.9%)
22 (50%)
TOTAL
11 (100%)
10 (100%)
6 (100%)
17 (100%)
44 (100%)
Pea son's Chi-squa e 5.428 d 6 p- alue=0.490 > 0.05 Asymp o ic signi icance ( wo-sided) No signi ican
Sou ce: own da a
- Sales g ow h (Table 10):
Coope a i es' g ow h endency is e lec ed in he ou ypes. While hose wi h a b oad
social ne wo k ha e mos ly g own he same as hei compe i o s, he o he h ee ypes a e
composed o coope a i es ha ha e mos ly expe ienced be e o much be e sales g ow h han
hei compe i o s. Howe e , his di e ence is no conside ed o be signi ican om a s a is ical
poin o iew (p- alue=0.857 > 0.05).

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Table 10. Analysis o signi ican di e ences in pe o mance acco ding o social ne wo ks:
sales g ow h
Typology o social ne wo ks
To al
Na ow
social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
in e nal
social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
ex e nal
social
ne wo k
B oad
social
ne wo k
Much wo se/wo se
han compe i o s
1 (9.1%)
2 (20%)
0
2 (11.8%)
5 (11.4%)
Same as compe i o s
4 (36.4%)
3 (30%)
2 (33.3%)
8 (47%)
17 (38.6%)
Be e /much be e
han compe i o s
6 (54.5%)
5 (50%)
4 (66.7%)
7 (41.1%)
22 (50%)
TOTAL
11 (100%)
10 (100%)
6 (100%)
17 (100%)
44 (100%)
Pea son's Chi-squa e 2.598 d 6 p- alue=0.857 > 0.05 Asymp o ic signi icance ( wo-sided) No signi ican
Sou ce: own da a
- The coope a i e's ex e nal image (Table 11):
Ex e nal image is he only pe o mance indica o in which he exis ing di e ences
among he ou ypes o coope a i es acco ding o hei social ne wo ks a e signi ican and
no ewo hy (p- alue=0.048 < 0.05). Al hough among he coope a i es wi h a b oad social
ne wo k he e a e some ha pe cei e hei ex e nal image o be wo se o much wo se han hei
compe i o s, o e wo hi ds (76.5%) o he coope a i es wi h his kind o ne wo k pe cei e
hei ex e nal image o be be e o e en much be e han hei compe i o s’. In addi ion,
coope a i es wi h an asymme ic ex e nal ne wo k a e spli in he same p opo ion be ween
hose who conside hei ex e nal image o be he same (50%) as hei compe i o s, and hose
who conside i o be be e o much be e (50%). Fo hei pa , a smalle pe cen age –48%–
o coope a i es ha do no e idence a highly de eloped ex e nal social ne wo k (coope a i es
wi h a na ow social ne wo k plus coope a i es wi h an asymme ic in e nal ne wo k)
conside ed hei image o be be e o much be e han hei compe i o s.
Table 11. Analysis o signi ican di e ences in pe o mance acco ding o social ne wo ks: he
coope a i e's ex e nal image
Typology o social ne wo ks
To al
Na ow
social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
in e nal
social
ne wo k
Asymme ic
ex e nal social
ne wo k
B oad
social
ne wo k
Much wo se/wo se
han compe i o s
0
0
0
3 (17.6%)
3 (6.8%)
Same as compe i o s
6 (54.5%)
5 (50%)
3 (50%)
1 (5.9%)
15 (34.1%)
Be e /much be e
han compe i o s
5 (45.5%)
5 (50%)
3 (50%)
13 (76.5%)
26 (59.1%)
TOTAL
11 (100%)
10 (100%)
6 (100%)
17 (100%)
44 (100%)
Pea son's Chi-squa e 12.710 d 6 p- alue=0.048 < 0.05 Asymp o ic signi icance ( wo-sided) Signi ican
Sou ce: own da a
The e o e, he only signi ican di e ence ound is in he ex e nal image o coope a i es
wi h di e en social ne wo ks. Coope a i es wi h a b oad social ne wo k a e clea ly seen o
ha e a be e ex e nal image han hei compe i o s and –in a smalle pe cen age– coope a i es
wi h an asymme ic social ne wo k ab oad, he eby con i ming o a ce ain deg ee he
hypo hesis posi ed.
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Conclusions and implica ions
Conclusions
Gi en he impo ance o social capi al and social ne wo ks in coope a i es, his wo k
con ibu es o he li e a u e –in a p elimina y and explo a o y way– by sugges ing a
classi ica ion o ag i ood coope a i es acco ding o hei in e nal and ex e nal social ne wo ks.
A pola isa ion be ween he wo ypes o coope a i es loca ed a he ex emes o he
classi ica ion can hus be seen, as ag i ood coope a i es wi h a b oad social ne wo k (34%) and
wi h a na ow social ne wo k (22%) p edomina e. When de eloping only one ype o social
ne wo k (in e nal o ex e nal), coope a i es place he emphasis on hei in e nal ne wo k,
encou aging ela ions and us be ween membe s (ho izon al) and be ween he la e and
managemen eams ( e ical). Coope a i es ha ha e a highly de eloped ex e nal social
ne wo k ( ega dless o hei in e nal social ne wo k) make up 48% o he sample, whe eas
coope a i es ha ha e a high in e nal social ne wo k ( ega dless o hei ex e nal social
ne wo k) accoun o 54% o o ganisa ions. This highligh s he lack o ex e nal o ien a ion o
hese ag i ood coope a i es. I is also e lec ed by he ac ha he smalle g oup is composed
o coope a i es wi h an asymme ic ex e nal ne wo k. G ashuis and Magnie (2018) also no e
ha mos ag i ood coope a i es lack a b and image ha helps hei di e en ia ion. Howe e ,
Benos e al. (2016) obse ed ha ag ibusiness coope a i es abandon hei adi ional “passi e
ma ke ole”, c ea ing he condi ions o de elop a ma ke o ien a ion, despi e he di icul ies
in ol ed. In ou s udy, coope a i es ha de elop an ex e nal asymme ic social ne wo k a e
mos ly o e 45 yea s old, which is a dis inc i e cha ac e is ic compa ed o o he ypes o
coope a i es acco ding o hei social ne wo ks and which a e mos ly younge . Da a analysis
shows ha he p oduc s and ma ke s o coope a i es wi h an asymme ic ex e nal social
ne wo k also make hem di e en . Speci ically, coope a i es wi h a na ow, b oad o
asymme ic in e nal social ne wo k clea ly show a ocus on bananas as hei p oduc s, while
coope a i es wi h an asymme ic ex e nal social ne wo k e idence a wide ange o p oduc s.
The same happens wi h he a ge ma ke s o hei p oduc s. Coope a i es wi h an asymme ic
ex e nal social ne wo k sell hei p oduc s o local, na ional o e en in e na ional ma ke s in
simila pe cen ages, whe eas he o he coope a i es a e especially ocused on local –and a
mos – egional ma ke s. Being olde , and being in ol ed in a g ea e a ie y o p oduc s and
ma ke s is wha cha ac e izes coope a i es ha ha e an asymme ic ex e nal social ne wo k.
These cha ac e is ics make hem ocus pa icula ly on de eloping an ex e nal social ne wo k
linked o g ea e ma ke o ien a ion o coope a i es.
These esul s poin o a second s ep in his esea ch aimed a explo ing he in luence o
social ne wo ks on coope a i es' pe o mance. The only s a is ically signi ican di e ence
among coope a i es acco ding o hei social ne wo k is obse ed in he ex e nal image
p ojec ed by hese o ganisa ions. Among he coope a i es wi h a b oad social ne wo k –o a
leas wi h an asymme ic ex e nal social ne wo k– o ganisa ions wi h a be e o much be e
ex e nal image and p es ige han hei compe i o s p edomina e. Wi h he signi ican impac i
has on he ex e nal image o he coope a i es, he impo ance o hei ma ke o ien a ion is hus
con i med, gi en he new compe i i e en i onmen and, especially, he e e -inc easing
p essu es in he ag i ood chain.
The lack o any u he di e ences in he pe o mance o he a ious ypes o
coope a i es acco ding o hei social ne wo ks also leads us o conclude ha he small size o
he as majo i y o coope a i es coupled wi h hei geog aphical and indus ial p oximi y as
well as hei pa ne s’ simila in e es s (Table 5) may ha e a g ea e impac on hei pe o mance
han he social ne wo ks hemsel es. This explo a o y s udy has he e o e only pa ially
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con i med he hypo hesis pu o wa d by poin ing o di e ences in pe o mance measu ed as
he ex e nal image o he coope a i es acco ding o he ype o social ne wo ks hey de elop.
Implica ions
Se e al implica ions eme ge om he esul s ob ained, bo h o he sec o and o
ins i u ions. On he one hand, manage s mus be able o plan and de elop a social clima e o
in e pe sonal coope a ion be ween membe s and be ween membe s and manage s (ho izon al
and e ical) in line wi h he coope a i e’s alues, objec i es and s a egies. In his sense,
coope a i e manage s should analyse, measu e and moni o each social capi al dimension and
each ype o social capi al (Appa ao e al., 2019). They mus also ac he eon in a manne ha
is consis en wi h hei s a egy. They should he e o e design an app op ia e and e ec i e
communica ion policy o coope a i es’ sha ed goals and alues and also o ganise e en s such
as wo kshops, aining semina s and so on (Deng e al., 2020) ha show he na u e and bene i s
o coope a i es o membe s so as o ein o ce he coope a i e ideology (By ne & McCa hy,
2005). Manage s migh hus simul aneously imp o e he cogni i e and s uc u al dimension o
capi al as membe s in e ac wi h each o he and come o know a li le mo e abou he ac i i ies
o he s a e engaged in.
Manage s also need o unde s and ha he ex e nal social ne wo k is especially ele an ,
since i gene a es impo an e ec s on he ex e nal image and p es ige o coope a i es. To
achie e his, i may p o e necessa y o hi e quali ied p o essionals o managemen posi ions.
Those p o essional manage s mus unde s and he s a egic na u e o social ne wo ks o
coope a i es. They could he e o e become ma ke -o ien ed and inno a i e o ganisa ions ha
a e eady o compe e in oday's complex ma ke s in he same condi ions as non-social economy
en e p ises.
Finally, manage s –and indeed coope a i e membe s as a whole– could bene i mo e
om hei social capi al as i can simpli y and help hem wi h he in e pe sonal, decisional and
in o ma ional oles (Min zbe g, 1973); ha is, wi h manage ial oles. Social capi al has been
de ined as a supplemen o go e nance in coope a i es (Liang e al., 2015) because social
capi al and o mal go e nances a e complemen a y (Liang e al., 2018).
Fu he mo e, ins i u ions and public adminis a ions mus a ou mee ing spaces o
dialogue and in o ma ion exchange be ween all he membe s o he ag i ood supply chain as
well as he o he agen s in ol ed, in addi ion o discussion o ums o sec o ial ai s. Public
ins i u ions should also de elop policies on human esou ces and social capi al aining o
sec o membe s and in pa icula o manage s o ag i ood coope a i es. All o hese ac i i ies
a e aimed a changing he men ali y o hese manage s, and a aking hem ou o hei “com o
zone” so ha hey can p omo e la ge , inno a i e and mo e ma ke -o ien ed coope a i es.
Acknowledgemen
The au ho s a e hank ul o he Fundación Cana ia Cajama “Tamaño, es a egia y
esul ados de las coope a i as ag oalimen a ias en Cana ias” (A16120338/ Coope a i as
Ag oalimen a ias) o inancial suppo o ca y ou his esea ch.
Ga cía-Pé ez, A.M., e al.
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