Associations between Dark Triad and Ambivalent Sexism: Sex Differences among Adolescents

In e na ional Jou nal o
En i onmen al Resea ch
and Public Heal h
A icle
Associa ions be ween Da k T iad and Ambi alen
Sexism: Sex Di e ences among Adolescen s
Ma ía Pa icia Na as 1,2,* , Lo ena Manei o 1,3 , Olalla Cu ín1,4 ,
Jose An onio Gómez-F aguela 1and Jo ge Sob al 2
1Depa men o Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela,
15782 San iago de Compos ela, Spain; lo ena.manei [email p o ec ed] (L.M.); [email p o ec ed] (O.C.);
[email p o ec ed] (J.A.G.-F.)
2Depa men o Poli ic Science and Sociology, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela,
15782 San iago de Compos ela, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
3Ins i u e o Educa ion and Child S udies, Leiden Uni e si y, 2333 AK Leiden, The Ne he lands
4Global Cen e o Applied Heal h Resea ch, A izona S a e Uni e si y, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Recei ed: 16 Sep embe 2020; Accep ed: 19 Oc obe 2020; Published: 23 Oc obe 2020


Abs ac :
The Da k T iad ai s (DT; Machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and na cissism) ha e been
epea edly labeled as a cons ella ion o ai s ha a e cha ac e ized by a dishones and sel - ocused
app oach o in e pe sonal ela ions. Pe sonali y psychologis s sugges ha hese ai s make some
people mo e suscep ible han o he s o in e g oup bias, h ea , and agg ession. Thus, in o de o del e
in o a psychological p o ile p one o accep ing and jus i ying sexis a i udes, he aims o he cu en
s udy we e o analyze he p esence o DT and sexis a i udes in a sample o 367 adolescen s (M
age
=
15.12, SD =0.88; 50.1% males), ind ou he ela ionships ha DT has wi h bo h hos ile and bene olen
sexism, and analyze he ele an di e ences be ween sexes in hese ela ionships. The esul s indica ed
highe sco es in DT and Ambi alen sexism o males. The co ela ions o Machia ellianism wi h
psychopa hy, and psychopa hy wi h na cissism e ealed signi ican ly highe associa ions in males
han emales. The s uc u al equa ion modeling o he bi ac o ial model, cha ac e ized by a global
la en ac o ha encompasses he common cha ac e is ics o DT—along wi h he h ee speci ic ac o s
o Machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and na cissism—showed ha he global la en ac o o DT was
ela ed o bo h hos ile and bene olen sexism in males and emales. Singula ly, na cissism was ela ed
o bene olen sexism in males, and psychopa hy was ela ed o hos ile sexism in emales. Finally,
his esea ch discusses he implica ions o hese esul s on he implemen a ion o posi i e models o
in e pe sonal ela ionships in adolescence owa ds da ing iolence p e en ion.
Keywo ds:
Da k T iad; Machia ellianism; psychopa hy; na cissism; Ambi alen sexism; adolescen
1. In oduc ion
As a esul o social and poli ical ad ances, he p ima y p e en ion o sexis a i udes in adolescence
has become a p io i y o Spanish social policies. The Na ional Ins i u e o S a is ics o Spain [1] s a es
ha 25% o eenage emales eel moni o ed by hei pa ne . One in h ee eenage males conside s
“con olling he couple’s schedules”, “p e en ing hei pa ne om seeing hei iends”, o “ elling
hem wha hey can o canno do” o be accep able in some ci cums ances [
2
]. A sexis a i ude
speci ically cha ac e izes hese beha io s, legi imized by di e ences in s a us and powe be ween
emales and males [3].
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754; doi:10.3390/ije ph17217754 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ije ph
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 2 o 11
1.1. Ambi alen Sexism
Sexism is unde s ood as an a i ude ha implies a cogni i e, a ec i e, and beha io al esponse o
a pe son due o his o he biological sex [
4
]. Allpo p o ided he i s a emp o explain sexism [
5
],
de ining sexism as a p ejudice in which emales a e conside ed di e en and gene ally in e io .
The e o e, acco ding o his, emales should adhe e o gende -speci ic oles and social no ms and
beha io . This o e , disc imina o y, and hos ile sexism has su i ed and e ol ed o e ime in o o he
o ms o sexism, which a e sub le , impe cep ible, and mo e di icul o e adica e. The Ambi alen
Sexism Theo y o Glick and Fiske o e s a alida ed heo y abou old and new o ms o sexism [
6
].
Acco ding o his heo y, sexism has a hos ile and a bene olen componen . Hos ile sexism would
la gely coincide wi h he sexism ha was desc ibed by Allpo , since i is p esen ed as an a i ude wi h
a nega i e sen imen based on he e osexual hos ili y. Bene olen sexism sus ains an idealiza ion o
adi ional gende oles; ha is, emales a e “na u ally” kind and mo e emo ional, while males a e
“na u ally” mo e a ional and “ oughe ”, men ally and physically. The e o e, bene olen sexism is
de ined as a se o a i udes owa ds emales wi h an equally sexis con en , al hough hei posi i e
a ec i i y masks hei ue sexis sense [
7
]. Empi ical e idence highligh s sexis a i udes as a dynamic
isk ac o ha explains he main elemen o da ing iolence in adolescence: he con ol o dominance
o one pa ne o e he o he [
8
]. Howe e , when conside ing he di e ences be ween sexes in college
s uden s, he li e a u e shows unclea esul s: some s udies epo ed mo e hos ile and bene olen
sexism in males han in emales [
9
], while o he s did no ind di e ences be ween sexes in e ms o
bene olen sexism [10].
1.2. Da k T iad T ai s
To del e in o posi i e ole models, i is necessa y o build a s ong empi ical knowledge base
ha demons a es hose a iables ha acili a e in e g oup nega i i y and hinde he p omo ion
o equali y be ween males and emales. Pe sonali y psychologis s sugges ha some quali ies o
ai s make some people mo e suscep ible han o he s o in e g oup bias, h ea and agg ession [
11
];
and consequen ly, in ecen yea s he e has been a e i al o in e es in pe sonali y ai s which p edic
p ejudicial a i udes [
12
]. In o his amewo k, he li e a u e has ex ensi ely used, wi h ema kable
success, he Da k T iad o pe sonali y (hence o h DT) in o de o designa e a speci ic pe sonali y
con igu a ion cha ac e ized by manipula ion and cynicism (i.e., Machia ellianism), callous social
a i udes and impulsi eness (i.e., psychopa hy), and ani y and sel -cen e edness (i.e., na cissism) [
13
].
Paulhus and Williams [
14
] p oposed he label o DT while assuming he exis ence o a ce ain le el o
commonali y be ween hese h ee pe sonali y cha ac e is ics. Tha is, o de ine a pe sonali y p o ile
ha is cha ac e ized by manipula ion, sel ishness, and emo ional coldness, especially ocused on
beha io s o domina ion, coe ci e con ol, and powe [
15
]. An adap i e pa adigm sugges s ha ,
despi e i s socially undesi able na u e, his pe sonali y p o ile may ha e posi i e consequences o
social, oman ic, and oca ional success [
16
] h ough manipula i e social s yle o cha m when da ing
people [
17
]. Fo his eason, al hough high le els o hese ai s exis in some clinical samples, hey
ha e also been ound a he subclinical le el. Mo eo e , ega ding he di e ences be ween sexes,
Mu is e al. [18]
conduc ed a me a-analysis, in which males sco ed highe on DT measu es han emales.
This means ha he ein o cemen o DT beha io s in socie y bene i s males o e emales, because
hey a e consis en wi h adi ional concep ualiza ions o male gende oles. Thus, om his adap i e
pe spec i e, da ke pe sonali y a iables may p o e o be ele an in unde s anding sexism [19].
1.3. DT and Ambi alen Sexism
Few s udies ha e analyzed he ela ionship be ween DT and Ambi alen sexism in adolescen s.
Howe e , i is easonable o assume ha such a pe sonali y p o ile has an in luence as a dis al p edic o
o sexis a i udes and beha io s [
20
]. P e ious esea ch indica ed ha DT is ela ed o a i udes owa d
ape in bo h sexes [
21
], acili a es an exploi i e ma ing s a egy [
22
]; and, in speci ic subclinical samples
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 3 o 11
o adolescen s, high le els o DT we e associa ed wi h high le els o p ejudice [
23
]. Likewise, s udies
documen ha sexism is a se o lea ned beha io s, and knowing he ole ha socie y plays in o ming
indi iduals wi h hese undesi able pe sonali y cha ac e is ics can be use ul in o de o p e en o
educe i [
19
]. Al hough Machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and na cissism migh ep esen a single
pe sonali y p o ile ha encompasses he common cha ac e is ics [
15
], some au ho s conside hem o
be single cons uc s [
24
]. Fo example, p e ious s udies indica e ha na cissism has been associa ed
wi h he “accep ance o ape “my h in males [
25
], and in emales wi h endencies o belong o no m [
26
].
Machia ellianism has been associa ed wi h p omiscui y, hos ile sexual a i udes, and a ious sel ish
and decep i e sexual ac ics [
27
]; and, psychopa hy has been associa ed wi h sexual coe cion [
28
] and
p eda o y sexual beha io s [29] in bo h sexes.
The DT is a clus e o subclinical ai s ha encompasses he eckless psychopa h, he g andiose
na cissis , and he s a egic Machia ellian [
28
]. Al hough he sexis a i udes could be ela ed wi h he
common co e o callousness and decep ion associa ed wi h all h ee DT ai s, when a componen o
sexism (e.g., hos ile) is associa ed wi h impulsi e male olence, psychopa hy could be a complemen a y
p edic o . By con as , when a componen o sexism (e.g., bene olen ) is associa ed wi h g andiosi y and
gallan beha io , na cissism could be implica ed as a p edic o and, when an ou come is associa ed wi h
long- e m s a egic male olence, Machia ellianism could be an associa e p edic o [
30
]. To summa ize,
all h ee ai s can be used o hu o he s o pe sonal gain, bu employing di e en ial iden i y ocus o
s a egies beha io ally di e en ia es he ai s, so conside ing a bi ac o ial model o DT is cohe en .
These asse ions ha e been subs an ia ed using labo a o y, su ey, obse a ional, me a-analy ic,
and beha io al gene ic app oaches in p e ious esea ch [
15
]. As men ioned, he co e o DT consis s o
high le els o decep ion and callousness [
31
]. Howe e , each ai has unique cha ac e is ics beyond
his co e, which may be ele an o del e in o wha pe sonali y cha ac e is ics make some people mo e
p one o hos ile ins ead o bene olen a i udes. Apa om ha , ew s udies ha e used a bi ac o ial
model o esea ch he cha ac e is ics o each ai beyond his co e o DT ha is ela ed o sexism,
and he di e ences be ween sexes in his con ex .
1.4. The Cu en S udy
The e o e, based on he p e ious empi ical e idence, i is a pending issue o know how
Machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and na cissism a e ela ed o Ambi alen sexism when conside ing
di e ences be ween sexes. Consequen ially, i appea s ha ela ing a bi ac o ial model o DT
(cha ac e ized by a global la en ac o ha encompasses he DT’s common cha ac e is ics, along wi h
he h ee speci ic ac o s o Machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and na cissism) wi h bo h hos ile and
bene olen sexism in he adolescen sample is a p oduc i e app oach [
32
]. Mos esea ch ha has
s udied p ejudice- ela ed DT, has used clinical and subclinical samples o adul s. Only 10.8% o
published esea ch on DT ha e used adolescen samples o hei s udies [
24
]. Howe e , sexis pa e ns
o in e ac ion ha acili a e ole ance owa ds iolen beha io begin a an ea ly age, when he i s
ela ionships in adolescence s a o eme ge. Fo his eason, he aim o his esea ch has been o analyze
he ela ionships be ween DT and Ambi alen sexism on a sample o adolescen s when conside ing
di e ences be ween sexes. The e o e, he cu en esea ch en ails he ollowing componen s: (a)
o analyze he p esence o DT and sexis a i udes in an adolescen sample, o see i , as expec ed,
males sco es highe han emales in bo h DT and Ambi alen sexism [
9
,
10
,
23
]; (b) o ind ou he
ela ionships ha DT has wi h bo h hos ile and bene olen sexism, o see i , as expec ed, he global
ac o shows highe associa ions wi h sexis a i udes han wi h each componen ac o [
15
,
16
,
31
]; and
inally, (c) o analyze he ele an di e ences be ween sexes in hese ela ionships, in o de o see
i , as expec ed, males and emales show a ela ionship be ween he global DT and bo h hos ile and
bene olen sexism [
27
], bu only males show a ela ionship be ween na cissism and bene olen sexism.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 4 o 11
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
2.1. Pa icipan s and P ocedu e
A s a is ical es o ANOVA was speci ied in G*Powe 3 (Hein ich Heine Uni e si ä Düsseldo ,
Düsseldo , Ge many) using a p io y analysis and de e mining an an icipa ed medium e ec size
2
=0.20 in o de o calcula e sample size. The p og am es ima ed a sample size o 328 pa icipan s,
hen he ini ial sample was composed o 421 pa icipan s. Howe e , i was educed a e emo ing all
o he pa icipan s wi h missing da a in all s udy a iables. The inal sample was composed o 367
adolescen s om six public high schools ha we e loca ed in Galicia and Cas illa—La Mancha (Spain),
50.1% males (n =184) aged 13 o 18 yea s (M
age
=15.15; SD =0.63), and 49.9% emales (n =183) aged
14 o 18 yea s (M
age
=15.10; SD =0.68). The pa icipa ion a es o he sample we e high, as only 38
subjec s decided no o pa icipa e in he s udy and, o he nine high schools ha we e con ac ed o
become pa o he esea ch, six inally decided o pa icipa e in he s udy. Fo his eason, con enience
sampling was pe o med in o de o selec s a e high schools om bo h au onomous communi ies,
bu he cou se in which adolescen s we e en olled was andomly assigned o ob ain da a. 25.4% we e
en olled in he hi d yea and 43.9% in he ou h yea o Compulso y Seconda y Educa ion, hen 24.3%
we e en olled in he i s yea and 6.4% in he second yea o las g ade o non-manda o y high-le el
educa ion. The cul u al and social cha ac e is ics o he sample a e simila , because mos youngs e s
come om middle and low-middle socioeconomic backg ounds.
The managemen eam o each high school was in cha ge o eques ing pa en al consen in o de
o ca y ou he assessmen as an ac i i y included in he s udy p og am o he 2018–2019 academic
yea , so he adolescen s we e in i ed o pa icipa e in he s udy by he high school managemen eam.
Only pa icipan s who had deli e ed pa en al consen o he managemen eam, we e olde han
12 yea s, and displayed basic eading and w i ing skills we e conside ed o hei inclusion in he
s udy. A e wa ds, you h who consen ed o pa icipa ing signed an in o med consen o m om he
managemen cen e o each high school o assu e hei olun a y pa icipa ion wi hou any ype o
compensa ion. Con iden iali y and anonymi y we e ensu ed in acco dance wi h he 1964 Helsinki
decla a ion [
33
] and he guidelines o Uni e si y ’s Bioe hics Commi ee. Finally, he pa icipan s
comple ed a o y- i e-minu e ques ionnai e in g oup sessions as pa o he cou se in he p esence o a
membe o he esea ch eam, which p o ided he s uden s wi h he oppo uni y o ask ques ions o
ecei e suppo i necessa y.
2.2. Measu emen s
Da k T iad ai s: he Spanish e sion o Di y Dozen scale (DD) [
34
], ansla ed and alida ed in o
Spanish by Manei o e al. [
31
], was been used o assess DT. This in en o y measu es each componen
o DT wi h only ou i ems each, gi ing ise o a o al o 12 i ems using esponse op ions on a i e-poin
Like - ype scale anging om 1 ( o ally disag ee) o 5 ( o ally ag ee). The scale p o ides a global
sco e o DT as well as a sco e o each componen o he iad: Machia ellianism (e.g., “I end o
manipula e o he s o ge my way”,
α
=0.80), psychopa hy (e.g., “I end o lack emo se”;
α
=0.70),
and na cissism (e.g., “I end o wan o he s o admi e me”;
α
=0.84). This ins umen showed an
accep able in e nal consis ency, wi h C onbach’s alpha o a global sco e o 0.85. The con i ma o y
ac o analysis pe o med o know he i o he bi ac o ial model o he s uc u e o Di y Dozen scale in
Spanish language showed good pa ame e s (
χ2
=77.29, d =42, p<0.001; SRMR =0.03; RMSEA =0.04;
CFI =0.98). A e ha , con igu al, me ic, and scala in a iances we e es ed ac oss he g oups [
34
,
35
].
The esul s p o ed ha con igu al (
χ2
=98.147, d =84, p>0.05; RMSEA =0.03; SRMR =0.03; CFI
=0.98) and me ic (
χ2
=157.292, d =112, p<0.01; RMSEA =0.05; SRMR =0.08; CFI =0.96) we e
in a ian ac oss sexes (
∆
CFIs <0.01), bu no scala (
χ2
=145.595, d =104, p<0.01; RMSEA =0.05;
SRMR =0.07; CFI =0.96).
Ambi alen sexism: Ambi alen Sexism In en o y o Adolescen s (ISA scale) [
35
]; con ains
20 i ems ha we e di ided in o wo subscales ha measu e hos ile sexism and bene olen sexism,
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 5 o 11
using a esponse o ma om 0 ( o ally disag ee) o 5 ( o ally ag ee); highe sco es e lec mo e sexis
a i udes. The i s 10 i ems measu e hos ile sexism (e.g., “Young men should exe con ol o e who
hei gi l iends in e ac wi h”), and he emaining 10 i ems measu e bene olen sexism (e.g., “A boy
will eel incomple e i he is no da ing a gi l”). In e nal consis ency, as ob ained in ou s udy, was 0.86
o he hos ile sexism subscale and 0.82 o he bene olen sexism subscale.
2.3. Da a Analysis
Da a analyses we e conduc ed on IBM SPSS S a is ics 23 (IBM, New Yo k, NY, USA), and Mplus
.7 (Mu h
é
n & Mu h
é
n, Los Angeles, CA, USA) was used o he analyses o he s uc u al equa ion
modeling (SEM). Fi s ly, one-way ANOVAs we e pe o med in o de o analyze di e ences be ween
sexes in all o he s udy a iables. Subsequen ly, pa ial e a squa ed was used o analyze he magni ude
o sex di e ences ollowing he benchma ks o de ine small (
ηp2
=0.01), medium (
ηp2
=0.06), and la ge
(
ηp2
=0.14) e ec sizes. Secondly, ze o-o de co ela ions we e used o assess he ela ionship be ween
DT and bo h hos ile and bene olen sexism, and Fishe ’s Z ans o ma ions we e pe o med in o de
o analyze he di e ences be ween sexes on he co ela ion measu es. Finally, s uc u al equa ion
modeling was es ed in o de o know he con ibu ion o he global DT
´
s la en ac o and he h ee
la en ac o s ha a e associa ed wi h he subscales o he Di y Dozen on bo h hos ile and bene olen
sexism. Robus maximum likelihood es ima ion as well as he goodness o i indexes
χ2/
d , CFI,
SRMR and RMSEA we e used o model es ima ion [
36
]. The ollowing c i e ion we e conside ed
o an op imal i
χ2
/d <2–3, CFI >0.95, RMSEA <0.06, and SRMR <0.05; and, o an accep able o
easonable i χ2/d <4, CFI >0.90, RMSEA <0.08, and SRMR <0.08.
3. Resul s
3.1. Desc ip i e S a is ics and Co ela ions
Table 1displays desc ip i e s a is ics, including mean and s anda d de ia ions, he in e nal
consis ency o all s udy a iables o each sex, as well as he di e ences be ween sexes in all o he s udy
a iables. The ANOVA esul s indica ed ha males sco ed highe han emales in all o he a iables,
including DT and Ambi alen sexism. Pa ial e a squa ed showed small e ec s o sex in luence on DT
ai s and la ge e ec s on hos ile sexism whe e speci ically males show he highes sco es.
Table 1.
Desc ip i e s a is ics and di e ences among males and emales in Da k T iad (DT) ai s and
Ambi alen sexism.
Range Males Females
Fηp2
M(SD)αM(SD)α
Machia ellianism
4–18 9.17 (3.73) 0.81 8.35 (3.73) 0.76 4.48 * 0.01
Psychopa hy 4–15 7.34 (3.16) 0.71 6.25 (2.49) 0.67 13.46 ** 0.04
Na cissism 4–19 10.17 (4.08) 0.85 8.49 (3.78) 0.80 16.74 ** 0.05
Hos ile sexism 10–37 26.81 (10.08) 0.85
18.02 (7.33)
0.80 91.18 *** 0.20
Bene olen
sexism 10–54 28.29 (9.52) 0.79
22.92 (9.40)
0.83 29.53 *** 0.07
No e. * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001. ηp2=pa ial e a squa ed e ec size.
Table 2p esen s he bi a ia e co ela ion coe icien s and Fishe ’s Z ans o ma ion pe o med o
analyze di e ences be ween sexes. The esul s showed no signi ican associa ions be ween age and
any s udy a iable. The associa ions be ween he majo i y s udy a iables we e di ec and signi ican
in adolescen s. Fo emales, he associa ion o psychopa hy wi h na cissism was no signi ican .
Fo males, he associa ions o Machia ellianism and psychopa hy wi h bene olen sexism we e no
signi ican . The coe icien s o psychopa hy wi h na cissism e ealed signi ican ly highe associa ions

In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 6 o 11
coe icien s in males han in emales (p<0.05). The associa ion coe icien s be ween Machia ellianism
and psychopa hy also p esen ed signi ican ly highe associa ions in males han emales (p<0.001).
Table 2. Bi a ia e co ela ions be ween all o he s udy a iables acco ding o sex.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Age -−0.04 −0.12 −0.01 0.01 0.08
2. Hos ile sexism −0.04 -0.52 ** 0.32 ** 0.22 ** 0.39 **
3. Bene olen sexism −0.06 0.57 ** -0.12 0.12 0.35 **
4. Machia ellianism −0.01 0.41 ** 0.34 ** -(0.55 **) 0.54 **
5. Psychopa hy 0.01 0.38 ** 0.29 ** 0.26 ** -(0.33 **)
6. Na cissism 0.02 0.39 ** 0.35 ** 0.52 ** 0.11 -
No e. The coe icien s abo e he diagonal co espond o males, and sco es below he diagonal co espond o emales.
** p<0.01. The coe icien s in bold p esen signi ican di e ences be ween males and emales (p<0.05).
3.2. SEM Be ween DT and Ambi alen Sexism and Di e ences be ween Sexes
A e hese analyses, SEM was used in o de o e alua e he exis ence o a signi ican ela ionship
be ween he bi ac o ial model ( ha includes a la en ac o o global DT and h ee la en ac o s
associa ed wi h each DT ai s) and hos ile and bene olen sexism. The models ob ained accep able
pa ame e s (
χ2
/d <4, RMSEA and SRMR be ween 0.08 and 0.10) [
37
], o males (
χ2
=836.69, d =
946, p<0.001; SRMR =0.09; RMSEA =0.06) and emales (
χ2
=870.72, d =946, p<0.001; SRMR =
0.09; RMSEA =0.06). The esul s ha a e displayed in Figu e 1showed ha in males, he global DT
was ela ed wi h hos ile and bene olen sexism while na cissism was ela ed o bene olen sexism.
The esul s ha a e p esen ed in Figu e 2showed ha , in emales, he global DT was ela ed wi h
hos ile and bene olen sexism, while psychopa hy was ela ed o hos ile sexism.
In .J.En i on.Res.PublicHeal h2020,17,x6o 12
Table2.Bi a ia eco ela ionsbe weenallo  hes udy a iablesacco ding osex.
123456
1. Age‐−0.04−0.12−0.010.010.08
2. Hos ilesexism−0.04‐0.52**0.32**0.22**0.39**
3. Bene olen sexism−0.060.57**‐ 0.120.120.35**
4. Machia ellianism−0.010.41**0.34**‐(0.55**)0.54**
5. Psychopa hy0.010.38**0.29**0.26**‐ (0.33**)
6. Na cissism0.020.39**0.35**0.52**0.11‐
No e.Thecoe icien sabo e hediagonalco espond omales,andsco esbelow hediagonal
co espond o emales.**p<0.01.Thecoe icien sinboldp esen signi ican di e encesbe ween
malesand emales(p<0.05).
3.2.SEMBe weenDTandAmbi alen SexismandDi e encesbe weenSexes
A e  heseanalyses,SEMwasusedino de  oe alua e heexis enceo asigni ican  ela ionship
be ween hebi ac o ialmodel( ha includesala en  ac o o globalDTand h eela en  ac o s
associa edwi heachDT ai s)andhos ileandbene olen sexism.Themodelsob ainedaccep able
pa ame e s(χ
2
/d <4,RMSEAandSRMRbe ween0.08and0.10)[37], o males(χ
2
=836.69,d =946,
p<0.001;SRMR=0.09;RMSEA=0.06)and emales(χ
2
=870.72,d =946,p<0.001;SRMR=0.09;
RMSEA=0.06).The esul s ha a edisplayedinFigu e1showed ha inmales, heglobalDTwas
ela edwi hhos ileandbene olen sexismwhilena cissismwas ela ed obene olen sexism.The
esul s ha a ep esen edinFigu e2showed ha ,in emales, heglobalDTwas ela edwi hhos ile
andbene olen sexism,whilepsychopa hywas ela ed ohos ilesexism.

Figu e1.S anda dizedcoe icien so  eg essions a is icallysigni ican a p<0.05be weenDa kT iad
andAmbi alen sexisminmales.***p<0.001.
Figu e 1.
S anda dized coe icien s o eg ession s a is ically signi ican a p<0.05 be ween Da k T iad
and Ambi alen sexism in males. *** p<0.001.
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 7 o 11
In .J.En i on.Res.PublicHeal h2020,17,x7o 12

Figu e2.S anda dizedcoe icien so  eg essions a is icallysigni ican a p<0.05be weenDa kT iad
andAmbi alen sexismin emales.*p<0.05;***p<0.001.
4.Discussion
The ehasbeendiscussion ega dingwhe he pe sonali ycha ac e is icsmakesomepeople
mo ep one osexis a i udes hano he s.Some esea chhasno suppo ed hisidea,bu  hishas
no p e en edo he s omcompilingalonglis o  a iableso indi idualdi e ences ha a e ela ed
osexis a i udes[38].
4.1.P esenceo  heDTT ai sandAmbi alen SexisminAdolescen s
The esul sdemons a e ha adolescen sshowhighe sco esinbene olen sexism hanhos ile
sexism.This ypeo sexism,cha ac e izedbyaposi i ea ec i i y,hasbeenassocia edwi hmy hs
o  oman iclo e,suchasconside ingjealousyasasigno lo eandca e[39].Thesea i udescanlead
adolescen s oo e look iolen beha io (e.g.,con ol hecouple’sscheduleso  equi ingcons an 
disclosu e)in hei  i s  oman ic ela ionships,inc easing helikelihoodo da ing iolence[8].
The e o e,ou  indingsa econsis en wi h hosep e iously oundinDiaz‐Aguadoe al.[40] ha 
wa no  heneed o p e en i ein e en ion ha is ocusedon hede ec ionandanalysiso 
mic osexism,pa e nalis icandp o ec i ebeha io s,aswellas heunc i icalaccep anceo  adi ional
gende  oles ha a emaskedwi hposi i ea ec i i y.
Whenconside ing hedi e encesbe weensexes, he esul sa econsis en wi hp e ious
esea ch[9],inwhichmalesshowhighe sco esinbo hhos ileandbene olen sexism han emales.
Simila ly,DT ai sha eshownclea di e encesbe weensexes, eplica ingp e ious indings,whe e
malesa emo ep one oan isocialpe sonali y ai s han emales[41].Theassocia ionso 
Machia ellianismwi hpsychopa hyandna cissismwi hpsychopa hysco edsigni ica i elyhighe 
inmales han emales.These esul sa econsis en wi hp e ious esea ch,sugges ing hisisas able
e ec [42].Likewise,consis en wi h hede elopmen als ageo  hesample,highe a e agesco esin
na cissismha ebeen ound hanMachia ellianismandpsychopa hy.Theachie emen o sel ‐
iden i yisa undamen al askinadolescenceand, o  his,youngpeoplea ein e es edins anding
ou  isibly,being ecognizedand, osomeex en ,beingadmi ed[43].The e o e, oachie e his,
Figu e 2.
S anda dized coe icien s o eg ession s a is ically signi ican a p<0.05 be ween Da k T iad
and Ambi alen sexism in emales. * p<0.05; *** p<0.001.
4. Discussion
The e has been discussion ega ding whe he pe sonali y cha ac e is ics make some people mo e
p one o sexis a i udes han o he s. Some esea ch has no suppo ed his idea, bu his has no
p e en ed o he s om compiling a long lis o a iables o indi idual di e ences ha a e ela ed o
sexis a i udes [38].
4.1. P esence o he DT T ai s and Ambi alen Sexism in Adolescen s
The esul s demons a e ha adolescen s show highe sco es in bene olen sexism han hos ile
sexism. This ype o sexism, cha ac e ized by a posi i e a ec i i y, has been associa ed wi h my hs
o oman ic lo e, such as conside ing jealousy as a sign o lo e and ca e [
39
]. These a i udes
can lead adolescen s o o e look iolen beha io (e.g., con ol he couple’s schedules o equi ing
cons an disclosu e) in hei i s oman ic ela ionships, inc easing he likelihood o da ing iolence [
8
].
The e o e, ou indings a e consis en wi h hose p e iously ound in Diaz-Aguado e al. [
40
] ha wa n
o he need o p e en i e in e en ion ha is ocused on he de ec ion and analysis o mic osexism,
pa e nalis ic and p o ec i e beha io s, as well as he unc i ical accep ance o adi ional gende oles
ha a e masked wi h posi i e a ec i i y.
When conside ing he di e ences be ween sexes, he esul s a e consis en wi h p e ious
esea ch [
9
], in which males show highe sco es in bo h hos ile and bene olen sexism han emales.
Simila ly, DT ai s ha e shown clea di e ences be ween sexes, eplica ing p e ious indings,
whe e males a e mo e p one o an isocial pe sonali y ai s han emales [
41
]. The associa ions
o Machia ellianism wi h psychopa hy and na cissism wi h psychopa hy sco ed signi ica i ely highe
in males han emales. These esul s a e consis en wi h p e ious esea ch, sugges ing his is a s able
e ec [
42
]. Likewise, consis en wi h he de elopmen al s age o he sample, highe a e age sco es in
na cissism ha e been ound han Machia ellianism and psychopa hy. The achie emen o sel -iden i y
is a undamen al ask in adolescence and, o his, young people a e in e es ed in s anding ou isibly,
being ecognized and, o some ex en , being admi ed [
43
]. The e o e, o achie e his, possibly a usual
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 8 o 11
s a egy is he accep ance o adi ional gende oles, since he esul s highligh ela ionships ha
na cissism has wi h bo h hos ile and bene olen sexism.
4.2. Rela ionships be ween DT wi h Hos ile and Bene olen Sexism
Re e ing o he associa ion be ween he bi ac o ial model o DT and Ambi alen sexism, he esul s
show be e associa ions be ween global DT and bo h hos ile and bene olen sexism han each o h ee
cons i u i e ac o s (i.e., Machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and na cissism). Tha is o say ha indi iduals
wi h high sco es in he global DT also ob ain high sco es in hos ile and bene olen sexism. These esul s
a e ully consis en wi h p e ious li e a u e. Hos ile and bene olen sexism ac as an a icula ed
sys em o ewa ds and punishmen s ha de e mines a emale’s posi ion in socie y. These indings can
be explained wi h he e olu iona y-adap a i e pa adigm ha is men ioned abo e [
15
]. Like sexis
a i udes, DT is a changing condi ion, a p oduc o socie y ha ein o ces and acili a es seduc i e
beha io s and in e pe sonal manipula ion s yles. A leas in pa , DT ep esen s a gene al and s able
way o going h ough li e, and sexis a i udes could be a speci ic domain whe e hese basic pe sonali y
ends in DT a e mani es ed [
19
]. The high associa ions be ween DT and Ambi alen sexism jus i y
and alida e his p oposal, whe e sexism is e o mula ed and legi imized as his g oup o pe sonali y
ai s. This adap i e unde s anding leads us o p e en o educe beha io s ha a e cha ac e is ic
o DT, ecognizing hese a ibu es as chosen beha io s ins ead o pe sonali y ai s ha limi us o
p og essing owa ds a mo e equal and less sexis socie y.
None heless, his associa ion has occu ed in di e en ways o each sex. In males, high sco es
on he global DT a e associa ed wi h high sco es o hos ile sexism, while high sco es on he global
DT, as well as high sco es on na cissism, a e associa ed wi h high sco es o bene olen sexism.
This na cissis ic ea u e ha p o ides success and (in e ) pe sonal sa is ac ion h ough he adop ion o
gallan and domina ing beha io s, can ope a e by diminishing o masking he mos socially undesi able
beha io al aspec s [
44
]. They also play a decisi e ole in he genesis, ep oduc ion, and main enance o
ha posi i e a ec i e one ha masks and ein o ces a sys em o equally sexis a i udes h ough a
hegemonic masculini y. Fu he mo e, as we expec ed, he global DT has shown a high associa ion
wi h hos ile sexism: insensi i i y, sel ishness, egocen ism, and male olence in hei in e pe sonal
ela ionships, as well as he p obable in en ion o punishing emales who ejec p e ailing cul u al
no ms o expec ed eminini y. Thus, hos ile and bene olen a i udes a e in ima ely ela ed, and hey
may simul aneously appea in he same subjec , cons i u ing a complex socio-cogni i e mechanism o
social con ol [45].
Females, like males, can also ha e sexis a i udes [
6
]. The cul u al ansmission o sexism o
emales may e lec hei endency o emb ace o ejec p e ailing cul u al no ms and adi ional
gende oles. High sco es on he global DT in emales a e associa ed wi h high sco es o bene olen
sexism. This esul is consis en wi h p e ious esea ch, in which indi iduals who exhibi ed male olen
pe sonali y ai s we e also mo e likely o subsc ibe o adi ional gende no ms and engage in
mo e sel ish beha io s ha inc ease he p obabili y o in e pe sonal success, especially oca ionally
and oman ically [
13
,
15
,
19
]. High sco es on he global DT, as well as high sco es on psychopa hy,
a e associa ed wi h high sco es o hos ile sexism. These esul s suppo he idea ha , in ce ain con ex s,
emales show some willingness o ac unkindly and i esponsibly owa ds o he emales who decide o
challenge adi ional gende oles [
15
] o y o al e he powe ela ions be ween males and emales.
In his way, implici a i udes, such as jus i ying ape o no blaming he agg esso , would be mo e
equen i hese indi iduals showed less empa he ic p edisposi ion [20].
In o de o implemen posi i e models o educe da ing iolence in in e pe sonal adolescen
ela ionships, i is ad isable o wo k du ing childhood and adolescence on he se o p o o ypical DT
beha io s ha a e in ol ed in sexis a i udes and eme ge in ea ly ela ionships [
19
]. Namely, ac ions
in he domains o changing beha io al habi s and ou ines (e.g., p og amming ein o cemen s o
empa hic beha io s), cogni i e es uc u ing o biases and belie s (e.g., c i ical analysis o oxic belie s),
and emo ional egula ion (e.g., egula ion o ange associa ed wi h pa ne si ua ions). The in-dep h
In . J. En i on. Res. Public Heal h 2020,17, 7754 9 o 11
implemen a ion o hese in e en ion s a egies is he only hope o pallia e he in luence o he DT on
sexism and da ing iolence. Fu he mo e, he esul s show, due o i s balance be ween economics and
psychome ic indica o s [
32
], he use ulness o adding he DD ins umen o imp o ing he p edic i e
assessmen o da ing iolence isk, by de ec ing ea ly high le els o DT.
4.3. Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
The cu en esea ch con ibu es o de eloping a psychological p o ile p one o accep ing and
jus i ying sexis a i udes, a an ea ly age, and in communi y samples. Mos p e ious in es iga ions ha e
exclusi ely examined Ambi alen sexism om a social-psychology pe spec i e. Ou wo k conside s
he ecommenda ions o Ak ami e al. [
12
], whe e combining he in luence o bo h pe sonali y- and
social-psychology is ele an in explaining sexis a i udes. Howe e , his esea ch is no ee o
limi a ions: he cu en s udy is limi ed by c oss-sec ional da a. This mains eaming does no allow
o us o p opose p ecise ela ions o causali y be ween ou a iables. Fu he mo e, non-p obabilis ic
sampling me hods we e used o pa icipan selec ion, which limi s he ep esen a i eness o he
sample and, consequen ly, he gene aliza ion o he esul s o he en i e popula ion. Fu u e longi udinal
s udies should cla i y empo al sequences o de e mina ion o some a iables on o he s h oughou
he socializa ion p ocess. Likewise, u u e esea ch migh analyze he di ec ly obse ed ela ionship o
DT wi h explici beha io s o da ing iolence.
5. Conclusions
In conclusion, he cu en s udy has ul illed he objec i e o highligh ing he s ong associa ion
ha sexis a i udes ha e wi h a pe sonali y p o ile ha encompasses he common cha ac e is ics o he
h ee speci ic ac o s o Machia ellianism, psychopa hy, and na cissism. Deepening he knowledge o
he pe sonali y ai s could help o implemen posi i e models in a mo e e ec i e way conside ing he
indi idual di e ences o adolescen s. To know which a i udes p e ail in hem has also allowed o us
o know wha ype o s a egies a e app op ia e o he educa ion and p e en ion o sexis beha io s
in bo h sexes o he sample. Addi ionally, i is o special in e es o ha e shown i in a no malized
communi y sample o adolescen s. I is impo an o igh du ing childhood and adolescence agains a
se o oxic cogni ions ha a e in ol ed in sexis a i udes and he DT cons uc . Fu he mo e, DT is a
pe sonali y con igu a ion ha mus be no ed and analyzed by no mal people in e e yday con ex s.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
M.P.N., L.M., and O.C., concep ualiza ion, me hodology, and analy ic plan; M.P.N., o mal
analysis; M.P.N., L.M., and O.C., in es iga ion, esou ces, and da a cu a ion; M.P.N., w i ing—o iginal d a
p epa a ion; M.P.N., J.A.G.-F., L.M., O.C. and J.S., w i ing— e iew, edi ing, and isualiza ion; J.A.G.-F. and J.S.,
supe ision; M.P.N., J.A.G.-F., p ojec adminis a ion and unding acquisi ion. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed
o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e and Spo s o Spain unde he p og am
“Ayudas pa a la o mación de p o eso ado uni e si a io” (FPU17/02607).
Acknowledgmen s:
We a e e y g a e ul o he Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela and he UNDERISK
esea ch g oup o hei collabo a ion.
Con lic s o In e es :
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he design o he
s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip , o in he decision o
publish he esul s.
Re e ences
1.
INE. Es ad
í
s ica de Violencia Dom
é
s ica y Violencia de G
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