In o ma ion Visualiza ion and Usabili y:
Tools o Human Comp ehension
Ángel Vizoso
Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela
ange[email p o ec ed]
Accep ed e sion o he chap e published by Sp inge
How o ci e:
Vizoso, Á. (2020). In o ma ion Visualiza ion and Usabili y: Tools o Human
Comp ehension. In: Vázquez-He e o, J., Di ei o-Rebollal, S., Sil a-Rod íguez, A.,
López-Ga cía, X. (eds) Jou nalis ic Me amo phosis. S udies in Big Da a, ol 70.
Sp inge , Cham. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-030-36315-4_7
2
In o ma ion Visualiza ion and Usabili y:
Tools o Human Comp ehension
Ángel Vizoso
Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela
ange[email p o ec ed]
Abs ac . This chap e makes a e iew on he p og ess o wo g owing a eas in he ield
o communica ion: in o ma ion isualiza ion and usabili y. In o ma ion isualiza ion has
expe imen ed a lo o changes du ing he las ew yea s, especially wi h i s a i al o he
In e ne and he de elopmen o di e en na a i e o ms by aking ad an age o he main
cha ac e is ics o he new en i onmen . Some hing simila has occu ed wi h he concep
o usabili y. The ollowing sec ions explo e he signi icance o his young idea whose
sp ead ook place especially wi h he s a o he In e ne . Wi h he objec i e o
comple ing his heo e ical amewo k, a small usabili y es was conduc ed wi h i e
enowned isualiza ions. The esul s o his es show ha e en he mos salien jou nals
do no ul ill many o he main usabili y ecommenda ions. Hence, his a ea s ill has a
conside able way o go ega ding i s appliance o in o ma ion isualiza ion.
Keywo ds: in o ma ion isualiza ion; usabili y; in og aphics; use -cen e ed design
1 Miles ones and de elopmen o in o ma ion isualiza ion
In o ma ion isualiza ion has been one o he a eas wi h a majo de elopmen in he ield
o communica ion. I s main goal is he p esen a ion o in o ma ion and da a in a
comp ehensi e and o de ly way (Uyan Du 2014). Thus, his discipline can be de ined as
“ he ep esen a ion and p esen a ion o bo h da a and in o ma ion ha akes ad an age o
ou isual capabili y in o de o expand ou knowledge” (Alcalde 2015: 20). Likewise, i
is “ he use o isual ep esen a ions o explo e, make sense o , and communica e da a”
(Few 2014: 2). As no ed h ough hese de ini ions, he e ha e been many e o s o de ine
and delimi he a ea, and mos o hem highligh he powe o in o ma ion isualiza ion
as a communica i e ool o he knowledge en ichmen (Olmeda-Gómez 2014).
3
When alking abou in o ma ion isualiza ion we a e analysing a booming a ea,
especially in jou nalism. Thus, i is no a new a ea o an exclusi e communica i e ool o
ou days (Figuei as 2014). I is possible o ind an eceden s o his isual gen e in books
like William Play ai ’s The Comme cial and Poli ical A las and S a is ical B e ia y
published in 1786 and 1801 espec i ely. As poin ed ou by Cai o (2008), hese books
con ain he i s examples o ba , line and pie cha s. A ew yea s la e , in 1854, i is
possible o ind ano he g ea miles one in he de elopmen o in o ma ion isualiza ion.
The B i ish doc o John Snow showed he geog aphical sp ead o mo e han i e hund ed
dea hs due o chole a du ing en days in he Soho dis ic , London. Snow’s map combines
wo da ase s. Fi s o all, he numbe and loca ion o he chole a dea hs and, secondly, he
wa e sou ces loca ion. Hence, hanks o his map i is possible o ind ou he ela ion
among he deceases and he con amina ion o some wa e sou ces in he neighbou hood.
Edwa d Tu e highligh ed he impo ance John Snow’s con ibu ion by opening a new
way o p o iding “di ec and powe ul es imony abou a possible cause-e ec
ela ionship” (1997: 6).
Less han a decade la e , he F ench enginee Cha les Joseph Mina d published one o
he mos iconic isualiza ions e e , a cha o he losses o Napoleon’s a my du ing i s
Russian Campaign (1812-1813). Mina d’s cha shows he de elopmen o di e en
a iables: “ he size o he a my, i s loca ion on a wo-dimensional su ace, he di ec ion
o he a my’s mo emen and empe a u e in a ious da es du ing he e ea om
Moscow” (Tu e 2001: 40). All o ha in a e y isual cha which e lec s he eg ession
o Napoleon’s a my bo h du ing i s ad ance owa ds Moscow i s and i s wi hd awal
hen.
Al hough he examples p e iously no ed a e conside ed a key pa o he de elopmen
o in o ma ion isualiza ion, hey we e no published by he p ess, a leas , ini ially. I
exis s a deep deba e among some schola s abou he s a o p ess in og aphics. Thus,
many o hem conside ha he desc ip ion o Admi al Ve non’s a ack o Po obello’s
bay is he i s example o in og aphics a ailable in he p in ed p ess (Sulli an 1987 in
F anco 2005). I was published by he Daily Pos on he 29 h o Ma ch 1740. Howe e , i
exis s b oad ag eemen among schola s in iden i ying he g aphic published by he B i ish
dia y The Times on he 7 h o Ap il 1806 abou Isaac Bligh ’s homicide as he i s example
o in og aphics in p ess (Pel ze 1991). This g aphic con ains a d aw o he iew o M .
Bligh ’s house as well as a plan o i s inside wi h an explana ion o he i ine a y ollowed
by i s mu de s (Cai o 2008).
4
Howe e , in o ma ion isualiza ion expe s end o coincide in highligh ing he
launching o he newspape USA Today as one o he main miles ones in he de elopmen
o his ield. Launched in Sep embe 1982, USA Today changed he way in which p ess
jou nalism was p oduced by in oducing a new design idea based on he use o colou
ins ead black and whi e, an inc ease in he use o images and a clea commi men in he
use o in og aphics (Lallana 1999). A e he eme gence o his jou nal, some global
e en s like, o ins ance, he Gul Wa and he di icul ies o accessing audio isual
ma e ials du ing i s cou se, had a g ea in luence in he de elopmen o his gen e. The
media ied o so he sho age o ideos and pic u es o his con lic by using
isualiza ions o explain bo h he de elopmen o he wa as well as he weapons and
ma e ials used by he a mies.
1.1 F om p in ed o in e ac i e in og aphics
As poin ed ou be o e, in o ma ion isualiza ion has i s o igin in many wo ks ela ed wi h
disciplines like economics o demog aphics. Then, he gen e eached a new
cha ac e iza ion wi h i s adop ion by he media and, mo e conc e ely, by he p in ed p ess.
This in eg a ion esul ed in he de elopmen o p in ed in og aphics, a pa icula way o
in o ma i e communica ion which can be de ined like “an in o ma i e con ibu ion based
on bo h iconic and ypog aphic elemen s, which allows he comp ehension o ac s,
ac ions o cu en opics o , a leas , some o hei main aspec s by accompanying o
eplacing an in o ma i e ex ” (Vale o-Sancho 2001: 21).
Following Cai o (2008), in og aphics a e no an o namen al objec wi h he objec i e
o make he pages o he newspape mo e ligh , dynamic o colou ul. I has o wo k as a
ool o he eali y analysis imp o ing eade s’ comp ehension.
Th ough hese wo de ini ions i is possible o assess wo ideas. Fi s ly, he na u e o
in og aphics as a jou nalis ic gen e, simila ly o o he s like epo s o in e iews.
Secondly, he powe o in og aphics as a ehicle o in o ma ion ansmission. Mo eo e ,
conce ning i s p oduc ion, i has expe imen ed an e olu ion du ing he las wo decades.
Nowadays in og aphics a e inc easingly he esul o he wo k o jou nalis s wi h design
and da a managemen abili ies while, in he pas , i was p oduced by a is s who adap ed
i s know-how o he needs o jou nalism (Cai o 2017).
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The ad ance o in og aphics since he 90s has been con inuous, as no ed be o e. All o
ha hanks o he inclusion o new isual o ms and echnological ools which ha e
allowed he adap a ion and imp o emen o his gen e. In addi ion, hese changes ha e
led in o he bi h o a new o m o isualiza ion, mul imedia in og aphics, conside ed a
comple ely new communica i e o m by many schola s (A é alo 2009).
Wibke Webe , de ines an in e ac i e in o ma ion g aphic as “a isual ep esen a ion o
in o ma ion ha in eg a es di e en nodes in o a cohe en whole and o e s a leas one
na iga ion op ion o con ol he g aphic” (2013: 11). The you h o he use o his gen e
by he online media has p o oked he eme gence o a wide ange o ways o name i .
Thus, le e aging i s cha ac e is ics –mul imedia, hype ex , and in e ac i i y–, a lo o
nomencla u es ha e eme ged. Some o hem a e, o ins ance: digi al in og aphics (Pin o
Rod igues 2012), online in og aphics (Noguei a 2018), in e ac i e in og aphics (Dick
2013), o mul imedia in og aphics (Sala e ía and Co es 2005). Ano he ones a e da a
isualiza ion (Iliinsky 2012) o in o ma ion isualiza ion (Ande son 2017). Howe e , i
exis s a deep deba e among schola s. While some o hem conside ha in og aphics a e
a subdiscipline o in o ma ion isualiza ion, o he s hink ha bo h in og aphics and
in o ma ion isualiza ion a e pa o he same eali y.
Despi e hese di e se ways o name i , which is undeniable is ha mul imedia
in og aphics ha e expe imen ed a huge ad ance in he las ew yea s. This ad ance has
i s explana ion in he ac ha , while p in ed in og aphics do no ely on a close
connec ion wi h echnology, mul imedia does. Thus, i is possible o no ice di e en
s ages in he de elopmen o mul imedia in og aphics which, ollowing Gomes-Ama al
(2010), a e:
• Con en eplica ion. I was he ini ial s age o he publica ion o in og aphics online.
The ein, newspape s eplica ed he same con en published be o e on hei p in ed
e sion wi hou any in e ac i i y o mul imedia capabili y.
• Addi ion o ce ain in e ac i i y. The second s age was ma ked by he in eg a ion o a
ce ain le el o in e ac i i y in he in og aphic pieces p e iously published in he
p in ed edi ion o he media.
• Inclusion and combina ion o mul imedia elemen s. The main cha ac e is ic o his hi d
s age is he use o audio, ideo, ex , images and hype links in a p oduc concei ed o
i s publica ion online.
6
• Da a based in og aphics. Visualiza ions linked o a da abase wi h eal- ime upda ing.
This ou h s age allows he highes le el o pe sonaliza ion and explo a ion o he
eason ha each indi idual use can e e o a speci ic pa o he da a in o de o ob ain
an indi idual and exclusi e expe ience.
Hence, when alking abou in og aphics –bo h p in ed and mul imedia– we a e alking
abou a lexible and e icien jou nalis ic gen e and communica i e ool which can be a
complemen o he in o ma ion o p esen i au onomously (Zwinge and Zeille 2016).
In addi ion, in og aphics ha e demons a ed i s capabili y o deal wi h da a om many
disciplines, and i is he eason why i s use is becoming mo e equen in disciplines like
a (Li 2018) o economy (Ga o 2015).
Al hough he de elopmen o in o ma ion isualiza ion was s eady du ing he las
wen y yea s, u he challenges ha e eme ged du ing he las decade. The onse o new
de ices like mobile phones o able s p o oked new needs in he p oduc ion o news
g aphics, especially he jou nalis ic ones. Jou nalis s, designe s and p og amme s who
ca y ou he ask o da a ex ac ion and con en p oduc ion o hese news p oduc s ha e
now he need o adap ing i s isual appea ance and i s unc ions o hese di e en ways
o consump ion. Hence, concep s like esponsi e design o usabili y play now a cen al
ole when p oducing in o ma ion isualiza ion.
2 The concep o usabili y and i s ele ance o in o ma ion isualiza ion
Usabili y has been de ined by he In a na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion (ISO) as
“ he ex en o which a p oduc can be used by speci ied use s o achie e speci ied goals
wi h e ec i eness, e iciency, and sa is ac ion in a speci ied con ex o use” (In e na ional
O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion 2018: 15). Al hough his agency opens i s de ini ion o
all p oduc s, he his o ical de elopmen o he concep has been cen e ed mainly in
compu ing ools in bo h so wa e –compu e p og ams, ideo games o , mo e ecen ly,
mobile apps–, and ha dwa e sides–compu e s in i s di e en a ian s, mobile phones o
able s among o he de ices–.
In 1993 Jakob Nielsen alked abou he g owing impo ance o use in e aces in he
compu ing o ha ime. Nielsen poin ed ou ha he changes in he use o compu e s –
om specialized use s o he popula iza ion o hese machines– lead o he need o
“making li e easie o he use ” (Nielsen 1993: 8). Hence, in he las yea s he concep
7
o usabili y is mo e ela ed wi h eali ies like he “lea ning agili y and he ease o use o
a p oduc ” (Rache e al. 2014: 180) and linked e y closely o he idea o he use -cen e ed
design (UCD) whe e one o he main ocus when p oducing a echnological p oduc is
he capabili y o adap i o he inal use (Mayhew 1999). Rega ding his idea, Nielsen
(1993: 26) es ablished i e a ibu es o usabili y:
• Lea nabili y. Sys ems should be easy o lea n in o de o make possible a quick
adap a ion o he use .
• E iciency. This a ibu e e e s o he ease o lea ning how he p oduc wo ks in o de
o inc ease use s’ knowledge.
• Memo abili y. This cha ac e is ic poin s ou he need o making sys ems whose use
would be easy o emembe . Thus, when use s come back a e a ce ain pe iod o ime
wi hou using i , i would no be necessa y o lea n how i wo ks.
• Low e o a e. E o s should no appea o , a leas , hei appea ance should be sca ce.
The e o e, he sys em should be capable o eco e ing i sel om an e o .
• Sa is ac ion. Nielsen poin ed ou ha sys ems should be pleasan o use, a ea u e ha
would lead he use s o a majo sa is ac ion.
As i is o eseeable, he majo de elopmen o bo h he heo y abou his concep and
he design o in e aces and de ices wi h he mos ecommended usabili y c i e ia has
been aking place om he beginning o he In e ne , democ a isa ion o compu e s and,
in he las ew yea s, mobile phones (Souza and Maciel 2018).
2.1 The challenges o usabili y e alua ion
In he communica i e con ex o ou days, “use s a e su ounded by a b oad ange o
ne wo ked in e ac ion de ices” (Yigi bas e al 2018: 231). This ac has p o oked a lo o
changes in he p oduc ion o communica i e p oduc s and ools. Howe e , one o hese
changes s ands ou among he o he s: he use has become a cen al pa in he designing
p ocess. This phenomenon is wha expe s call he use -cen e ed design, “an i e a i e
design p ocess in which designe s ocus on he use s and hei needs in each phase o he
design p ocess” (In e ac ion Design Founda ion 2019: 1). Hence, a he p esen ime,
hose p o essionals who p oduce ools and p oduc s bo h in he a ea o communica ion o
in o he ones ha e o pu he inal use s in he middle o hei p ojec s in o de o p o ide
hem wi h e icien and a ac i e expe iences.
8
In he cou se o his designing p ocess as well as a e i s launching, bo h hese eams
and some ou side bodies conduc di e en usabili y es s and expe imen s. These
e alua ions a e used o assess he e icacy and he pe inence o bo h he p oduc s and he
echniques employed in i s p oduc ion and can be pe o med in di e en ways.
Fo ins ance, Rache, Lespine -Najib and And e (2014) explained he exis ence o wo
ypes o me hods o he e alua ion o usabili y. Fi s o all, he e would be echniques
whe e he p esence and pa icipa ion o he use s a e needed. These could be:
• Use es ing. In his me hod, he use s a e equi ed o in e ac wi h he in e ace in bo h
ee and di ec ed na iga ion.
• Ca d so ing. Resea che s p esen di e en ca ds o he use s. They a e equi ed o
g oup hem in di e en ca ego ies ele an o hem o , inally, naming hese
ca ego ies.
• In e iews. These could be di ec ed, semi-s uc u ed o non-di ec ional. All hese h ee
ypes ha e he objec i e o knowing use ’s pe cep ions on he use o a p oduc .
• Ques ionnai e. I exis s some p e-de e mined and s anda dized ques ionnai es like he
Websi e Analy ics Measu emen In en o y (WAMMI) o he Usabili y Measu emen
In en o y So wa e (SUMI).
• C ea i i y me hods. Example o hese echniques could be b ains o ming o associa ion
o ideas, among o he s.
• C i ical inciden . Quali a i e in e iew whe e he in e iewed use iden i ies di e en
e en s. The pe son highligh s hese e en s, how hey e ol ed and hei impac and
consequences.
• Obse a ion. In his me hod, esea che s a e obse e s o he no mal pe o ming o
use s’ ac i i ies.
These au ho s no iced ha ano he possibili y is he use o echniques whe e he
p esence o he use is no equi ed. These me hods a e pe o med only by esea che s o
expe s which can no ice he usabili y pa icula i ies o any p oduc by using di e en
p ocedu es:
• Heu is ic analysis. Inspec ion o he in e ace wi h he objec i e o de ec ing he
posi i e and nega i e aspec s o i s usabili y.
• Cogni i e walk- h ough. Simula ion o he use ’s cogni i e beha iou . The au ho s
iden i ied h ee phases in he implemen a ion o his me hod: (1) de ini ion o he
9
scena io and he aims o he s udy; (2) e alua ion phase wi h ques ions o each ask
pe o med; (3) iden i ica ion o any possible usabili y p oblem by using he answe s
gi en o he p e ious ques ions.
• Pe sonas. Analysis o bo h he needs and p o iles o he po en ial use s o a p oduc
wi h he objec i e o c ea ing ic ional cha ac e s. Then, designe s can e e o hese
p o iles when p oducing a new in e ace.
• Au oma ed e alua ion. Use o algo i hms o he au oma ic analysis o he quali y o
he p esen a ion.
• E alua ion by expe ise. Iden i ica ion o any usabili y p oblem by an expe o a g oup
o expe s.
• Analysis o documen s and epo s. Re iew o documen a ion om di e se sou ces.
Wi h he use o his me hod, esea che s can make hei own judgemen s on di e en
p oduc s.
• C ea i i y me hods. As p e iously no ed, his me hod in ol es he u iliza ion o
b ains o ming o he associa ion o ideas and i is alid o esea ch in bo h he p esence
and he absence o he use s.
3 Me hod
To comple e he heo e ical app oach p esen ed in his chap e wi h an empi ical
expe ience, a small heu is ic usabili y es was conduc ed in o de o see i some o he
mos ecognized isualiza ions published in he las ew yea s ul ill he main usabili y
c i e ia se by di e en au ho s. To each his objec i e, an analysis ca d used by de
Oli ei a and Guima ães (2017) adap ed by selec ing wen y o he i ems con ained on i .
I is necessa y o poin ou ha hese au ho s e iewed p e ious esea ch in o de o se
up his ool. I is necessa y o no e ha he e a e di e en me hods o usabili y e alua ion
as poin ed ou by Rache, Lespine -Najib and And e (2014). Then, i e isualiza ions we e
chosen. These mul imedia in og aphic examples we e awa ded in he Malo iej Awa ds’
Bes o Show – Online om 2015 o 2019. A e i s iden i ica ion, he analysis ca d was
applied o hese i ems in an heu is ic analysis in o de o compa e he p esence o he
chosen c i e ia in hese enowned wo ks. The wen y elemen s e iewed in his analysis
ca d a e lis ed in he Table 1 and we e sco ed om 0 o 5 poin s. Thus, each isualiza ion
could ob ain an o e all sco e om 0 o 100 in ul illing he s ablished i ems.
16
eached he highes a es in a eas like conside ing people wi h colou blindness o he
ease o i s comp ehension by any use , all hose ca ego ies ela ed wi h he le el o de ails
p o ided o he con ol op ions a ailable o use s had low sco es. Then, wa ching hese
esul s, i is possible o no ice ha his isualiza ion was en isaged wi h a supplemen a y
and isual unc ion, no as he main way o displaying he in o ma ion.
5 Conclusions
In sum, he aim o his chap e was o highligh he g owing impo ance o usabili y in
he p esen con ex o in o ma ion isualiza ion. As no ed in he p e ious sec ions,
in o ma ion isualiza ion has been one o he jou nalis ic gen es wi h a majo
de elopmen since he 1990s decade. Especially wi h he a i al o he In e ne , his way
o communica ion has explo ed new na a i e o ms and capabili ies.
Howe e , in his con ex , usabili y and e iciency c i e ia play now a cen al ole. As
s a ed, in o ma ion isualiza ion eams ha e o pay mo e a en ion han e e o his side
o he de elopmen . He e, jou nalis s, designe s and p og amme s y o make
isualiza ions whe e e iciency, a ac i e and in o ma i e ele ance ha e o be p esen
in one single p oduc .
To p o e how impo an is ollowing usabili y pa e ns in nowadays’ jou nalism, a
small usabili y es was conduc ed. This b ie expe imen has allowed us o app ecia e
some o he weaknesses and s eng hs o high- enowned isualiza ion wo ks in o de o
highligh he impo ance o conside ing as much usabili y c i e ia as possible when
p oducing in o ma i e pieces like hese.
Acknowledgmen s This chap e is p epa ed wi hin he amewo k o he p ojec “Digi al
na i e media in Spain: s o y elling o ma s and mobile s a egy” (RTI2018-093346-B-
C33), om he Minis y o Science, Inno a ion and Uni e si ies (Go e nmen o Spain).
The p ojec is co- unded by he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund (ERDF). This ex
is also p epa ed as pa o he ac i i ies o No os Medios Resea ch G oup (Uni e sidade
de San iago de Compos ela, GI-1641), suppo ed by he p og amme “Consolida ion and
S uc u a ion o Compe i i e Resea ch Uni s” o he Galician Regional Go e nmen
(ED431B 2017/48). The au ho is also bene icia y om he Educa ion’s Uni e si y
Facul y T aining P og amme (FPU), inanced by he Minis y o Science, Inno a ion and
Uni e si ies (Go e nmen o Spain).
17
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