Secondary students' epistemic performances in argumentation and inquiry practices within the context of food safety

INTERNATIONAL DOCTORAL
SCHOOL OF THE USC
Lucía
Casas Qui oga
PhD Thesis
Seconda y s uden s' epis emic
pe o mances in a gumen a ion
and inqui y p ac ices wi hin he
con ex o ood sa e y
San iago de Compos ela, 2023
Doc o al P og amme in Educa ion
TESE DE DOUTORAMENTO
SECONDARY STUDENTS' EPISTEMIC
PERFORMANCES IN ARGUMENTATION AND
INQUIRY PRACTICES WITHIN THE CONTEXT
OF FOOD SAFETY
Lucía Casas Qui oga
ESCOLA DE DOUTORAMENTO INTERNACIONAL DA UNIVERSIDADE DE SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA
PROGRAMA DE DOUTORAMENTO EN EDUCACIÓN
SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA
ANO 2023
DECLARACIÓN DO AUTOR/A DA TESE
Dna.
Lucía Casas Qui oga
Tí ulo da ese:
Seconda y s uden s' epis emic pe o mances in a gumen a ion and inqui y
p ac ices wi hin he con ex o ood sa e y
P esen o a miña ese, seguindo o p ocedemen o axei ado ao Regulamen o, e decla o que:
1) A ese aba ca os esul ados da elabo ación do meu aballo.
2) De se o caso, na ese aise e e encia ás colabo acións que i o es e aballo.
3) Con i mo que a ese non inco e en ningún ipo de plaxio dou os au o es nin de
aballos p esen ados po min pa a a ob ención dou os í ulos.
4) A ese é a e sión de ini i a p esen ada pa a a súa de ensa e coincide a e sión
imp esa coa p esen ada en o ma o elec ónico
E comp omé ome a p esen a o Comp omiso Documen al de Supe isión no caso de que o
o ixinal non es ea na Escola.
En San iago de Compos ela, a 17 de Decemb o de 2022.
Asdo. Lucía Casas Qui oga

AUTORIZACIÓN
DA
DIRECTORA E DA
TITORA
DA TESE
Seconda y s uden s' epis emic pe o mances in a gumen a ion and
inqui y p ac ices wi hin he con ex o ood sa e y
Dna.
Bea iz C ujei as Pé ez (di ec o a)
Dna. Elena Fe nández Rey ( i o a)
INFORMAN:
Que a p esen e ese, co espóndese co aballo ealizado po Dna. Lucía Casas Qui oga, baixo a
miña di ección, e a
u o izo
a súa
p esen ación
, conside ando
que eúne os
equisi os
esixidos
no R
egulamen o
de Es udos de
Dou o amen o da USC,
e
que
como di ec o des a
non
inco e nas causas de
abs ención es ablecidas
na Lei
40/2015.
De aco do co indicado no Regulamen o de Es udos de Dou o amen o, decla a amén que a p esen e
ese de dou o amen o é idónea pa a se de endida en base á modalidade de COMPENDIO DE
PUBLICACIÓNS
, nos que a pa icipación da dou o anda oi decisi a pa a a súa elabo ación
e as publicacións se axus an ao Plan de In es igación.
En San iago de Compos ela, 15 de decemb o de 2022
Asdo. Bea iz C ujei as Pé ez (di ec o a) Asdo. Elena Fe nández Rey ( i o a)
A Te esa Dá ila
RESUMO
O obxec i o p incipal des a ese é analiza os desempeños do alumnado nas p ác icas cien í icas
de indagación e a gumen ación du an e a súa pa icipación nunha secuencia de ac i idades
baseada en segu idade alimen a ia e eme xencias sani a ias de o ixe alimen a io. Tamén se
analiza o coñecemen o epis émico necesa io pa a unha pa icipación axei ada do alumnado en
di as p ác icas.
Es e p opósi o xe al conc é ase en es obxec i os máis especí icos coas súas espec i as
p egun as de in es igación, os cales se o mulan a con inuación:
O1. Deseña ac i idades de aula pa a p omo e o desen ol emen o de p ác icas cien í icas
no con ex o da segu idade alimen a ia co alumnado de educación secunda ia. Es e obxec i o
abó dase na publicación 1, aínda que en di a publicación non se especi ica unha p egun a de
in es igación. Tamén se abo da indi ec amen e nas publicacións 2, 3 e 4, as cales p esen an as
ac i idades do es udo inal.
P1. Que ca ac e ís icas debe ían e as ac i idades de aula pa a p omo e a pa icipación
de es udan es de secunda ia nas p ác icas cien í icas no con ex o da segu idade alimen a ia?
O2. Analiza o coñecemen o epis émico implicado na pa icipación do alumnado nas
p ác icas de indagación e a gumen ación. Es e obxec i o abó dase a a és das p egun as de
in es igación P2a e P2b, que se analizan na publicación 2, e das p egun as P2c e P2d, que se
analizan na publicación 3.
P2a. Que ope acións epis émicas le an a cabo pequenos g upos de es udan es du an e as
súas con e sacións sob e como esol e unha eme xencia alimen a ia du an e un xogo de ol?
P2b. Que ope acións epis émicas p e alecen nas decisións do alumnado pa a esol e a
eme xencia alimen a ia du an e un xogo de ol?
P2c. Que coñecemen o epis émico disciplina emp egan es udan es de secunda ia á ho a
de deseña un expe imen o pa a iden i ica a causa dunha eme xencia alimen a ia?
P2d. Que coñecemen o epis émico disciplina u ilizan es udan es de secunda ia pa a a alia
as medidas omadas no cu so dunha eme xencia alimen a ia?

Resumo
15
O3. Analiza como emp ega os da os o alumnado de secunda ia du an e a pa icipación na
p ác ica de a gumen ación. Is o abó dase a a és das p egun as de in es igación P3a e P3b, as
cales se analizan na publicación 4.
P3a. Que on es de in o mación u iliza o alumnado na oma de decisións du an e un xogo
de ol pa a esol e unha eme xencia alimen a ia?
P3b. Que c i e ios conside a o alumnado como p io i a ios na oma de decisións du an e
un xogo de ol pa a esol e unha eme xencia alimen a ia?
Ma co eó ico
O ma co eó ico no que se undamen a es a in es igación si úase den o da Epis emoloxía
da Ciencia, e máis conc e amen e na pe spec i a social e na pe spec i a disciplina (Kelly e
al., 2012). Dado que o p opósi o p incipal des a ese é explo a a in luenza do coñecemen o
epis émico pa a unha pa icipación axei ada nas p ác icas cien í icas, amén se abo da a
ele ancia des as p ác icas pa a a ap endizaxe das ciencias. A pa icipación dos es udan es nas
p ác icas de a gumen ación e indagación p omó ese a a és dunha secuencia de ac i idades
sob e segu idade alimen a ia, asladando es e ema ao con ex o educa i o como unha cues ión
socio-cien í ica. Des a o ma, o ma co eó ico es á e eb ado a edo de es eixes p incipais:
a) a ap endizaxe das ciencias a a és das p ác icas cien í icas; b) a in luencia do coñecemen o
epis émico pa a a pa icipación nas p ác icas cien í icas e c) a segu idade alimen a ia como
unha cues ión socio-cien í ica pa a a ap endizaxe das ciencias a a és das p ác icas cien í icas.
A ap endizaxe das ciencias a a és das p ác icas cien í icas
O consenso ac ual da comunidade cien í ica sob e a ap endizaxe das ciencias implica que
es a en que se cohe en e cos p ocesos de cons ución do coñecemen o cien í ico (Duschl e
Gandy, 2013; Osbo ne, 2014). Is o se aslada aos con ex os de ap endizaxe cun en oque
baseado no desen ol emen o das p ác icas cien í icas, en endidas como as p ác icas u ilizadas
pa a elabo a , amplia e pe ecciona o coñecemen o (NRC, 2012). Es e en oque pe mi e que
os es udan es e lexionen sob e a súa p opia comp ensión das ideas cien í icas (NASEM, 2015)
e que eñan un achegamen o á o ma na que a comunidade cien í ica cons úe o coñecemen o
(Reise e al, 2012). Es e concep o de p ác ica p o én do ma co cu icula do NRC (2012) pa a
os Es ados Unidos de Amé ica, o cal con empla oi o p ác icas pa a a aula de ciencias baseadas
no aballo dos cien í icos, que son: 1) Fo mula cues ións cien í icas, 2) Cons uí e usa
modelos, 3) Plani ica e le a a cabo in es igacións, 4) Analiza e in e p e a da os, 5) Usa
azoamen o ma emá ico e compu acional, 6) Cons uí explicacións, 7) A gumen a en base a
p obas, e 8) Ob e , a alia e comunica in o mación.
Es as oi o p ác icas xo den das es es e as da ac i idade cien í ica p o esional p opos as
po Osbo ne (2011): in es iga , a alia e elabo a explicacións e solucións. De aco do con
Jiménez-Aleixand e e C ujei as-Pé ez (2017) exis e unha co espondencia en e es as es e as e
as es compe encias cien í icas a aliadas no ma co de PISA de 2015 cen ado nas ciencias
(OECD, 2016): a alia e deseña indagacións cien í icas, in e p e a da os e p obas
cien i icamen e e elabo a explicacións cien í icas. A e ec os de in es igación, e e ímonos a
elas como indagación, a gumen ación e modelización, espec i amen e. Todas son equi idas
pa a acada a al abe ización cien í ica, en endida como a capacidade pa a comp ende o
impac o da ciencia e a ecnoloxía na ida co iá así como pa a oma decisións elacionadas con
cues ións cien í icas (Robe s e Bybee, 2014).
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
16
Nes e aballo de in es igación, abó danse as p ác icas de a gumen ación e indagación a
a és da secuencia de ac i idades sob e segu idade alimen a ia.
A p ác ica de a gumen ación en éndese como a a aliación dos enunciados en base a p obas,
en endendo que os a gumen os cien í icos eñen que es a apoiados en p obas e polo an o
xus i icados (Jiménez-Aleixand e, 2010). O ma co de PISA de 2015 (OECD, 2016) menciona
que a a gumen ación implica a iden i icación de conexións ap opiadas ou e óneas en e p obas
e conclusións. En con ex os educa i os, es a p ác ica es udouse dende dúas pe spec i as
di e en es pe o elacionadas (Kons an inidou e Macagno, 2012): 1) dialóxica, cen ada nos
azoamen os pa a apoia un a i mación, e 2) es u u al, cen ada na es u u a o mal dos
a gumen os. En moi os es udos amén se des aca a na u eza social da a gumen ación (Kols ø e
Radcli e, 2007; Be land e Reise , 2009; Chinn e Osbo ne, 2010) p opoñendo que a
a gumen ación no ámbi o da ciencia é conside ada unha p ác ica social a a és da cal os
memb os dunha comunidade dan sen ido a un enómeno a a és do discu so. Os bene icios e
as di icul ades de i adas da pa icipación do alumando na p ác ica cien í ica da a gumen ación
es án ex ensamen e documen ados na li e a u a, da que se inclúe unha e isión, e hai nume osas
in e encións de aula que p omo en es a p ác ica.
A p ác ica de indagación implica un conxun o de ac i idades elacionadas coa
in es igación cien í ica (NRC, 2012) como po exemplo planea expe imen os p es ando
a ención ás obse acións e á oma de da os, cons uí ins umen os ou iden i ica on es de
ince eza. O ma co de PISA de 2015 (OECD, 2016) desc ibe a indagación como o deseño e
a aliación de in es igacións cien í icas, así como a p opos a e a aliación de o mas de es udia
unha cues ión cien i icamen e. Tamén se ealiza unha e isión dos es udos que documen an os
bene icios e as di icul ades xe ados ala pa icipación dos es udan es na p ác ica de indagación,
así como os e os que supón pa a a p ác ica docen e. Ademais, amén se ecollen as
in e encións de aula baseadas na p ác ica de indagación pa a o alumando de secunda ia no
con ex o español.
A in luencia do coñecemen o epis émico pa a a pa icipación nas p ác icas cien í icas
En endese po coñecemen o epis émico a comp ensión do papel dos cons uc os
especí icos e das ca ac e ís icas esencias dos p ocesos de cons ución de coñecemen o cien í ico
(Duschl, 2008). A ele ancia do coñecemen o epis émico pa a a ap endizaxe das ciencias íxose
pa en e ala súa inco po ación ao ma co PISA de 2015 (OECD, 2016) como un ipo de
coñecemen o a a alia . Es udos pos e io es elacionan un al o ni el de coñecemen o epis émico
con mello es desempeños nas p ác icas cien í icas (C ujei as-Pé ez e B ocos, 2021). Da mesma
o ma, Be land e al. (2016) a i man que unha ap endizaxe signi ica i a a a és das p ác icas
cien í icas non só depende das p opias p ác icas, se non do coñecemen o epis émico
in oluc ado nelas.
O coñecemen o epis émico pode se es udando desde a ias pe spec i as que se en a
di e en es p opósi os (Kelly e al., 2012): 1) A pe spec i a disciplina , cen ada nas di e en es
o mas nas que a his o ia e a iloso ía da ciencia in lúen na ap endizaxe; 2) A pe spec i a social,
cen ada en como o coñecemen o se cons úe de o ma in e ac i a en con ex os de ap endizaxe;
e 3) A pe spec i a pe soal, cen ada en como as c enzas epis emolóxicas do alumnado in lúen
na ap endizaxe. Nes e aballo de in es igación analízanse as con e sas do alumnado en
Resumo
17
ac i idades que p omo en a súa pa icipación nas p ác icas de indagación e a gumen ación
desde as pe spec i as disciplina e social.
A pe spec i a disciplina cén ase no ol do coñecemen o disciplina pa a a ap endizaxe
das ciencias (Kelly e al., 2012) e en como a comunidade cien í ica emp ega ese coñecemen o
(Kelly, 2008a). Tamén analiza asun os ela i os á na u eza das p obas ou aos c i e ios pa a
escolle una eo ía cien í ica sob e ou a (G andy e Duschl, 2008). De aco do con Sando al
(2016), o alumnado en que comp ende as xus i icacións que con ibúen a lexi ima o
coñecemen o den o dunha disciplina conc e a e des a o ma ob e unha guía pa a a súa
ap endizaxe median e a compa ación en e o coñecemen o da disciplina e a súa e sión escola .
Tendo en con a o en oque de ap endizaxe a a és das p ác icas cien í icas (NRC, 2012), é
impo an e es uda de que o ma as in e encións dos es udan es e lexan o coñecemen o
es ablecido pola comunidade cien í ica. No caso da p ác ica de indagación, algúns dos aspec os
epis émicos disciplina es ele an es pa a es a p ác ica se ían que o esul ado dun único
expe imen o é insu icien e pa a es ablece unha conclusión (Osbo ne e al., 2003) ou que a
sis ema icidade é unha ca ac e ís ica da me odoloxía cien í ica (Sando al e Reise , 2004). No
caso da p ác ica de a gumen ación algúns dos aspec os epis émicos ele an es son que unha
conclusión debe esponde á p egun a o mulada e es a sus en ada en p obas (Chen e al., 2016)
ou que a au o idade é menos pe suasi a que as p obas (Ki leson, 2011; Sando al e Çam, 2011).
Pese a que o ma co eó ico da pe spec i a disciplina es á ben es ablecido, non hai moi os
es udos que explo en a in luencia do coñecemen o epis émico en con ex os de ap endizaxe das
ciencias. Nes e aballo examínase o coñecemen o disciplina emp egado polo alumnado nun
con ex o de indagación e a gumen ación.
A pe spec i a social cén ase nos p ocesos de negociación pa a cons uí coñecemen o
en e os memb os dun g upo nun con ex o pa icula (Kelly e al., 2012). As o mas especí icas
nas que os memb os dun g upo p oducen, a alían, comunican e lexi iman enunciados de
coñecemen o a a és da in e acción coñécense como p ác icas epis émicas (Kelly, 2008a). O
discu so en unha g an impo ancia pa a es a pe spec i a, xa que a ap endizaxe das ciencias
implica o desen ol emen o de p ác icas discu si as que pe mi an a pa icipación no
coñecemen o e p ác icas de g upos socias, como as comunidades de ap endizaxe (Kelly,
2008b). Kelly e Licona (2018) p opoñen unha ca ac e ización pa a as p ác icas epis émicas
baseada en ca o elemen os de ini o ios pa a elas: 1) in e ac i as, cons uídas en e pe soas a
a és dunha ac i idade conce ada; 2) con ex uais, si uadas en p ác icas sociais e no mas
cul u ais; 3) in e ex uais, comunicadas a a és de discu sos, signos e símbolos cohe en es; e
4) consecuenciais, xe ado as de coñecemen o consensuado que in lúe na cul u a. Es es au o es
clasi ican as p ác icas epis émicas en ca o dimensións asociadas con p ocesos cogni i os:
p odución de coñecemen o, a aliación de coñecemen o, comunicación de coñecemen o e
lexi imación de coñecemen o. Ch is odoulou e Osbo ne (2014) di e encian p ác icas e
ope acións epis émicas, de inindo es as úl imas como accións discu si as conc e as que
p omo en a xe ación e cons ución de coñecemen o e cuxa suma con ibúe a un mesmo
obxec i o, que se ía a p ác ica epis émica. Nes e aballo examínanse as ope acións epis émicas
que le an a cabo es udan es de secunda ia nun con ex o a gumen a i o a dous ni eis: discusións
en g upo pequeno e deba e xe al de oda a clase.
A segu idade alimen a ia como unha cues ión socio-cien í ica pa a a ap endizaxe das
ciencias a a és das p ác icas cien í icas
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
18
A segu idade alimen a ia comp ende odos aqueles iscos que poden comp ome e a saúde
co consumido (FAO/WHO, 2003). É unha on e de p eocupación social, xa que es á
di ec amen e elacionada coa con aminación química e mic obiolóxica dos alimen os e coas
en e midades de o ixe alimen a io. A pesa de que ou os aspec os elacionados coa
alimen ación como a nu ición, as die as ou os o ganismos modi icados xene icamen e (Walke
e Zeidle , 2007) ou o impac o ambien al das di e en es die as (B ocos-Mosque a e Jiménez-
Aleixand e, 2020) xa se es udia on no ámbi o da ap endizaxe das ciencias, a segu idade
alimen a ia ecibiu menos a ención e a maio ía de es udos que abo dan es a emá ica na aula
examinan as ac i udes e coñecemen os dos es udan es sob e segu idade alimen a ia (Sanlie e
Konaklioglu, 2012; Boo h e al., 2013), pe o non se cen an nos p ocesos de ap endizaxe. Nes e
aballo de in es igación, p oponse que a segu idade alimen a ia pode aslada se á aula como
unha cues ión socio-cien í ica, é dici , como un dilema social que ga de elación coa ciencia,
equi a de coñecemen o cien í ico e eña po encial pa a c ea unha con o e sia (Sadle e
Zeidle , 2005). Es as cues ións eñen que ep esen a p oblemas eais aos que se en on an os
cien í icos e os cidadáns a ni el local, nacional ou global (Chowdhu y e al., 2020). As
ac i idades deseñadas pa a es e aballo de in es igación cump en es es equisi os. Ademais, os
p ocesos de azoamen o asociados coas cues ións socio-cien í icas (Zeidle e al., 2019) poden
asocia se co en oque de ap endizaxe a a és das p ác icas cien í icas.
Me odoloxía
Es a ese enmá case, a ni el me odolóxico, den o da in es igación cuali a i a, en endida
como unha ac i idade si uada, na que o obse ado se si úa no con ex o no que oco en os
enómenos a es uda , os cales se in e p e a en unción dos signi icados que as pe soas lles
a ibúen (Denzin e Lincoln, 2018). Den o das a iacións da in es igación cuali a i a, es a
in es igación enmá case no es udo de caso (Yin, 2003).
A oma de da os comp ende a ios es udos de caso. En pa icula , ealizá onse dous es udos
pilo o an es da implemen ación da secuencia de ac i idades no es udo inal. Os es udos pilo o
le á onse a cabo en dous cen os públicos si uados nunha á ea u bana de Galicia e os
pa icipan es o on alumnado de 4º de ESO na ma e ia de Ciencias Aplicadas á Ac i idade
P o esional e alumnado de 1º de BAC na ma e ia de Cul u a Cien í ica. O es udo inal le ouse
a cabo nun cen o público do in e io de Galicia si uado nunha cidade pequena. Os pa icipan es
o on 13 alumnos de 4º de ESO e 14 alumnos de 1º de BAC na ma e ia de Bioloxía e Xeoloxía.
O cambio de ma e ia en e os es udos pilo o e o inal es i o mo i ado pola necesidade de con a
cun núme o maio de alumnos pa a o aballo en pequenos g upos e amén pa a con a con
alumnado con maio o mación en ciencias, dado que a segu idade alimen a ia é un ema
complexo que non se abo da di ec amen e no cu ículo escola (CCEOU, 2015).
É ele an e menciona que a in es igado a le ou a cabo a implemen ación da secuencia de
ac i idades, dado que os p o eso es non iñan expe iencia p e ia coas p ác icas cien í icas na
aula nin coa emá ica da segu idade alimen a ia. De odas o mas, ealizouse unha eunión co
p o eso ado e co di ec o do cen o pa a acla a dúbidas e consul a as posibles adap acións da
secuencia ás necesidades dos pa icipan es.
O p incipal obxec i o que pe segue a secuencia didác ica é p omo e a pa icipación do
alumnado nas p ác icas cien í icas de indagación (deseño de in es igacións cien í icas) e
a gumen ación (a aliación do coñecemen o en base a p obas). Dado que esa pa icipación en
que se signi ica i a pa a os es udan es, as ac i idades p omo en o discu so epis émico,
Resumo
19
p opo cionando opo unidades pa a pa icipa en con e sacións sob e a cons ución e a
alidación do coñecemen o cien í ico. Is o abó dase no con ex o da segu idade alimen a ia,
asladada á aula de ciencias como unha cues ión socio-cien í ica. Den o des e con ex o
cen ámonos máis conc e amen e na impo ancia dos p o ocolos sani a ios, nas en e midades
de o ixe alimen a io e na xes ión de ecu sos pa a soluciona eme xencias asociadas a es as
en e midades.
A secuencia didác ica do es udo inal cons a de es ac i idades ealizadas maio i a iamen e
en pequenos g upos ao longo de ca o sesións. A p imei a é de ipo in odu o io e es á deseñada
pa a ace unha alo ación inicial dos coñecemen os do alumnado sob e segu idade alimen a ia.
Tamén se empeza a aballa a p ác ica de a gumen ación. A segunda cén ase nas p ác icas de
indagación e a gumen ación e a e cei a na p ác ica de a gumen ación.
A oma de da os i o luga ao longo das ca o sesións. A in es igado a adop ou o ol de
obse ado a pa icipan e polas azóns mencionadas an e io men e. Os ins umen os de ecollida
de da os e iangulación o on: 1) in o mes esc i os das ac i idades, 2) g a acións de audio e
ídeo, e 3) no as de campo da in es igado a.
A análise dos da os lé ase a cabo emp egando es a exias p opias da análise do discu so
(Gee e Ha o d, 2012). O p oceso de análise comeza coas ansc icións das g a acións de audio
das con e sas, co apoio das g a acións de ídeo. A unidade de análise oi a quenda de palab a,
aínda que no caso da publicación 4 iden i icá onse di e en es episodios (Gee, 2005) pa a le a
a cabo a ca ego ización do discu so. O p oceso de análise i o luga en in e acción cos da os e
a li e a u a, en endendo que a análise non debe pa i de ca ego ías p ees abelecidas (Yin, 2011).
As úb icas xe adas a pa i des e p oceso se i on pa a da espos a aos obxec i os de
in es igación.
Publicacións
Publicación 1. Una expe iencia sob e segu idad alimen a ia pa a abaja la
a gumen ación en el aula de educación secunda ia.
Es a publicación é o pun o de pa ida pa a desen ol e e xus i ica a secuencia de
ac i idades des a ese. Co espóndese coa análise das ca o ac i idades deseñadas pa a o
p imei o es udo pilo o.
Nes a publicación abó dase a p egun a de in es igación P1. Iden i icá onse unha se ie de
di icul ades en elación aos desempeños dos es udan es na p ác ica de a gumen ación, as cales
o on co ixidas pa a o es udo inal. Nas p imei as dúas ac i idades do es udo pilo o, os
es udan es non log a on inco po a en moi os casos da os dunha no icia de p ensa sob e unha
eme xencia alimen a ia xu dida nun ins i u o pa a elabo a xus i icacións. Ademais, aballa on
de o ma indi idual, de o ma que non se a o eceu a co-cons ución do coñecemen o, como
ecomendan D i e e al. (1994). As ac i idades 3 e 4 do es udo pilo o si se le a on a cabo en
pequenos g upos, pe o o alumnado i o di icul ades pa a comp ende os pasos do p o ocolo da
OMS pa a eme xencias de saúde pública e amén se de ec a on di e enzas nos desempeños en
a gumen ación en e os g upos con maio e meno o mación en ciencias, coinciden e cos
esul ados do es udo de Oli e as P a e Ma quez Ba galló (2013).

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As co eccións ealizadas no es udo inal de i adas da análise dos es udos pilo o
con ibuí on a mello a os desempeños do alumnado e a unha mello ob ención de da os, o que
coincide coa isión de Malmq is e al. (2019) sob e a u ilidade dos es udos pilo o.
Publicación 2. Epis emic ope a ions pe o med by high school s uden s in an
a gumen a ion and decision-making con ex : Se ocia’s alimen a y eme gency.
Es a publicación si úase na pe spec i a social da Epis emoloxía da Ciencia e analiza as
ope acións epis émicas le adas a cabo polo alumnado du an e a súa pa icipación nun xogo de
ol, a e cei a ac i idade da secuencia didác ica do es udo inal. O xogo de ol in oduce unha
eme xencia alimen a ia nun país ic icio con di e en es ecu sos que debe án se u ilizados pa a
a opa a causa dunha en e midade de o ixe descoñecida e soluciona as consecuencias do b o e.
P omó ese a pa icipación do alumnado na p ác ica de a gumen ación e en p ocesos de oma
de decisións.
Nes a publicación abó danse as p egun as de in es igación P2a e P2b. A análise das
ope acións epis émicas, de inidas como accións discu si as (Ch is odoulou e Osbo ne, 2014)
que se poden clasi ica den o das p ác icas epis émicas de p odución, a aliación, comunicación
e lexi imación de coñecemen o, pe mi iu di e encia que ipo de p ác ica es aba máis p esen e
no discu so dos es udan es a dous ni eis di e en es: discusións en g upo pequeno e deba es
xe ais.
Os esul ados das discusión en g upo pequeno suxi en unha p edominancia moi cla a da
p ác ica de p odución de coñecemen o. Po én, nos deba es xe ais, a opouse que a p ác ica de
a aliación de coñecemen o e a máis ecuen e nos momen os nos que exis ían desaco dos sob e
como p ocede pa a soluciona a eme xencia. As ope acións epis émicas de comunicación e
lexi imación do coñecemen o es án p ac icamen e ausen es no discu so dos es udan es.
Publicación 3. Epis emic knowledge conside ed by seconda y school s uden s in ol ed in
he examina ion o a eal alimen a y eme gency.
Es a publicación si úase na pe spec i a disciplina da Epis emoloxía da Ciencia e analiza
o coñecemen o epis émico disciplina que o alumnado oma en conside ación du an e unha
ac i idade de dúas ases que p omo e a súa pa icipación nas p ác icas de indagación e
a gumen ación. Es a ac i idade é a segunda da secuencia didác ica do es udo inal. Nes a
ac i idade, o alumnado en que examina os ei os acon ecidos as unha eme xencia alimen a ia
eal. Is o ealízase median e o deseño dun expe imen o pa a es uda a eme xencia que se lles
p esen a ( ase de deseño, na que se abo da a p ác ica de indagación) e pos e io men e cunha
a aliación das medidas e decisións eais da eme xencia ( ase de a aliación, na que se abo dan
as p ác icas de indagación e a gumen ación.
Nes a publicación abó danse as p egun as de in es igación P2c e P2d. A análise do
coñecemen o disciplina emp egado polos es udan es ealizouse con pos e io idade a unha
e isión da li e a u a na que se iden i icou o coñecemen o epis émico ele an e pa a as
di e en es p ác icas cien í icas. Nes a ac i idade non se p omo e odo ese coñecemen o e as
úb icas pa a a análise adáp anse ao con ex o da ac i idade.
Os esul ados des a publicación suxi en que du an e a ase de deseño os es udan es
emp ega on coñecemen o disciplina di e so ela i o á p ác ica de indagación, aínda que non
i e on en con a en ningún caso a ep oducibilidade do expe imen o. Du an e a ase de
Resumo
21
a aliación exis e maio a iabilidade en e os g upos, pe o ningún ai e e encia á iabilidade
do expe imen o pa a esol e cues ións no ámbi o da ciencia.
Publicación 4. T abajando la espues a an e en e medades de o igen alimen a io a a és
del juego de ol.
Es a publicación analiza os p ocesos de oma de decisións que eñen luga no xogo de ol.
Máis especi icamen e, analízanse as on es de in o mación e os c i e ios que os es udan es
conside an pa a oma unha decisión.
Nes a publicación abó danse as p egun as de in es igación P3a e P3b. Es a análise en a
súa o ixe nos esul ados da publicación 2, que e lexa unha cla a p edominancia das accións
discu si as encamiñadas á p odución de coñecemen o, que xe ou in e ese po es uda o p oceso
de cons ución des e coñecemen o.
As on es de in o mación e os c i e ios analizá onse de o ma sepa ada, de no o pa a as
discusións en pequeno g upo e os deba es xe ais. Es a análise e lexa algunhas das di icul ades
ás que se en on a a comunidade cien í ica á ho a de oma unha decisión como a selección das
p obas (Ch is odoulou e Osbo ne, 2014), que pode elaciona se coas on es de in o mación e a
necesidade de conside a pos u as al e na i as (Aca e al., 2010), que pode equipa a se aos
c i e ios.
Os esul ados suxi en que os es udan es u ilizan on es de in o mación a iadas, pe o a
máis ecuen e é a especulación. Po én, cén anse en c i e ios conc e os a medida que a anza a
ac i idade, os cales cambian en e as discusións en pequeno g upo e os deba es xe ais.
Discusión Xe al
O obxec i o p incipal des a ese é analiza o coñecemen o epis émico que p ecisan os
es udan es de secunda ia pa a unha pa icipación axei ada nas p ác icas de indagación (análise
de in es igacións cien í icas) e a gumen ación (in e p e ación de da os e p obas) que se abo dan
no con ex o da segu idade alimen a ia. Tamén se es uda como desen ol e as p ác icas
cien í icas na aula a a és de a e as que as p omo an dun xei o adecuado.
A publicación 1 apo a un achegamen o inicial ao en oque da ap endizaxe das ciencias a
a és da a gumen ación que esul ou en in o mación aliosa pa a ealiza as co eccións
pe inen es pa a o es udo inal. As publicacións 2 e 3 supoñen a p incipal con ibución des a
ese, xa que apo an unha análise moi de allada le ada a cabo median e a análise de discu so,
do coñecemen o epis émico que os es udan es necesi an inco po a pa a unha pa icipación
signi ica i a en indagación e a gumen ación. A impo ancia do coñecemen o epis émico pa a
as p ác icas cien í icas es á apoiada na e isión da li e a u a, pe o amén nos esul ados das
publicacións, que p opo cionan moi os exemplos de como os es udan es emp egan ese
coñecemen o epis émico nas súas con e sas. Es es esul ados p opo cionan in o mación sob e
o ipo de coñecemen o epis émico con maio ou meno p esencia nas in e encións do
alumnado (ben eu o ma de p ác icas epis émicas ou coñecemen o disciplina ). Ademais, a
o ma de p omo e a apa ición de coñecemen o epis émico no discu so é di e en e, o que nos
pe mi e ace ap eciacións sob e a idoneidade dun en oque implíci o ou explíci o. Na
publicación 4 amén se emp ega a análise do discu so pa a iden i ica as on es de in o mación
e os c i e ios que os es udan es u ilizan pa a a oma de decisións, o que de i a nunha
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
22
ap oximación de como os es udan es se desen ol en na p ác ica de a gumen ación nun con ex o
de segu idade alimen a ia que e lexa p oblemá icas do mundo eal.
Des a o ma, es e es udo p opo ciona in o mación ele an e pa a o deseño de con ex os de
ap endizaxe e pa a a ensinanza das ciencias, dado que mos a as o alezas e debilidades do
en oque de ap endizaxe a a és das p ác icas cien í icas e polo an o pe mi e ace ap eciacións
sob e as es a exias de andamiaxe máis axei adas pa a mello a os desempeños do alumnado.
Conclusións
A análise do obxec i o 1, deseña ac i idades de aula pa a p omo e o desen ol emen o
de p ác icas cien í icas no con ex o da segu idade alimen a ia co alumnado de educación
secunda ia, pe mí enos es ablece es conclusións:
1. O alumnado i o di icul ades á ho a de in e p e a os da os pa a elabo a conclusións e
cons uí a gumen os du an e a implemen ación da secuencia de ac i idades do p imei o es udo
pilo o.
2. A empo alización é un ac o cla e pa a unha pa icipación axei ada do alumnado nas
p ác icas cien í icas.
3. A emá ica da segu idade alimen a ia p esen a complexidade pa a os es udan es e
equi e dunha andamiaxe axei ada desde a p ác ica docen e pa a unha ap endizaxe e ec i a a
a és das p ác icas cien í icas
A análise do obxec i o 2, analiza o coñecemen o epis émico implicado na pa icipación
do alumnado nas p ác icas de indagación e a gumen ación, pe mí enos es ablece seis
conclusións:
4. A p ác ica epis émica de p odución de coñecemen o oi a máis ecuen e du an e as
discusións en pequeno g upo que i e on luga du an e o xogo de ol.
5. A ausencia case o al das p ác icas epis émicas de comunicación e lexi imación do
coñecemen o nas discusións en pequeno g upo do xogo de ol oi un an o inespe ada e es á
elacionada co deseño da ac i idade.
6. O ei o de que a p ác ica epis émica de a aliación do coñecemen o apa eza con maio
ecuencia nos deba es xe ais que nas discusións en g upo pequeno do xogo de ol en elación
cos desaco dos en e as p opos as dos di e en es g upos
7. O coñecemen o epis émico disciplina ela i o á p ac ica de indagación iden i icado nas
con e sas dos es udan es du an e a ase de deseño e de a aliación dunha eme xencia alimen a ia
eal aba cou moi os aspec os do deseño expe imen al, pe o pasou po al o ou os.
8. O coñecemen o epis émico disciplina ela i o á p ac ica de a gumen ación iden i icado
nas con e sas dos es udan es du an e a ase de a aliación dunha eme xencia alimen a ia eal
en elación con dous compoñen es esenciais da a gumen ación socio-cien í ica.
Resumo
23
9. T ala compa ación dos en oques implíci o e explíci o pa a examina o coñecemen o
epis émico, ecoméndase un en oque explíci o- e lexi o.
A análise do obxec i o 3, analiza como u ilizan os da os os es udan es du an e a
pa icipación na p ác ica de a gumen ación, pe mí enos es ablece dúas conclusións:
10. A especulación oi a on e de in o mación p ima ia du an e o xogo de ol e aínda
que se oi educindo g adualmen e, guiou as con e sas dos es udan es máis do desexable.
11. Non se a opou un c i e io p e e en e nas con e sas do alumnado sob e o xogo de
ol e cambia on en e as discusións en g upo pequeno e deba es xe ais, es ablecendo un
pa alelismo cos escena ios eais ep esen ados polas cues ións socio-cien í icas.
Implicacións educa i as
En elación co p imei o obxec i o de in es igación, suxe imos unha e lexión p o unda po
pa e dos docen es sob e a o ma de p esen a os da os e p obas ao alumnado pa a a cons ución
de a gumen os. No noso caso, conside ando as ac i idades do es udo inal, a in o mación se
p esen ou de o ma simpli icada, clasi icada e adminis ada do empo pa a acili a a súa
comp ensión. Coincidimos con es udos como o de Be land e al. (2020), que abo da a
necesidade de p opo ciona unha andamiaxe adecuada pa a que o alumnado poida log a unha
ap endizaxe signi ica i a a a és das p ác icas cien í icas. Is o é aínda máis ele an e con emas
coas que o alumando es á menos amilia izado, como é o caso da segu idade alimen a ia.
En elación co segundo obxec i o de in es igación, es amos de aco do con que o
coñecemen o epis émico en que se omado en conside ación pa a unha ap endizaxe
signi ica i a a a és das p ác icas cien í icas (Be land e al., 2016) que axuden ao alumnado a
alcanza un en endemen o dos coñecemen os e p ác icas da comunidade cien í ica (S oupe,
2014). Des a o ma, é necesa io elabo a e amen as pa a a análise do coñecemen o epis émico
en con ex os de ap endizaxe baseados nas p ác icas cien í icas e así pode ob e in o mación
ele an e pa a a p ác ica docen e. P opoñemos amén que a análise do coñecemen o epis émico
a a és de di e en es pe spec i as (no noso caso, social e disciplina ) p opo ciona in o mación
aínda máis aliosa pa a es e in, xa que cada pe spec i a se cen a en aspec os di e en es
(accións in e ac i as na comunidade de ap endizaxe e coñecemen o sob e a disciplina ou
p ác ica) pe o de g an ele ancia pa a p opo ciona unha andamiaxe co ec a. Ademais, dado
que o coñecemen o epis émico pode p esen a se de di e en es o mas na aula e is o xe a
esul ados di e en es, a elección do en oque implíci o, explíci o ou explíci o- e lexi o, necesi a
se un ac o conscien e.
En elación co e cei o obxec i o de in es igación, mani es amos a necesidade de
es ablece unha di e enciación cla a en e p oba e especulación e a súa alidez pa a es ablece
conclusións, especialmen e en con ex os que po encian a imaxinación dos es udan es (Eilks e
al., 2013), como é o caso do xogo de ol. Po ou a pa e, en con ex os de oma de decisións con
di e en es c i e ios, é impo an e conec a es es coas consecuencias de i adas desa elección.
Des a o ma, aise pa en e á impo ancia que eñen di e en es pos u as pa a a oma de decisións
do mundo eal, no que a ciencia amén xoga un impo an e papel (Sadle , 2009).
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
30
di e en sou ces o in o ma ion h ough he cou se o he ac i i y, whe eas hey end o ocus
on speci ic c i e ia as he ac i i y p og esses.
I is wo h men ioning ha he coding p ocess o he ub ics used o publica ions 2 and 4
was pa ially de eloped du ing a h ee-mon h p e-doc o al s ay in he Uni e si y o Wisconsin-
Madison (USA) in he Depa men o Cu iculum and Ins uc ion and unde he supe ision o
D . Leema K. Be land, which con ibu ed o he de elopmen o he coding schemes in hei
ini ial s ages.
Publica ions 2, 3 and 4 a e closely connec ed since: a) hey a e based on ac i i ies ha
p omo e s uden s’ engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices, speci ically a gumen a ion (publica ions
2, 3 and 4) and inqui y (publica ion 3) and b) s uden s’ con e sa ions while pa icipa ing in he
asks a e analysed h ough discou se analysis (Gee & Hand o d, 2012). Mo eo e , publica ions
2 and 4 a e based on he same a gumen a i e ac i i y and publica ions 2 and 3 bo h examine
he epis emic knowledge in ol ed in he de elopmen o scien i ic p ac ices al hough om wo
di e en pe spec i es.
The p epa a ion o hese ou publica ions was p eceded by he p esen a ion o se e al
p oposals a na ional and in e na ional con e ences, whe e some o he esul s we e p esen ed.
In addi ion, he ad ances achie ed du ing he hesis we e p esen ed in wo summe schools.
Fi s ly, i was p esen ed a an ea ly s age du ing a he IV Escuela de Doc o ado de ÁPICE, held
a he Uni e sidade da Co uña (Spain), be ween he 3 d and 4 h o Sep embe 2018. Secondly, i
was p esen ed a he ESERA Vi ual Doc o al Ne wo k (VDN), held i ually due o he a el
es ic ions associa ed o he COVID-19 pandemic and o iginally scheduled o ake place in he
Uni e si y o Ox o d (UK), be ween he 28 h o June and he 4 h o July 2020. Du ing he
ESERA VDN 2020, a pos e was also displayed in he i ual galle y.
The con e ence pape s de eloped du ing his hesis a e p esen ed below.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2018). Unha expe iencia de segu idade
alimen a ia pa a aballa a a gumen ación. Communica ion p esen ed in XXXI Cong eso de
ENCIGA, Lalín, Spain, 15 h o 17 h o No embe 2018.
C ujei as-Pé ez, B. & Casas-Qui oga, L. (2019). In luence o epis emic knowledge in he
de elopmen o scien i ic p ac ices: he EPIS-PRACT p ojec . Communica ion p esen ed in
11 h annual In e na ional Con e ence on Educa ion and New Lea ning Technologies, Palma de
Mallo ca, Spain, 1s o 3 d o July 2019.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2019). Epis emic knowledge mobilized by high
school s uden s du ing a ole-play abou ood sa e y Communica ion p esen ed in 13 h
In e na ional Con e ence o ESERA, Bologna, I aly, 26 h o 30 h o Augus 2019.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2019). T abajando la a gumen ación y la
indagación a a és de la segu idad alimen a ia. Communica ion p esen ed in XVIII Encon o
Nacional de Educação em Ciências (XVIII ENEC) & III In e na ional Semina o Science
Educa ion, Po o, Po ugal, 5 h o 7 h o Sep embe 2019.

Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
31
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2019). Seconda y s uden s’ concep ions abou
ood sa e y in an a gumen a ion con ex (2019). Pape p esen ed a 12 h In e na ional
Con e ence o Educa ion, Resea ch and Inno a ion, Se illa, Spain, 11 h o 13 h o No embe
2019.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2019). A gumen ación e indagación na aula:
aballando a segu idade alimen a ia a a és dun caso eal. Communica ion p esen ed in XXXII
Cong eso de ENCIGA, Vi ei o, Spain, 14 h o 16 h o No embe 2019.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2020). S uden s' enac men o epis emic
disciplina y knowledge in inqui y and a gumen a ion p ac ices in he con ex o a eal
alimen a y eme gency. Pape p esen ed a 13 h In e na ional Con e ence o Educa ion,
Resea ch and Inno a ion, 9 h o 11 h o No embe 2020.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2020). Análisis de las jus i icaciones del
alumnado en el uso de p o ocolos sob e eme gencias alimen a ias. Communica ion p esen ed
in 1e Cong eso In e nacional sob e Educación Cien í ica y P oblemas Rele an es pa a la
Ciudadanía, 12nd o 13 d o No embe 2020.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2021). Desempeños del alumnado y uso del
conocimien o epis émico en el diseño y jus i icación de un expe imen o sob e segu idad
alimen a ia. Communica ion p esen ed in 29 Encuen os de Didác ica de las Ciencias
Expe imen ales, 10 h o 12nd o Feb ua y 2021.
Casas-Qui oga, L. & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2021). Limi aciones asociadas al uso de
conocimien o epis émico pa a la esolución de una eme gencia alimen a ia en la educación
secunda ia. Communica ion p esen ed in XI Cong eso In e nacional sob e In es igación en
Didác ica de las Ciencias, Lisboa, Po ugal, 7 h o 10 h o Sep embe 2021.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The main goal o his hesis is o analyse he epis emic knowledge ha seconda y s uden s need
o an adequa e pe o mance in he scien i ic p ac ices o inqui y (analysis o scien i ic
in es iga ions) and a gumen a ion (in e p e a ion o da a and e idence) when lea ning abou
ood sa e y. In ela ion o his goal, s uden s’ pe o mances in he scien i ic p ac ice o
a gumen a ion a e e alua ed in e ms o how hei use o da a con ibu es o decision-making
p ocesses du ing a ood eme gency.
The esea ch goals and ques ions ha guide his in es iga ion a e:
RO1. To design class oom ac i i ies aimed a de eloping scien i ic p ac ices in he con ex
o ood sa e y o seconda y educa ion s uden s. This objec i e is add essed in publica ion 1,
al hough no in a di ec way, as no esea ch ques ion is speci ied in he publica ion. I is also
indi ec ly add essed in publica ions 2, 3 and 4, which p esen he asks o he inal s udy.
RQ1. Which ea u es should mee class oom ac i i ies o p omo ing seconda y s uden s'
engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices in he con ex o ood sa e y?
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
32
RO2. To analyse he epis emic knowledge in ol ed in he de elopmen o s uden s’
inqui y and a gumen a ion p ac ices. This is add essed h ough esea ch ques ions RQ2a and
RQ2b, analysed in publica ion 2. and RQ2c and RQ2d, examined in publica ion 3.
RQ2a. Which epis emic ope a ions a e pe o med by small g oups o s uden s du ing hei
con e sa ions abou sol ing an alimen a y eme gence du ing a ole-play game?
RQ2b. Which epis emic ope a ions p e ail in s uden s’ decisions o sol ing an alimen a y
eme gence du ing a ole-play game?
RQ2c. Which epis emic disciplina y knowledge do seconda y s uden s use o designing
an expe imen o iden i y he cause o an alimen a y eme gency?
RQ2d. Which epis emic disciplina y knowledge do seconda y s uden s conside o
e alua ing he measu es aken du ing he alimen a y eme gency?
RO3. To examine s uden s’ use o da a in he scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion. This is
add essed h ough esea ch ques ions RQ3a and RQ3b, which a e analysed in publica ion 4.
RQ3a. Which sou ces o in o ma ion do s uden s use o making a decision du ing a ole-
play game o sol e an alimen a y eme gence?
RQ3b. Which c i e ia do s uden s conside mo e impo an o making a decision du ing a
ole-play game o sol e an alimen a y eme gence?
1.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The heo e ical amewo k o his hesis is si ua ed wi hin he Epis emology o Science, and
mo e speci ically in bo h he social pe spec i e and he disciplina y pe spec i e. As he main
goal o his hesis is o explo e he in luence o epis emic knowledge o an adequa e
de elopmen o scien i ic p ac ices, we add ess be o ehand he ele ance o he scien i ic
p ac ices o lea ning science. To p omo e s uden s’ engagemen in he scien i ic p ac ices o
inqui y and a gumen a ion we use a sequence o ac i i ies abou ood sa e y, a opic ha is
ansla ed o he educa ional se ing as a socio-scien i ic issue. This sec ion includes he mos
ele an aspec s o he heo e ical amewo k, which a e di ided in he ollowing sec ions:
1. Lea ning science h ough he engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices
2. The in luence o epis emic knowledge o he de elopmen o scien i ic p ac ices
3. Food sa e y as a socio-scien i ic issue o science lea ning h ough scien i ic p ac ices
1.3.1 Lea ning science h ough he engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices
Nowadays, he e is a consensus in he scien i ic communi y abou he necessi y o science
lea ning o be cohe en wi h he p ocesses o building scien i ic knowledge (Duschl & G andy,
2013; Osbo ne, 2014). This is ansla ed in o educa ional se ings h ough a lea ning app oach
based on he s uden s’ engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices, unde s ood as he p ac ices used o
es ablish, ex end, and e ine knowledge (NRC, 2012), which was a depa u e om he p e ious
adi ion o inqui y-based lea ning. Ga cía-Ca mona (2020) men ions in i s e iew ha inqui y-
based lea ning seemed o p io i ize he p ocesses, lea ing he lea ning o concep s una ended.
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
33
He also men ions ha many au ho s concep ualizing inqui y in di e en ways may ha e
in luenced his amewo k no being as e ec i e o science lea ning as was expec ed.
Acco ding o Reise e al. (2012), he p ac ices in ol e no only doing he wo k o building
scien i ic knowledge, bu also a aining an unde s anding o why knowledge is buil , e alua ed,
and e ined in he way in which is done. This allows s uden s o e lec on hei own
unde s anding o scien i ic ideas (NASEM, 2015) as well as o de elop a sense on how he
scien i ic communi y builds knowledge (Reise e al., 2012). Fu he mo e, he e m p ac ice in
his con ex is ega ded as in en ional, as i conno es a se o ac i i ies ha a e de eloped and
enac ed by a communi y and ha ill he needs and use he sha ed ools o i s membe s (Be land
e al., 2020).
The app oach o lea ning h ough scien i ic p ac ices o igina es om policy documen s
om he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica, aimed a es ablishing a comp ehensi e amewo k o
science educa ion (NRC, 2012; Achie e, 2013). This amewo k con empla es eigh
undamen al p ac ices o he science class oom, based on he wo k o scien is s, which a e: 1)
Asking ques ions and de ining p oblems, 2) De eloping and using models, 3) Planning and
ca ying ou in es iga ions, 4) Analysing and in e p e ing da a, 5) Using ma hema ics and
compu a ional hinking, 6) Cons uc ing explana ions and designing solu ions, 7) Engaging in
a gumen om e idence, and 8) Ob aining, e alua ing, and communica ing in o ma ion.
These eigh p ac ices o igina e om he h ee sphe es o p o essional scien i ic ac i i y
p oposed by Osbo ne (2011): in es iga ing, e alua ing, and de eloping explana ions and
solu ions. The model p oposed by Osbo ne also explo es how he h ee sphe es o he scien i ic
wo k in e ac . Jiménez-Aleixand e and C ujei as-Pé ez (2017) sugges a co espondence
be ween he h ee sphe es o ac i i y and he h ee scien i ic compe encies e alua ed in he
PISA amewo k (OECD, 2016): e alua ing and designing scien i ic enqui y, in e p e ing da a
and e idence scien i ically and explaining phenomena scien i ically, which a e e e ed o o
esea ch pu poses as inqui y, a gumen a ion, and modelling. This implies a clea alignmen
wi h he amewo k ha aspi es o e eb a e and in o m Eu opean educa ional cu icula.
Acco ding o he 2015 PISA amewo k (2016), which ocused on science, inqui y en ails
desc ibing and e alua ing scien i ic in es iga ions and p oposing ways o add essing ques ions
scien i ically; a gumen a ion in ol es e alua ing scien i ic da a, claims and a gumen s o
elabo a e wa an ed conclusions and modelling en ails ecognising, o e ing, and e alua ing
explana ions o a se ies o na u al and echnological phenomena. The h ee o hem a e
equi ed o a ain scien i ic li e acy, meaning ha a pe son possesses he abili y o engage wi h
science- ela ed issues, and wi h he ideas o science, as a e lec i e ci izen. Simila ly, Robe s
and Bybee (2014) s a e ha a scien i ically li e a e pe son should be able o unde s and he
impac o science and echnology on e e yday li e, and as such, hey should be able o make
in o med decisions abou scien i ic- ela ed issues. This becomes e en mo e impo an wi h he
g owing conce ns abou he sp ead o misin o ma ion ha con adic s es ablished scien i ic
indings, being he common assump ion ha scien i ic li e acy helps o add ess his issue and
also o imp o e in o med decision-making a he indi idual and collec i e le el (Howell &
B ossa d, 2021).
A e unde lining he impo ance o scien i ic p ac ices in achie ing scien i ic li e acy, he
ollowing sec ions will ocus on he scien i ic p ac ices o inqui y and a gumen a ion sepa a ely,
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
34
since bo h a e examined in his hesis and equi e a di e en ia e se o skills, al hough hey can
o e lap in some cases (Jiménez-Aleixand e & C ujei as-Pé ez, 2017).
1.3.1.1 The a gumen a ion p ac ice
A gumen a ion, unde s ood as a scien i ic p ac ice, consis s o e alua ing claims on
he basis o e idence, and he e o e acknowledging ha scien i ic s a emen s need o be
suppo ed by e idence, and hus jus i ied (Jiménez-Aleixand e, 2010). In his sense, knowledge
claims can be indi idually o in e ac ionally cons uc ed and e alua ed conside ing empi ical
o heo e ical e idence (Jiménez-Aleixand e & E du an, 2007). The PISA 2015 amewo k
(OECD, 2016) p o ides a mo e ex ensi e concep ualiza ion, by add essing he di e en
equi emen s o s uden s o be compe en in he p ac ice o a gumen a ion such as
dis inguishing be ween a gumen s based on scien i ic e idence and hose who a e no ,
e alua ing scien i ic a gumen s and e idence om di e en sou ces o in e p e ing da a in o de
o d aw app op ia e conclusions. This amewo k ecognises ha a gumen a ion en ails he
iden i ica ion o app op ia e o lawed connec ions be ween e idence and conclusions. This is
in line wi h how Duschl e al. (2007) concei e a gumen a ion, a logical and a ional o m o
discou se o ien ed a inding he ela ionship be ween ideas and e idence.
In he las decades, he e has been an inc easing emphasis on he key ole ha language,
discou se, and a gumen a ion play in bo h he pe sonal and social cons uc ion o scien i ic
knowledge (Duschl & Osbo ne, 2002; Lemke, 1990). As a esul , a gumen a ion in science
educa ion has been ex ensi ely s udied.
A gumen a ion has been add essed in educa ional con ex s h ough wo di e en and
in e ela ed pe spec i es (Kons an inidou & Macagno, 2012): 1) dialogical app oach, which
ocuses on he exis ing easoning o suppo a claim; and 2) s uc u al app oach, ha ocuses on
he cons uc ion o a gumen s in e ms o i s o mal s uc u e. This means ha hese
pe spec i es ha e di e en objec i es in ela ion o he p ope cons uc ion o a gumen s. Unde
a dialogical pe spec i e, i is unde s ood ha a good a gumen is gene a ed when e idence is
p o ided o suppo a ce ain posi ion, o compa isons a e made be ween di e en posi ions
om a c i ical s ance (Osbo ne, 2010; Kuhn, 2019). Unde he o he pe spec i e, a good
a gumen mus ha e a se ies o componen s, o which models a e de eloped o iden i y hem,
such as Toulmin’s a gumen pa e n (1958).
Some au ho s highligh in hei s udies he social na u e o a gumen a ion (Kols ø &
Radcli e, 2007; Be land & Reise , 2009; Chinn & Osbo ne, 2010). In his sense scien i ic
a gumen a ion is conside ed a social p ac ice in which he membe s o a communi y make sense
o a phenomena h ough discou se. Acco ding o Kols ø and Radcli e (2007), he goal o
scien i ic a gumen a ion is o con ibu e o he collec i e e alua ion o scien i ic knowledge
claims and o he iden i ica ion o consensual and eliable depic ions o na u al phenomena.
Simila ly, Be land and Reise (2009) iden i y h ee o e lapping goals o a gumen a ion which
a e: making sense o he phenomena being s udied, a icula ing hese unde s andings and
pe suading o he s (p.29). The i s goal is mo e closely ela ed o in e p e ing da a and
cons uc ing explana ions, he second one in ol es p esen ing a gumen s and he hi d one
en ails conside ing coun e a gumen s and de ending one’s s ance. This iew coincides o a g ea
ex en wi h he way in which he p ac ice o a gumen a ion was p omo ed h ough he ac i i ies
examined in his hesis, especially in he a gumen a i e ole-play. I is wo h conside ing ha
scien is s need o con ince o he s ha hei e idence is ele an and o high quali y o he
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
35
phenomena being s udied o gene a e a s ong a gumen , and ha as a esul , a g ea amoun o
ime is alloca ed o e alua e he e idence used o suppo o challenge a claim (Sampson e al.,
2013), some hing ha can be ela ed o Be land and Reise ’ (2009) goals o a gumen a ion.
The bene i s om engaging in a gumen a ion p ocesses, as well as he challenges
encoun e ed, a e well documen ed in he li e a u e. Jiménez-Aleixand e and E du an (2007)
iden i ied i e po en ial con ibu ions o in oducing a gumen a ion in he science class oom,
which hey ela ed o hei co esponding heo e ical pe spec i es. Among hese con ibu ions
a e imp o emen s in communica i e compe ences, pa icula ly c i ical hinking, as well as in
de eloping epis emic c i e ia and achie ing scien i ic li e acy. Focusing speci ically on he
p ocesses o knowledge cons uc ion and e alua ion, he p ac ice o a gumen a ion o e s
s uden s oppo uni ies o engage in hem, as hese p ocesses equi e, o example, being awa e
ha a claim exis s among a se ies o possibili ies ha can be compa ed h ough e idence (Fo d,
2012), he use o c i e ia o dis inguishing be ween good o bad a gumen s (Zoha & Neme ,
2002), he use o c i e ia o he selec ion and e alua ion o e idence, he p o ision o
jus i ica ions and he cons uc ion o coun e a gumen s (Ch is odoulou & Osbo ne, 2014),
iden i ying app op ia e means o econciling con as ing claims (Kuhn e al., 2017) o he
e alua ion o a gumen s cons uc ed by o he s and hei quali y (Ryu & Sando al, 2012).
I is also ele an o add ess he challenges ha s uden s ace when engaging in he
scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion. Sampson e al. (2013) men ion he challenges ha we e
conside ed in he F amewo k o K-12 Science Educa ion (NRC, 2012), including he inabili y
o unde s and he di e ence be ween da a and e idence o o ans o m da a in o e idence, a
con i ma ion bias ha gene a es a endency o seek ou da a o suppo own’s ideas while
igno ing he es , making gene aliza ions wi h e y limi ed in o ma ion and no jus i ying he
e idence p o ided by making i explici o o he s o discussing how his e idence is g ounded
on he scien i ic body o knowledge. Some au ho s ha e linked he di icul ies ha s uden s
expe ience while engaging in a gumen a ion o he modi ica ion o es ablished discou se
p ac ices in he class oom (Be land & Reise , 2010; Ryu & Sando al, 2012). I was also
epo ed ha s uden s end o igno e da a when hey con adic hei ideas, going as a as
ein e p e e idence o ma ch an inaccu a e claim, a he han e ising he claim in he i s
place (Kuhn, 1991; Kuhn e al., 2000). I has also been ound ha sho comings o an adequa e
de elopmen o he p ac ice o a gumen a ion ela e o how s uden s w ongly in e p e da a
(Aca e al., 2010) and o insu icien e idence being inco po a ed o wa an a claim (Sando al
& Millwood, 2005).
A e iew on he exis ing li e a u e abou class oom in e en ions ackling he
a gumen a ion p ac ice indica es ha a gumen a ion has been s udied ex ensi ely in ecen
yea s. Some o hese s udies ocus on examining s uden s’ abili y o p oduce a gumen s.
Dawson and Ven ille (2009) used Toulmin’s a gumen pa e n (1958) and in o mal easoning
pa e ns as a amewo k and ound ha mos s uden s use no da a o e y simple da a o jus i y
hei claims. E ago ou and Osbo ne (2013) s udied collabo a i e a gumen a ion abou socio-
scien i ic issues and de e mined ha his con ex does no p o ide on i s own s uden s’
engagemen in a gumen a ion. E du an e al. (2004) also used Toulmin’s a gumen pa e n
(1958) o moni o he di e ences be ween a gumen a i e discou se in small g oups o wi h he
whole class. O he s udies explo ed he needs o eaching suppo o an adequa e engagemen
in a gumen a ion. Fo example, Simmoneaux (2001) compa ed he impac o a ole-play and a
con en ional discussion and concluded ha he eache needs o play an ac i e ole a he end

LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
36
o he deba e by asking e lec i e ques ions aimed a imp o ing s uden s’ awa eness on he ole
and limi s o scien i ic knowledge. Addi ionally, Duschl and Osbo ne (2002) a gued ha
condi ions o suppo ing a gumen a ion depend on he use o e idence in he p ocess o
cons uc ing and e alua ing explana ions.
In he Spanish con ex , he e a e also many s udies ha p omo e s uden s’ engagemen in
a gumen a ion in he science class oom a he seconda y le el. Fo example, Ruiz e al. (2013)
ound ha socio-scien i ic deba e con ibu es o imp o e high-school s uden s’ pe o mance in
a gumen a ion, no ably in w i en discou se. Paz O e o and Puig (2020) poin ed ou a mu ual
and bene icial ela ionships be ween modeling and a gumen a ions p ac ices a e
implemen ing a sequence abou ex e nal geodynamics and en i onmen al and he i age
con o e sies. Oli e as P a and Ma quez Ba galló (2013) analysed how s uden s om di e en
age g oups and science backg ounds iden i ied scien i ic ideas abou global wa ming in a p ess
epo and inco po a ed e idence o elabo a e an a gumen a i e essay, inding signi ican
di e ences in hei pe o mances. Mo eo e , González Picáns and Puig (2017) in oduced a
sequence o ac i i ies based on a local en i onmen al p oblem and ound ha pa icipan s had
di icul ies in inco po a ing empi ical and obse a ional da a o hei a gumen s and in c i ically
analysing he in o ma ion p o ided on he causes o he p oblem. Blanco Anaya and Díaz de
Bus aman e (2014) used Toulmin’s a gumen pa e n (1958) o examine s uden s’ easoning
p ocess h ough a gumen a ion in an ac i i y abou oo p in s and ound ha hey we e able o
make in e ences abou wha happened as well as cons uc ing complex a gumen s.
Ne e heless, his hesis p ojec con ibu es o he body o knowledge o a gumen a ion in
he science class oom in he sense ha i iden i ies si ua ed ace s o epis emic cogni ion when
s uden s engage in a gumen a ion in au hen ic se ings (Chinn e al., 2014). By iden i ying hese
key aspec s, we hope o elucida e how o p ope ly p omp epis emic knowledge in he s uden s’
discou se.
1.3.1.2 The inqui y p ac ice
Inqui y in ol es a se o ac i i ies ha ela e o empi ical in es iga ion (NRC, 2012),
o example de e mining wha needs o be measu ed, obse e phenomena, planning
expe imen s wi h a en ion o he obse a ions and da a collec ion, building ins umen s and
iden i ying sou ces o unce ain y. This implies iden i ying he da a ha needs o be eco ded
and some imes es ablishing he di e ences be ween dependen and independen a iables o
an expe imen (OECD, 2019). I is impo an o men ion ha he a ay o da a and obse a ions
ela ed o a speci ic phenomenon se es o wo di e en pu poses. On one hand, es ing exis ing
heo ies and explana ions and on he o he hand, e ising and de eloping new ones. Inqui y is
no only limi ed o ha , as i also seeks o o mula ing ques ions abou phenomena, o
de e mining he ones ha mus be s udied.
The PISA 2015 amewo k (OECD, 2016) desc ibes inqui y as designing and e alua ing
scien i ic in es iga ions, as well as p oposing and e alua ing ways o s udy ques ions
scien i ically. The duali y be ween designing and e alua ing scien i ic in es iga ions implies
ha s uden s ha e o ge in ol ed wi h he ope a ions ela ed o planning scien i ic
in es iga ions and conduc expe imen s bu also ecognising hese ea u es and i s adequacy in
gi en scien i ic expe imen s. The same is ue o p oposing and e alua ing he di e en ways
in which an issue can be s udied scien i ically, as i is essen ial o make p oposals on how o
s udy a gi en ques ion, bu also o e alua e he ones ha ha e al eady been made. Taking his
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
37
in o accoun inqui y is equi ed o assess he epo s on scien i ic indings c i ically (McNeill,
& K ajcik, 2008) and en ails knowledge o he key ea u es in scien i ic in es iga ions such as
wha hings ha e o be measu ed, wha a iables ha e o be con olled and how o ensu e he
accu acy and eliabili y o he da a collec ed.
I is ele an o add ess he implica ions ha engaging in inqui y poses o s uden s as well
as he challenges aced when implemen ing p oposals based on his app oach. Cue as e al.
(2005) epo an inc ease in he s uden s’ abili y o asking app op ia e ques ions and designing
in es iga ions, as well as d awing conclusions. Llewellyn (2013) men ions he de elopmen o
skills such as c i ical hinking, easoning and habi s employed while conduc ing scien i ic
in es iga ions. C ujei as-Pé ez and Jiménez-Aleixand e (2017) iden i y a posi i e e olu ion on
he s uden s’ designs o ca ying ou an in es iga ion. These au ho s also desc ibe
imp o emen s in da a analysis and in e p e a ion skills based on s uden s' eac ion o he
p esence o anomalous da a (C ujei as-Pé ez & Jiménez-Aleixand e, 2019). Engaging in
inqui y also suppo s s uden s in in e p e ing and analysing da a o suppo hei easoning,
while ac i ely explaining di e en phenomena i s -hand (K ajcik, 2015) and in unde s anding
he mul iple causes ha can con ibu e o an ou come (Kuhn e al., 2017).
This app oach is o cou se me wi h se e al challenges ha also ha e o be conside ed o
an adequa e engagemen o s uden s in he scien i ic p ac ice o inqui y. K ajcik e al. (1998)
men ion ha s uden s expe ience di icul ies o mula ing app op ia e esea ch ques ions and
de eloping plans o in es iga e hem, while Zimme man (2000) s a es ha challenges a e me
in designing expe imen s and in e p e ing hei esul s. Addi ionally, Lin and Chang (2018)
asse ha s uden s o en miss he ma k on unde s anding he ole o ideas and he heo y-
building na u e o science, educing i s pu pose o me ely doing ac i i ies such as collec ing
da a o es ing a iables.
Howe e , i is ele an o no e ha no all he elemen s ha cha ac e ize scien i ic inqui y
can be inco po a ed in a 50-minu e class o e en o e a longe pe iod o ime (G andy & Duschl,
2008). Inqui y asks in he class oom do no need o exac ly ep oduce p o essional scien i ic
inqui y, bu s uden s should ac i ely pa icipa e in cons uc ing in es iga ions o add ess
ques ions ha hey ha e iden i ied as dese ing a en ion in o de o mo e close o scien i ic
easoning p ocesses (Reise e al., 2001). This iew is coinciden al wi h he design o he
ac i i y in his hesis ha p omo es s uden s’ pa icipa ion in he scien i ic p ac ice o inqui y.
This ac i i y ocuses on a na owe se o elemen s o conduc ing an in es iga ion bu
emphasises elemen s o scien i ic easoning ela ed o inqui y when add essing a eal-li e e en .
In ela ion o eaching ins uc ion, he e a e also challenges, since eache s in addi ion o
s uden s seem o ha e a endency o iew inqui y as a se o ixed p ocedu es ha do no equi e
a jus i ica ion and can be used epea edly o di e en in es iga ions in he exac same ways
(Wa son e al., 2004). Amos e al. (2020) men ion ha i is impo an o p o ide an adequa e
sca olding when eaching science h ough inqui y in socio-scien i ic se ings, as s uden s
s uggle wi h de eloping app op ia e da a collec ion ins umen s and wi h analysing da a. This
ela es o how scien i ic inqui y is o en ansla ed o he class oom, as o e simpli ied inqui y
hands-on asks ha ha e li le esemblance o au hen ic scien i ic easoning (Chinn & Malho a,
2002), which is coinciden al wi h. The e o e, eaching science h ough inqui y in ol es
p o iding s uden s wi h oppo uni ies o unde s and and de elop he skills needed o design and
conduc scien i ic in es iga ions, while lea ning science con en knowledge (Bybee, 2000). Fo
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
38
example, when s uden s engage in in es iga ions designed o making decisions du ing
planning and implemen a ion s ages, hey a e di ec ly in ol ed in inding ou wha does and
does no wo k (Duschl & Bybee, 2014). These au ho s a gue ha se ing di e en g oups ha
sha e how hey ackled he in es iga ion leads o he e inemen o in es iga ion plans and
econside a ions ha con ibu e o de elop s uden s’ unde s anding on how scien i ic
knowledge is gene a ed, e ined, and jus i ied.
In con as o he a gumen a ion p ac ice, he e a e less in e en ions ha explo e how
seconda y s uden s engage in inqui y in he science class oom. In he Spanish con ex ,
C ujei as-Pé ez & Jiménez-Aleixand e (2017) examined he e olu ion o seconda y s uden s'
pe o mances in planning in es iga ions. These au ho s also analysed s uden s’ in e p e a ion
o da a, no ably anomalous esul s, in a se o i e inqui y-based asks and ound an imp o ed
capaci y o moni o ing hese da a in he las asks, in compa ison wi h he i s ones (C ujei as-
Pé ez & Jiménez-Aleixand e, 2019). Domènech Casal (2014) examined how s uden s so ed
ou se en ques ions ela ed o he indi ec measu e o a magni ude and desc ibed he po en ial
o his s a egy o iden i y misconcep ions as well as he ele ance o a p ope sca olding o
p omo e scien i ic skills. González Rod íguez and C ujei as Pé ez (2016) analysed s uden s’
pe o mances in wo inqui y-based ac i i ies abou chemical eac ions and concluded ha
s uden s expe ienced di icul ies in planning he in es iga ion.
In his hesis, he epis emic knowledge necessa y o an adequa e pe o mance o s uden s
in bo h inqui y and a gumen a ion p ac ices is examined, so he ollowing sec ion explo es how
his ype o knowledge is essen ial o scien i ic p ac ices and how wo di e en pe spec i es
on epis emology con ibu e o gain mo e insigh o an adequa e lea ning h ough scien i ic
p ac ices.
1.3.2 The in luence o epis emic knowledge o he de elopmen o scien i ic p ac ices
Epis emic knowledge has been s udied in he las decades because o i s implica ion in he
s uden s’ app oaches o lea ning science, as well as o hei pe o mances o scien i ic easoning
(Yang e al., 2018; Yang & Tsai, 2010). The e a e also s udies ha examine he sophis ica ion
o s uden s’ epis emic unde s anding o scien i ic knowledge, such as Lin’s (2021). Howe e ,
ques ions s ill emain abou wha c i e ia a e app op ia e o judge he adequacy o epis emic
knowledge in a speci ic con ex o be ween con ex s (G eene e al., 2016).
Epis emic knowledge is de ined as he unde s anding o he ole o he speci ic cons uc s
ha a e in ol ed in he p oduc ion o knowledge and o he essen ial ea u es o he knowledge-
building p ocesses (Duschl, 2008). In Science Educa ion, he ele ance o epis emic knowledge
is e lec ed wi h i s inco po a ion o he PISA su ey 2015 amewo k as a ype o knowledge
o be assessed, apa om con en knowledge and p ocedu al knowledge (OECD, 2016). The
PISA 2018 science amewo k (OECD, 2019) main ains a key ole o epis emic knowledge in
all he h ee scien i ic compe encies necessa y o be conside ed a science li e a e pe son. In his
amewo k, epis emic knowledge is de ined as “ he unde s anding o he a ionale o he
common p ac ices o scien i ic inqui y, he s a us o he knowledge claims ha a e gene a ed,
and he meaning o ounda ional e ms, such as heo y, hypo hesis and da a” (OECD, 2019, p.
99). Acco ding o his amewo k, his ype o knowledge in ol es an unde s anding o he
unc ion ha ques ions, obse a ions, heo ies, hypo heses, models and a gumen s play in
science; a ecogni ion o he a ie y o o ms o scien i ic inqui y; and he ole pee e iew
plays in es ablishing knowledge ha can be us ed. I should be no ed ha he PISA 2018
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
39
F amewo k did no ocus on science, hence he g ea e use o he p e ious 2015 amewo k.
Howe e , in his case, we decided o p o ide he la es de ini ion o epis emic knowledge, in
o de o gua an ee ha i is upda ed.
In sho , epis emic knowledge is ele an o science educa ion since a highe le el o
epis emic knowledge esul s in a mo e p oduc i e lea ning abou scien i ic p ac ices and
con en s (C ujei as-Pé ez & B ocos, 2021).
The ole o epis emic knowledge in he scien i ic p ac ices has been al eady discussed in
he Epis emologies in P ac ice (EIP) amewo k (Be land e al., 2016) which s a es ha
success ul lea ning using an app oach based on scien i ic p ac ices does no depend on he
p ac ices exclusi ely, bu also on he epis emic knowledge in ol ed in hem. This amewo k
also makes a case o making scien i ic p ac ices meaning ul o bo h he scien i ic and he
class oom communi y, which en ails aligning he goals o scien i ic sensemaking and s uden s’
ways o building knowledge. This is in line wi h he asse ions made by Osbo ne (2014), who
poin s ou ha he alue o engaging in scien i ic p ac ices appea s when: a) s uden s de elop a
deepe and b oade unde s anding o wha we know, how we know and he epis emic and
p ocedu al cons uc s ha guide science; b) such knowledge is de eloped in a mo e e ec i e
manne and c) i p esen s a mo e au hen ic pic u e o he endea ou ha is science. In line wi h
his, Kuhn e al. (2017) s a e he signi icance o scien i ic p ac ices os e ing he unde s anding
o he epis emological ounda ion o science, as scien i ic claims need o be si ua ed in a
amewo k o al e na i es ha equi e e idence o es ablish o e ano he . I is di icul o
concei e how a scien i ic claim can p e ail o e o he al e na i es wi hou a deep unde s anding
o he p ocesses ha make ha idea mo e eliable in he i s place. This idea is simila o wha
Fo d (2008) says abou wha i means o a ain a ‘g asp o p ac ice’, which is he con e gence
be ween he cons uc ion o claims and he awa eness o needing o c i ique hose claims
du ing he easoning p ocess. Addi ionally, Sando al (2005) s a es ha in con empo a y and
democ a ic socie ies, ci izens need o unde s and he na u e o scien i ic knowledge and
scien i ic p ac ices o be able o pa icipa e in policy decisions ha inco po a e science opics
and o in e p e how new scien i ic disco e ies a e meaning ul o hei li es. Fu he mo e, a
limi ed epis emic unde s anding o science has an e ec on s uden s being less mo i a ed o
lea n i , as hey may no unde s and how o p oduce and imp o e e idence-based ideas o
cons uc a new idea based on exis ing ones (Lin & Chang, 2018).
Al hough a b oade de ini ion o epis emic knowledge has been p o ided, s udies o
science lea ning concep ualise epis emology in di e en ways ha se e o di e en pu poses
(Kelly e al., 2012): 1) The disciplina y pe spec i e, ha ocuses on he di e en ways ha
his o y and philosophy o science ha e in o med lea ning; 2) he social pe spec i e, ha
ocuses on how knowledge is es ablished in e ac ionally in lea ning con ex s; and 3) he
pe sonal pe spec i e, ha ocuses on how he epis emological belie s o s uden s in luence
lea ning. These au ho s also poin ou ha hese di e en iews a e no exclusi e, aiming
ins ead a in o ming science lea ning in di e en ways while placing emphasis on ce ain
aspec s o epis emic knowledge. In his hesis, s uden s’ con e sa ions in ac i i ies ha p omo e
hei engagemen in inqui y and a gumen a ion p ac ices a e examined om he disciplina y
and he social pe spec i e.
1.3.2.1 Disciplina y epis emic knowledge
This pe spec i e eme ges om he philosophy o science, h ough deba es on he
na u e o scien i ic knowledge and i s alignmen wi h u h and eali y (D i e e al., 1996)
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
46
ou s udy con ibu es o ad ance in his di ec ion, as i explo es wo di e en ace s o epis emic
cogni ion (disciplina y epis emic aspec s and epis emic p ac ices) in an inqui y and
a gumen a ion-based se ing.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The hesis is amed in quali a i e esea ch, ocusing on examining he epis emic knowledge
(a he le el o epis emic p ac ices and disciplina y epis emic aspec s) pe o med by seconda y
s uden s in he science class oom when engaging in he scien i ic p ac ices o inqui y and
a gumen a ion. Among he di e en app oaches o quali a i e me hodology, ou s udy alls
wi hin he case s udy. The implemen a ion o he inal sequence o ac i i ies was ca ied ou
wi h wo g oups o s uden s om 10 h and 11 h g ade in he subjec o Biology. The whole s udy
comp ises wo pilo s udies, conduc ed o es and imp o e he sequence, and he abo e-
men ioned inal s udy. All o hese aspec s will be desc ibed in de ail he ea e .
This sec ion is o ganised as ollows. Fi s ly, he me hodological app oach in which he
hesis is si ua ed is discussed. Secondly, he con ex and he pa icipan s. Thi dly, he design o
he sequence o ac i i ies, wi h emphasis on hose o he inal s udy, which is he subjec ma e
in his hesis. Fou hly, we p esen he ools o da a collec ion and analysis. Las ly, he e hical
conside a ions o he s udy a e p esen ed.
1.4.1 Me hodological App oach. Quali a i e esea ch.
This s udy is amed in quali a i e esea ch, which ocuses on he p ocesses and meanings
ha a e no expe imen ally examined o measu ed in e ms o quan i y, in ensi y, o equency
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Acco ding o Yin (2011), quali a i e esea ch needs o ake in o
conside a ion con ex ual condi ions as well as o aim o p o ide an insigh on exis ing o
eme ging concep s ha explain social beha iou . The educa ional p ocesses ha cons i u e his
s udy, namely he c ea ion o an expe imen al design based on conc e e da a and i s subsequen
e alua ion o he decision-making p ocesses ha ake place du ing he ole-play game occu
h ough he social in e ac ion o he pa icipan s, which implies ha hese p ocesses mus be
s udied in dep h o make sense o hem. Assuming ha knowledge is es ablished h ough
subjec i e expe iences, conside a ion o he con ex in which hey occu is essen ial o
unde s and he pa icipan s' meanings (C esswell, 2013; Me iam & Tisdell, 2016).
Acco ding o Denzin and Lincoln (2018), "quali a i e esea ch is a si ua ed ac i i y ha
loca es he obse e in he wo ld. [...] This means ha quali a i e esea che s s udy hings in
hei na u al se ings, a emp ing o make sense o o in e p e phenomena in e ms o he
meanings people b ing o hem" (p.43). Snape and Spence (2003), men ion ha quali a i e
esea ch equi es objec i es aimed a p o iding an in-dep h unde s anding o he social wo ld
o he pa icipan s h ough he s udy o hei ci cums ances, expe iences and pe spec i es, as
well as an analysis open o eme ging concep s and ideas capable o p oducing de ailed
desc ip ions, iden i ying pa e ns by associa ion o gene a ing explana ions. This is especially
ele an o ou s udy, since epis emic knowledge is examined o he mos pa in an implici
way, ha is, wi hou in ol ing he s uden s nei he in he ca ego iza ion o his knowledge no
in i s impo ance o he de elopmen o he scien i ic p ac ices. Fo his eason, i is essen ial
o de ec eme gen pa e ns in he con e sa ions ha ake place, o iden i y he epis emic
knowledge ha seems o be p esen bu also o de ec he absence o epis emic knowledge ha
in luences an adequa e s uden s’ engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices.

Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
47
Aspe s and Co e (2019) p o ide a de ini ion o quali a i e esea ch consis en wi h wha
has been said abo e. Namely, hey de ine i as “an i e a i e p ocess in which imp o ed
unde s anding o he scien i ic communi y is achie ed by making new signi ican dis inc ions
esul ing om ge ing close o he phenomenon s udied”. I is impo an o emphasize he
ision o his ype o esea ch as an i e a i e p ocess, in which he ision o he objec o s udy
is no s a ic, bu he meanings eme ge as mo e knowledge is gained abou i .
Among he di e en app oaches o a ia ions o quali a i e esea ch ou p ojec is amed
in o he case s udy s a egy. Acco ding o Yin (2011), he case s udy explo es a phenomenon
( he case) in i s eal con ex . To si ua e ou sel es in a mo e speci ic de ini ion o his
me hodological s a egy, we adop Yin’s (2003), acco ding o whom "a case s udy is an
empi ical inqui y ha in es iga es a con empo a y phenomenon wi hin i s eal-li e con ex ,
especially when he bounda ies be ween he objec o s udy and con ex a e no clea ly e iden "
(p.13). The e a e common cha ac e is ics o he case s udy men ioned by se e al au ho s such
as i s sui abili y o conduc ing a holis ic and in-dep h in es iga ion o a complex phenomenon
(Ge ing, 2007; Yin, 2003) and he inco po a ion o a ied me hods o da a collec ion and
analysis in o de o in es iga e phenomena in eal con ex s (Simons, 2009).
In his esea ch, he case s udy is delimi ed by he g oups o s uden s whose con e sa ions
a e analysed wi h he objec i e o examining he epis emic knowledge in ol ed in hei
pe o mance when engaging in scien i ic p ac ices. These con e sa ions, in he educa ional
con ex in which hey occu , cons i u e a pa icula case. A case s udy is indeed expec ed o
cap u e he complexi y o a single case, and al hough he me hodology ha enables his has
de eloped wi hin he social sciences, i can be applied in many o he ields ha en ail a p ac ice-
o ien ed dimension such as educa ion (Johansson, 2007).
S ake (1995) makes a e y in e es ing dis inc ion be ween he in insic case s udy and
ins umen al case s udy. In he i s one, he case ep esen s a unique si ua ion, dese ing o be
s udied and aiming a p o iding a pa icula insigh . In he second one, he case in ends o
in o m o he si ua ions. The aim o his hesis p ojec is aligned wi h he ins umen al case
s udy, bu always aking in o conside a ion he limi a ions o he case s udy, which a e discussed
in his sec ion he ea e .
I is ele an o add ess he limi a ions o he case s udy. The mos p e alen c i icism o
his ype o me hodological app oaches is i s inabili y o p o ide da a ha is gene alisable o
o he s udies and con ex s (Cohen e al., 2007). Schoch (2019) elabo a es on his, s a ing ha
he case s udy p o ides a comp ehensi e unde s anding o a de ined uni and also leads o
ans e abili y, dis inguishing his e m om he gene alisa ion ha occu s in quan i a i e
s udies, which is una ainable o he case s udy. Ne e heless, he e a e s a egies ha can be
used o imp o e he alidi y o he esul s ob ained wi h a me hodological app oach based on
he case s udy. Yin (2011) sugges s applying iangula ion in e ms o collec ing di e en
sou ces o da a, some hing ha has been done in his s udy by assembling: 1) he audio and
ideo eco dings o each session; 2) he w i en epo s elabo a ed by he s uden s o each o
he asks; and 3) he esea che ield no es. Howe e , iangula ion can be applied in se e al
di e en ways h oughou he case s udy. In ou s udy, wo pilo s udies a e conduc ed be o e
he inal in e en ion, making he necessa y modi ica ions a e analysing he da a ob ained in
each o he pilo s udies. Acco ding o Malmq is e al. (2019), he ocus o he pilo s udy is o
iden i y he necessi y o modi y ques ions o o he p ocedu es ha do no elici app op ia e
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
48
esponses o enable esea che s o ob ain ich da a. We ag ee wi h his ision, as he p ocess o
designing he inal sequence o ac i i ies equi ed majo modi ica ions highligh ed by bo h pilo
s udies. Fu he mo e, he au ho and he supe iso o he hesis analysed he da a sepa a ely
be o e con as ing he esul s and discussing di e ences in he in e p e a ion o he da a, which
ensu ed eliabili y. Mo eo e , an ex e nal in e na ional expe in e ened o e ine he coding
scheme in he wo o he analysis: epis emic p ac ices (publica ion 2) and sou ces o in o ma ion
and c i e ia (publica ion 4).
1.4.2 Pa icipan s and con ex
The con ex and pa icipan s o he inal s udy a e explained in de ail below, p eceded by a
b ie e accoun o he pilo s udies. The ollowing able summa ises he cha ac e is ics o he
h ee s udies, o se e as a guide.
Table 1.1 Con ex and pa icipan s in he pilo and inal s udies
Pilo S udy 1
Pilo S udy 2
Final S udy
Schools and
class ooms
1 school, 2 class ooms
1 school, 2 class ooms
1 school, 2 class ooms
Subjec s, g ades and
pa icipan s
Applied science o
p o essional ac i i y
(10 h g ade, 9 s uden s)
Scien i ic Cul u e (11 h
g ade, 7 s uden s)
Applied science o
p o essional ac i i y
(10 h g ade, 9 s uden s)
Scien i ic Cul u e (11 h
g ade, 8 s uden s)
Biology (10 h g ade, 13
s uden s) (11 h g ade, 14
s uden s)
1.4.2.1 Pilo s udies
I has been men ioned ha wo pilo s udies we e ca ied ou p io o he inal s udy.
These we e conduc ed in wo di e en public schools loca ed in u ban a eas o he same ci y in
Galicia. Bo h s udies in ol ed he pa icipa ion o wo classes o s uden s o he same ages, bu
in di e en subjec s. In he wo pilo s udies, he s uden s in 10 h g ade we e aking he subjec
Applied Sciences o P o essional Ac i i y and hose in he 11 h g ade we e aking Scien i ic
Cul u e.
The change o subjec be ween he pilo s udies and he inal s udy was p ima ily mo i a ed
by he need o inc ease he numbe o pa icipan s in he same class in o de o wo k in se e al
small g oups. As shown in able 1.1, he numbe o s uden s in each class in bo h pilo s udies
is less han en pa icipan s. Ano he eason was he necessi y o inco po a e pa icipan s wi h
a s onge backg ound in science h ough seconda y educa ion, as ood sa e y en ails some
di icul ies al eady men ioned in he heo e ical amewo k ha mos ly ela e wi h his opic
being an unde s udied issue in class oom se ings.
1.4.2.2 Final s udy
The con ex in which he inal s udy o his hesis has been conduc ed is a seconda y
public school in inne Galicia (Spain). The school is loca ed in a medium-sized own, mo e
speci ically in a semi-u ban se ing. I ecei es s uden s om bo h he own and he su ounding
illages. The s uden s' amilies ha e a di e se socio-cul u al backg ound. This seconda y school
was chosen o he inal s udy because o he esea che 's p e ious amilia i y wi h i , ha ing
es ablished con ac a e conduc ing wo pilo s udies in wo o he schools.
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
49
The pa icipan s we e wo classes o Biology and Geology s uden s. The i s class was
composed o 13 s uden s in 4º de ESO (equi alen o 10 h g ade) aged 15-16 yea s old and he
second one was composed o 14 s uden s in 1º de BAC (equi alen o 11 h g ade) aged 16-17
yea s old. The e o e, he o al numbe o pa icipan s in he s udy was 27 s uden s (N=27). F om
now on, 10 h and 11 h g ade will be used o indica e he classes and ages o he pa icipan s. I
has o be no ed ha in publica ions 2, 3 and 4, he ones ha e e o he inal sequence o
ac i i ies, he con e sa ions ha a e examined do no always include bo h g ades. Publica ions
2 and 4 analyse he con e sa ions be ween he s uden s om 11 h g ade whe eas publica ion 3
examines he con e sa ions be ween 10 h and 11 h g ade s uden s.
Al hough he e was no an in e iew wi h he eache s in he s ic sense o he wo d, a
p e ious mee ing was conduc ed in he school wi h he eache s om bo h classes and wi h he
p incipal in o de o explain he implemen a ion o he sequence o ac i i ies, consul i s
adequacy and sol e possible doub s abou i . The e was also a consul a ion on he need o adap
he asks aking in o accoun he needs o he pa icipan s. I is impo an o no e ha he egula
eache s o bo h classes in he subjec o Biology and Geology did no ca y ou he
implemen a ion o he sequence o ac i i ies o he s udy, since hey had no p e ious amilia i y
wi h add essing scien i ic p ac ices in he class oom. This ole was assumed by he esea che .
In any case, he na u e o he ac i i ies p esen ed, which a e desc ibed in he ollowing sec ion,
allowed bo h he implemen a ion and obse a ion o he s udy o be ca ied ou wi hou any
p oblems, p o iding he s uden s wi h he necessa y suppo .
1.4.3 Design o he sequence
This sec ion desc ibes he whole p ocess o designing and implemen ing he sequence o
ac i i ies ha comp ise his hesis, which is summa ised is igu e 1.1. This igu e illus a es he
iming, as well as he design, implemen a ion and analysis o he sequence o ood sa e y
ac i i ies in he pilo s udies and in he inal s udy.
When desc ibing he ac i i ies, special emphasis is placed on ac i i ies 2 and 3 o he inal
s udy, which a e examined in publica ions 2, 3 and 4. The sequences o ac i i ies o he wo
pilo s udies a e also discussed o a lesse ex en . The sho comings on he design o he
sequences in ela ion o he pilo s udies and he modi ica ions ha we e made will be discussed
in ela ion o he i s esea ch objec i e o his hesis.
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
50
Figu e 1.1 P ojec iming
The design p inciples o he sequence o ac i i ies a e p esen ed below. The cen al goal o he
sequence is o p omo e s uden s’ engagemen in he scien i ic p ac ices o inqui y (design o
scien i ic in es iga ions) and a gumen a ion (e alua ion o knowledge based on e idence). As
his engagemen needs o be meaning ul o s uden s he sequence p omo es epis emic alk,
o e ing s uden s oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in con e sa ions on how knowledge is buil and
alida ed. This is add essed in he con ex o ood sa e y, ans e ed o he class oom as a socio-
scien i ic issue. Wi hin his a ea we ocus mo e speci ically on he impo ance o p o ocols o
heal h p o ec ion, ood-bo ne diseases and he managemen o esou ces o deal wi h ood-bo ne
illnesses.
Fi s , an o e iew o he pilo s udies and he inal s udy is shown in igu e 1.2 in ela ion
o he sequence o ac i i ies (A), he sessions (S) dedica ed o he implemen a ion o each
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
51
ac i i y, and he comple ion o he asks ei he indi idually o in small g oups. The inal s udy
s ems om he imp o emen s and modi ica ions in oduced as a esul o he implemen a ion
o he pilo s udies and he analysis o he esul s ob ained in bo h.
PILOT STUDY 1
PILOT STUDY 2
FINAL STUDY
Figu e 1.2 O e iew o he eaching sequence in he pilo and inal s udies. Legend: A: ac i i ies; S:
sessions
The eaching sequence o he i s pilo s udy included ou ac i i ies ha ocused solely on he
scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion. This sequence inco po a ed an indi idual analysis o a eal
ood poisoning e en in a school se ing (A1a) and he sa e y measu es aken as a esul (A2a),
ollowed by he join cons uc ion o he WHO p o ocol o public heal h eme gencies om i s
nine di e en s eps (A3a) and he p esen a ion o a eal e en whe e mis akes we e made (A4a),
which allowed o make compa isons wi h he p e iously cons uc ed p o ocol.
The eaching sequence o he second pilo s udy included one ac i i y ha wo ked as an
ini ial assessmen on he ma e o ood sa e y, while he h ee emaining ones ocused again on
he scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion. Mo e speci ically, his sequence consis ed o a i s
ac i i y whe e s uden s we e asked o men ion all he opics ha hey belie ed we e associa ed
wi h ood sa e y, wi h a subsequen discussion on he ma e , in o de o cla i y he scope o
ood sa e y and he a eas associa ed wi h i (A1b). The ollowing ac i i y was he cons uc ion
o he WHO p o ocol om i s nine s eps (A2b). The nex one consis ed o compa ing he
elabo a ed p o ocol wi h ano he one wi h mis akes elabo a ed by s uden s and he eal one,
ocusing on hei di e ences and how hey ansla e o a be e esponse o an eme gency (A3b).
A1a: eading and
analysing a p ess
epo abou ood
poisoning in a
school
A2a: analysing
he sa e y
measu es
implemen ed in
du ing he ood
poisoning
si ua ion
A3a: cons uc ing
he WHO p o ocol
o public heal h
eme gencies
A4a: analysing
he e iciency o
he WHO p o ocol
du ing a eal
eme gency
A1b: in oducing
he concep o
ood sa e y and
pooling ela ed
concep s
A2b: cons uc ing
he WHO p o ocol
o public heal h
eme gencies
A3b: e alua ing
and compa ing
he WHO p o ocol
cons uc ed in T2
A4b: decision-
making du ing a
ole-play game
abou a disease
ou b eak
A1: in oducing he
concep o ood sa e y,
ela ed concep s,
analysing popula ion
p o iles and deba ing
ela ed scien i ic
ad ances
A2: designing an
expe imen o de e mine
he cause o a eal
disease ou b eak and
e alua ing he eal
measu es
A3: decision-making
du ing a ole-play game
abou a disease ou b eak
S1, indi idual
S1, indi idual
S2, small g oup
S2, small g oup
S1, small g oup
S2, small g oup
S1, small g oup
S3, S4, small
g oup
S1, small g oup
S2, small g oup
S3, S4, small
g oup

LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
52
The las ac i i y o his sequence consis ed o a ole-play game whe e s uden s had o make
decisions in o de o ind he cause and manage he esou ces o sol ing a ic ional ood-bo ne
disease ou b eak (A4b).
The eaching sequence o he inal s udy consis ed o one ac i i y ha wo ked as an ini ial
assessmen on he ma e o ood sa e y and also ocused on a gumen a ion demanding
jus i ica ions o he popula ion p o iles (A1), a second ac i i y ha ocused on he scien i ic
p ac ices o inqui y and a gumen a ion (A2) and a hi d one ha ocused on a gumen a ion (A3).
I is impo an o men ion he eason why he WHO p o ocol ac i i y, ca ied ou in he wo
pilo s udies, was disca ded o he inal s udy. Al hough his ac i i y p o ided some
oppo uni y o engage in a gumen a ion, i was conside ed insu icien as i did no p omo e he
use o epis emic knowledge. The ac i i y elied on he compa ison be ween he s eps o he
p o ocol and how hey ela e o dealing wi h an eme gency, bu wi hou a deep e lec ion on he
alidi y o he s eps and why hey a e selec ed in he i s place. This implies a lack o
unde s anding o how his knowledge is cons uc ed.
He ea e , he ac i i ies o he inal s udy a e p esen ed. Ac i i y 1 is only b ie ly discussed,
as i is no examined in his hesis. Howe e , objec i es 2 and 3 o he hesis a e add essed
h ough he s uden s’ in ol emen in ac i i ies 2 and 3. The handou s o he ac i i ies a e
ep oduced in he appendix.
Ac i i y 1. In oducing ood sa e y. This ac i i y was designed o p o ide s uden s wi h
some unde s anding o he concep o ood sa e y and he di e en a eas ela ed o i . I was
conduc ed in one session.
Fi s o all, he small g oups o s uden s we e asked which known concep s hey could
associa e ood sa e y wi h, and hen hey we e asked o sha e hem wi h he es o he class o
see which coincidences we e ound be ween he di e en g oups. This allowed o e lec on he
a eas ha ha e a ela ion o ood sa e y. Then he b oade cons uc o ood secu i y was
in oduced, namely i s ou pilla s, o in o he wo ds he ou condi ions ha ha e o be me o
ood secu i y o be gua an eed. These ou condi ions a e a ailabili y, access, u iliza ion and
s abili y (Helland & Sø bø, 2014). A e a depic ion o he cha ac e is ics o each pilla , s uden s
we e p esen ed wi h ou cha ac e s, aiming a ep esen ing di e en popula ion p o iles,
accompanied by a b ie desc ip ion abou his cha ac e 's expe ience wi h ood in hei day- o-
day li e. S uden s we e asked o es ablish and jus i y i hese cha ac e s ind hemsel es (o no )
in a ood secu i y si ua ion, based on he ul ilmen o he ou condi ions p esen ed abo e.
Mo e speci ically, he e was one cha ac e o whom all ou condi ions we e me , as he
decision no o ea ce ain oods was based on die a y choices. Howe e , o he cha ac e s we e
no in he same si ua ion o di e en easons, whe he economic, social, physical o ela ed o
a disease equi ing speci ic oods. This allowed o si ua e ood sa e y wi hin a con ex whe e
ood- ela ed challenges a e connec ed o many o he ac o s besides he isks associa ed wi h
ood consump ion. Las ly, each g oup was asked abou he scien i ic ad ances ha could
in luence he imp o emen o ood secu i y, ollowed by a whole class discussion on he
di e en p oposals and hei implica ions.
The con e sa ions o he s uden s du ing his ac i i y a e no included in he publica ions
in his hesis. None heless, i is wo h e lec ing on he ele ance o including his ac i i y in
he sequence. Gi en ha ood sa e y is no a speci ic cu icula con en and s uden s a e no
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
53
amilia wi h his opic, we conside ed i necessa y o elabo a e an in oduc o y ac i i y ha
p o ides he basis o an e ec i e pa icipa ion in scien i ic p ac ices, as his equi es a
combina ion o concep ual, p ocedu al and epis emic knowledge (Duschl, 2008).
Ac i i y 2. Analysing a eal case o a ood-bo ne ou b eak. This ac i i y was amed in he
ield o ood-bo ne diseases and equi ed s uden s o engage in inqui y and a gumen a ion
p ac ices. I was conduc ed in one session and was di ided in wo phases.
In he design phase, s uden s we e asked o design an expe imen in o de o ind he eal
cause o an ou b eak. This equi ed selec ing he ood- ela ed samples ha need o be collec ed
and an adequa e human body sample om six a ailable op ions o make a compa ison, as well
as indica ing he s ain o E. coli bac e ia causing he ou b eak. As s uden s we e equi ed o
p o ide a jus i ica ion o each choice, hey we e gi en he ollowing documen s o be able o
do so: a) he i s hal o a ch onology, which ecoun ed he eal-li e e en s o he hemoly ic-
u emic synd ome ou b eak in Ge many in 2011 (based on he eal imeline o e en s, ecollec ed
h ough p ess epo s); b) a medical epo on a pe son admi ed o he hospi al expe iencing he
symp oms o he disease (based on he eal onse o symp oms o he u emic-hemoly ic
synd ome) and c) in o ma ion on he di e en s ains o pa hogenic E. coli bac e ia (cells hey
a ec , symp oms hey can cause and mos common a eas and popula ion hey a ec ). A e
making hei choices o designing he expe imen s uden s we e asked i designing an
in es iga ion be o e conduc ing i was impo an , and wha we e he easons o he ele ance
o he expe imen al design. The i s phase o he ac i i y equi ed s uden s o engage in he
scien i ic p ac ice o inqui y, namely in ela ion o he design o in es iga ions.
In he e alua ion phase, s uden s we e asked o assess he eal ou come o he u emic-
hemoly ic ou b eak in Ge many, in ela ion o he decisions ha we e made by he go e nmen
agencies. S uden s we e asked o indica e i hese decisions we e app op ia e om a scien i ic
s ance. In o de o be able o do so, s uden s we e gi en he ollowing documen s: a) he second
hal o he ch onology, ha na a ed how he ou b eak was esol ed and i s consequences and
b) he WHO p o ocol o public heal h eme gencies o in e na ional conce n, whose s eps we e
indica ed and explained. The second phase o he ac i i y equi ed s uden s o engage in he
scien i ic p ac ices o inqui y, aking in o accoun he p e ious expe imen al design o add ess
he ou come o he ou b eak, and a gumen a ion, o e alua e he go e nmen ’s ac ions in
acco dance wi h he eal e en s and he WHO p o ocol. Figu e 1.3 depic s he in o ma ion ha
was p o ided a each s age o he ac i i y.
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
54
Figu e 1.3 In o ma ion p o ided in he wo s ages o he second ac i i y in he inal s udy
The con e sa ions o he s uden s du ing his ac i i y a e analysed in publica ion 3 o his hesis,
examining he epis emic disciplina y knowledge ha s uden s ake in o conside a ion in each
phase o he ac i i y.
Ac i i y 3. Decision-making o sol e Se ocia’s alimen a y eme gency. This ac i i y was
amed in he ield o ood-bo ne diseases and equi ed s uden s o engage in a gumen a ion in
o de o make decisions in a ole-play game abou an eme gency o ini ially unknown cause.
The ole-play was conduc ed in wo sessions.
Fi s , each small g oup o s uden s was andomly assigned o one o he h ee dis ic s o a
ic ional coun y, Se ocia. Each dis ic con olled i e di e en esou ces, such as ishing,
pha maceu ical indus y, ailway anspo , elecommunica ions o ood indus y. Following an
ou b eak o unknown o igin in dis ic 2, s uden s we e asked o ind he cause o he disease
(which was linked o one o he esou ces) and o sol e he p oblems associa ed wi h he
ou b eak in wha e e way hey el was mos app op ia e h ough he ac i a ion and deac i a ion
o esou ces. Despi e his, s uden s we e ad ised no o make decisions wi hou aking in o
accoun any in o ma ion, as he e could be consequences o he popula ion o Se ocia.
The dynamics o he ole-play we e based on ounds ha we e di ided in o: a) a small
g oup discussion among membe s o he same dis ic o make a p oposal on which esou ces
o ac i a e o deac i a e and b) a gene al deba e wi h he whole class in which he p oposals
we e p esen ed and a sha ed decision was made. S uden s had o ake in o conside a ion some
ules es ablished by he ole-play such as: a) he ole-play con inues un il he cause o he
ou b eak is de ec ed (meaning ha he co esponding esou ce is deac i a ed), b) in each ound
a maximum o wo esou ces can be ac i a ed and one esou ce can be deac i a ed, c) o
deac i a ions, he inal decision is o be made by he dis ic ha he speci ic esou ce belongs
o, d) deac i a ing a esou ce means s opping all he ac i i y ela ed o i ( o example,
Ch onology
WHO p o ocol
INQUIRY
(Design Phase)
INQUIRY and ARGUMENTATION
(E alua ion Phase)
Ch onology
Medical epo
In o ma ion E. coli
Sec ion 1. In oduc ion
55
deac i a ing ailway anspo means ha all ains a e unable o un in Se ocia) bu ac i a ing
a esou ce means ca ying ou an speci ic ac ion ela ed o ha esou ce ha has o be indica ed.
S uden s ecei ed in o ma ion o conside in he ole-play a he e y s a o he game and
a he end o each ound a e making hei join decision on wha esou ces deac i a e o
ac i a e. The decisions ha s uden s made du ing he ole-play de e mined some o he
in o ma ion ha hey ecei ed o con inue, bu no en i ely. Fo example, a he end o ound
one, he e was in o ma ion ha s uden s ecei ed no ma e wha (an inc ease in epo ed cases
o he disease, sp ead o he disease o di e en a eas…) bu hey ecei ed di e en addi ional
in o ma ion i hey decided o ac i a e he pha maceu ical indus y o in es iga e he disease
a he han i hey ac i a ed elecommunica ions o ale he popula ion abou he ou b eak.
Figu e 1.4 b ie ly depic s he dynamics o he ole play and a wha s age in o ma ion is
ecei ed.
Figu e 1.4 O ganiza ion o he ounds and in o ma ion in he ole-play
The con e sa ions o he s uden s du ing his ac i i y a e analysed in publica ions 2 and 4 o
his hesis, examining he epis emic ope a ions ep esen a i e o epis emic p ac ices ha
s uden s pe o m du ing hei in ol emen in he ole-play (publica ion 2) and he sou ces o
in o ma ion and c i e ia ha s uden s ake in o conside a ion in hei decision-making p ocesses
o sol ing he eme gency (publica ion 4).
1.4.4 Tools o da a collec ion and analysis
1.4.4.1 Da a collec ion
Al hough his sec ion desc ibes he da a collec ion p ocess o he inal s udy, i should
be no ed ha he p ocess was iden ical o he pilo s udies in e ms o he ole o he esea che
and he ins umen s o da a collec ion.
The da a collec ion ook place du ing he cou se o he ou sessions in which he ac i i y
sequence o he inal s udy was implemen ed. The esea che adop ed he ole o a pa icipan
obse e , as he eache s in he inal s udy we e no amilia wi h he scien i ic p ac ices
app oach and he ood sa e y opic. Howe e , he ac i i ies in he inal sequence do no equi e
a g ea deal o eaching in e en ion, bu a he cla i ica ion o he dynamics o he asks,
especially in he ole-play. This allowed o conduc he obse a ion o he sessions wi hou any
complica ions. In his way, he pa icipa ion o he esea che was limi ed o ca y ou he
necessa y ac ions o implemen he sequence and also o sol e he doub s ha esul ed om his
ROUND 2
DECISION and NEW INFORMATION
ROUND 1
DECISION and NEW INFORMATION
Small g oup discussion
Gene al deba e
Small g oup discussion
Gene al deba e
RULES AND PRELIMINARY INFORMATION
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
94
2.3 PUBLICATION 3. EPISTEMIC KNOWLEDGE CONSIDERED BY SECONDARY
SCHOOL STUDENTS INVOLVED IN THE EXAMINATION OF A REAL
ALIMENTARY EMERGENCY
This pape , published in Jou nal o Biological Educa ion, examines he epis emic disciplina y
knowledge ha s uden s ake in o conside a ion when designing an expe imen and add essing
he ou come o a eal ood eme gency, an ac i i y ha p omo es s uden s’ engagemen in
inqui y and a gumen a ion.
Casas-Qui oga, L., & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2021). Epis emic knowledge conside ed by
seconda y school s uden s in ol ed in he examina ion o a eal alimen a y eme gency. Jou nal
o Biological Educa ion, 1–13.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00219266.2021.2012230

Sec ion 2. Publica ions
109
2.4 PUBLICATION 4. TRABAJANDO LA RESPUESTA ANTE ENFERMEDADES DE
ORIGEN ALIMENTARIO A TRAVÉS DEL JUEGO DE ROL
This pape , published in Enseñanza de Las Ciencias, analyses he sou ces o in o ma ion and
c i e ia ha s uden s conside in he decision-making p ocesses ha ake place du ing he ole-
play.
Casas-Qui oga, L., & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2022). T abajando la espues a an e
en e medades de o igen alimen a io a a és del juego de ol. Enseñanza de Las Ciencias, 40(1),
221–241.
h ps://doi.o g/10.5565/ e /ensciencias.3327
3. DISCUSSION
This sec ion p esen s he esul s o he hesis’ esea ch objec i es wi h i s co esponding
discussion. Fi s , esul s a e discussed indi idually in ela ion o each esea ch ques ion and
hen, indings a e connec ed h ough a gene al discussion.
3.1 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS RELATED TO EACH RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
This sec ion discusses he esul s co esponding o he h ee esea ch objec i es o his hesis,
which a e unpacked h ough he se en esea ch ques ions ha guide his s udy.
3.1.1 Food sa e y h ough class oom ac i i ies. An app oach based on scien i ic
p ac ices
The i s esea ch objec i e, “Designing class oom ac i i ies aimed a de eloping scien i ic
p ac ices in he con ex o ood sa e y”, is speci ied in he ollowing esea ch ques ion: RQ1.
Which ea u es should mee class oom ac i i ies o p omo ing seconda y s uden s’
engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices in he con ex o ood sa e y?
This pa icula ques ion is add essed mainly in publica ion 1, which p esen s he ac i i ies
o he i s pilo s udy, and indi ec ly in publica ions 2, 3 and 4, p esen ing and examining he
ac i i ies in he inal s udy.
By analysing he class oom ac i i ies designed du ing his hesis p ojec we a e able o
explo e i hey a e implemen ed adequa ely in e ms o : a) he s uden 's pa icipa ion and
mo i a ion; b) whe he he e a e any di icul ies in he s uden s’ unde s anding o he opic
( ood sa e y); c) app ecia ions and conside a ions on he eaching suppo ha needs o be
p o ided; d) he ime de o ed o an speci ic ask; and e) he oppo uni ies hese ac i i ies o e
o engage in scien i ic p ac ices, in his case, a gumen a ion.
The examina ion o RQ1 led o he iden i ica ion o a se o he ac i i ies’ ea u es ha a e
equi ed o he s uden s’ adequa e engagemen in he scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion,
namely in he a ea o ood sa e y. As men ioned be o e, publica ion 1 o his hesis add esses
he ou ac i i ies ha a e pa o he i s pilo s udy. This s udy con ibu ed o iden i y a numbe
o di icul ies in he sequence o ac i i ies implemen ed ha we e ixed o he inal s udy.
No able changes we e made o add ess he p oblems encoun e ed, which a e summa ised
he ea e . In he i s wo ac i i ies, di icul ies we e obse ed when s uden s a emp ed o
inco po a e da a o d aw a conclusion h ough a p ess epo on a ood sa e y inciden aking
place in a high school. Mo eo e , he p ess epo was examined indi idually, so he i s wo
ac i i ies did no p omo e he co-cons uc ion o knowledge, as ecommended by D i e e al.
Sec ion 3. Discussion
133
(1994), which is amended in he inal s udy. In con as , ac i i ies 3 and 4 we e ca ied ou in
small g oups bu a lack o unde s anding o he s eps o he WHO p o ocol o public heal h
eme gencies and hei in e ac ion o achie e a esul was obse ed, al hough de ini ions o he
s eps we e p o ided o he s uden s. Addi ionally, subs an ial di e ences in he s uden s’
pe o mance in a gumen a ion we e obse ed among he g oups ha had a g ea e backg ound
in science and hose who did no . Oli e as P a and Ma quez Ba galló (2013) also epo ed
signi ican di e ences depending on he backg ound in s uden s’ use o da a. This si ua ion
p omp ed o selec s uden s ha had a signi ican backg ound in science o he ollowing
s udies, gi en hei un amilia i y wi h he opic o ood sa e y, as well as wi h asks ha p omo e
hei engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices.
The second pilo s udy was no discussed in any o he publica ions o his hesis, bu i
ac ed as a b idge be ween he i s pilo s udy and he inal s udy, allowing o apply and eassess
he co ec ions de i ed om he analysis o he i s pilo s udy. I was also use ul o u he
explo e he app op ia e s a egies o p omo e he use o epis emic knowledge du ing he
pa icipa ion in he ac i i ies, especially in he case o he ole-play game, which was pe o med
o he i s ime in he second pilo s udy. Conside ing he complexi y o his ac i i y, in e ms
o he ime managemen and he handling o di e en sou ces o in o ma ion, i was essen ial
o ha e his e e ence o he inal s udy. In his way, i was possible o be e alloca e ime o
small g oup discussions and gene al deba es, as well as o co ec some de iciencies in he da a
p o ided du ing he ac i i y, in o de o imp o e he in e p e a ion o he da a. The ma e ials
p o ided in he ac i i y we e also co ec ed o acili a e he s uden s' imme sion in he ic ional
wo ld o he ole-play game as well as he ules ha guided he decision-making p ocesses in
each ound. This cou se o ac ion aligns wi h Malmq is e al.’ (2019) s a emen ha pilo
s udies con ibu e o iden i y he modi ica ions ha need o be made o elici app op ia e
esponses and ob ain ich da a.
The di icul ies ha we e obse ed du ing he implemen a ion o he sequence o ac i i ies
in he inal s udy a e p esen ed as i ollows. I should be men ioned ha he ocus o hese
publica ions was no o explo e hese di icul ies in dep h, bu o answe he esea ch ques ions
ela ed o esea ch objec i es 2 and 3 o his hesis. Publica ions 2 and 3 co espond o he
second esea ch objec i e, while publica ion 4 ela es o he hi d esea ch objec i e. Howe e ,
we ook in o conside a ion he limi a ions o he s udy in hese publica ions, e en a e he
co ec ions, so i is indeed ele an o discuss he mos ele an obs acles in he implemen a ion
o he inal s udy. Fo he pu pose o cla i ica ion, in his pa icula case, publica ions a e
g ouped acco ding o he ac i i y hey examine.
Publica ions 2 and 4 bo h examine ac i i y 3, he las ac i i y o he inal s udy, he ole-
play, which p omo es s uden s’ engagemen in he p ac ice o a gumen a ion. A key componen
o his ac i i y is he iming, as he ime o he small g oup discussions and gene al deba es is
alloca ed o he pu pose o po aying a g owing sense o eme gency and p omo ing
ag eemen s be ween small g oups o b ing a p oposal o he deba e. Howe e , i is impo an o
be ca e ul, as s uden s also need ime and oppo uni ies o coope a e, e lec and e en modi y
hei ideas (Ba on e al., 1998), some hing ha al eady poses a challenge when conside ing he
con en and no ms o high school science (Alozie e al., 2010). One o he di icul ies ha we e
obse ed du ing he pa icipa ion o he s uden s in he ole-play was hei in e p e a ion o a
g aph ha shows he ood consump ion by hose a ec ed by he ou b eak in he p e ious days
o he display o hei symp oms. This aligns wi h s udies ha s a e ha he misin e p e a ion o
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
134
e idence is one o he main di icul ies ha s uden s ace when cons uc ing a gumen s (Aca
e al., 2010). Scien is s communica e h ough ep esen a ions such as g aphs and diag ams and
s uden s’ in e p e a ions a e p oblema ic as hey do no ha e an equal le el o unde s anding
(Glaze , 2011). Taking in o accoun ha di icul ies in da a in e p e a ion in a ole-play can be
deal wi h by inco po a ing mo e sca olding o ha pa icula ma e , his app oach would be
adequa e o encou age collabo a i e a gumen a ion and o p omo e s uden s’ in ol emen in
he decision-making p ocess ha en ails dealing wi h SSIs.
Publica ion 3 examines he second ac i i y o he inal s udy, which combined a
collabo a i e expe imen al design be ween small g oups o de e mine he o igin o an ou b eak
and he e alua ion o he eal ou come o he ou b eak. This ac i i y p omo es s uden s’
engagemen in he p ac ices o inqui y and a gumen a ion. This publica ion was help ul o
con i m he app op ia eness o add essing ood sa e y om uppe seconda y le els, gi en he
complexi y o his opic and also o jus i y he need o including i in compulso y educa ion
gi en ha ood sa e y issues a ec he whole popula ion and is conside ed as e e yone’s
esponsibili y (No on & B aden, 2007).
In ela ion o he implemen a ion o he ac i i y, i was cla i ied ha s uden s we e no
asked o conduc he expe imen hemsel es, and ocused ins ead on he expe imen al design,
alloca ing hei ime o selec ing he app op ia e samples and making p edic ions, while
inco po a ing scien i ic da a, adap ed p ess epo s and medical eco ds. González Rod íguez
and C ujei as Pé ez (2016) epo ed ha s uden s had he mos di icul ies when planning he
in es iga ion and he i s pa o he ac i i y add esses p ecisely he abo e-men ioned aspec s
o he planning p ocess. Howe e , he sho comings du ing he implemen a ion, bo h when
designing he expe imen and analysing he ou come, highligh ed wo impo an conside a ions.
On he one hand, he necessi y o add ess inqui y and a gumen a ion, in an explici way in o de
o s uden s o be able o success ully comple e he asks. On he o he hand, he need o educe
he scope o ce ain asks in o de o adap o he ime a ailable and o be able o del e in o
ce ain aspec s, such as he examina ion o e idence, which a e essen ial o s uden s’ adequa e
pa icipa ion in inqui y and a gumen a ion p ac ices. Mo eo e , p e ious ins uc ion in he opic
o ood sa e y (add essed in he inal s udy h ough he i s ac i i y) and in scien i ic p ac ices
(add essed pa ially in he inal s udy h ough he i s ac i i y) is equi ed in o de o
success ully implemen he sequence.
3.1.2 Epis emic knowledge in ol ed in he de elopmen o s uden s’ inqui y and
a gumen a ion p ac ices
The second esea ch objec i e, “Analysing he epis emic knowledge in ol ed in he
adequa e de elopmen o s uden s’ inqui y and a gumen a ion p ac ices”, is unpacked in RQ2a
and RQ2b, which a e examined in publica ion 2 and RQ2c and RQ2d, examined in publica ion
3.
RQ2a. Which epis emic ope a ions a e pe o med by small g oups o s uden s du ing hei
con e sa ions abou sol ing an alimen a y eme gence du ing a ole-play game?
RQ2b. Which epis emic ope a ions p e ail in s uden s’ decisions o sol ing an alimen a y
eme gence du ing a ole-play game?
Sec ion 3. Discussion
135
RQ2c. Which epis emic disciplina y knowledge do seconda y s uden s use o designing
an expe imen o iden i y he cause o an alimen a y eme gency?
RQ2d. Which epis emic disciplina y knowledge do seconda y s uden s conside o
e alua ing he measu es aken du ing he alimen a y eme gency?
This esea ch objec i e add esses he examina ion o he epis emic knowledge in ol ed in
inqui y and a gumen a ion p ac ices h ough wo o he h ee pe spec i es ha ela e science
lea ning and epis emology (Kelly e al., 2012). The social pe spec i e is he ame o RQ2a
and RQ2b, which aim o examine he epis emic p ac ices pe o med by s uden s, and mo e
speci ically he epis emic ope a ions ha cha ac e ize s uden s’ discou se du ing he small
g oup discussions (RQ2a) and gene al deba es (RQ2b) ha ake place in hei con e sa ions
du ing he ole-play, which p omo es s uden s’ engagemen in a gumen a ion. On he o he
hand, he disciplina y pe spec i e is add essed in RQ2c and RQ2d, which aim o examine he
epis emic disciplina y knowledge ha s uden s ake in o conside a ion while designing he
expe imen (RQ2c) and e alua ing he eal ou come o he ou b eak (RQ2d).
The analysis o RQ2a and RQ2b ocused on iden i ying he epis emic ope a ions ha we e
pe o med by s uden s du ing wo di e en se s o in e ac ions in he ole-play: he small g oup
discussion, whe e s uden s had o make a p oposal o add essing a ood eme gency, and he
gene al deba e, whe e small g oups came oge he o pa ake in a decision-making p ocess in
o de o deal wi h he eme gency. Each epis emic ope a ion, unde s ood as a a ge ed discu si e
ac ion, was classi ied in o he b oade cons uc o epis emic p ac ice, which, as a eminde , a e
he socially o ganised and in e ac ionally accomplished ways ha membe s o a g oup p opose,
communica e, e alua e, and legi imise knowledge claims (Kelly, 2008b).
In ela ion o small g oup discussions, he esul s clea ly show a p edominance o he
epis emic p ac ice o p oposing knowledge, which will be explo ed in de ail in he sec ion
“Conclusions and educa ional implica ions”.
As s a ed abo e, he majo i y o he epis emic ope a ions pe o med by all he g oups
co esponded o he p ac ice o p oposing knowledge, speci ically 153 ou o 182 ope a ions in
o al. Whe eas Ch is odoulou (2012) also desc ibed a p edominance o p oposing knowledge
in s uden s’ discou se, C ujei as-Pé ez (2014) iden i ied e alua ing knowledge as he mos
common p ac ice. Gi en han he o me occu s in an a gumen a ion se ing (coinciden al wi h
ou ole-play) and he la e in an inqui y se ing, he con ex o he asks is di e en . Acco ding
o Jiménez-Aleixand e e al. (2014) epis emic ope a ions depend on he con ex in which hey
a e pe o med.
In con as , 25 epis emic ope a ions co esponded o e alua ing knowledge whe eas he
p ac ices o communica ing and legi imising knowledge we e me ely anecdo al, wi h 2
epis emic ope a ions each. A possible explana ion o he lack o ope a ions o communica ing
and legi imising knowledge is ha hey a e no p omp ed by he ac i i y a his s age, as s uden s
need o ocus on cons uc ing a p oposal o p esen la e in he gene al deba e. This is
coinciden al wi h he asse ion ha he epis emic ope a ions ha appea depend on he demands
o a pa icula ask (C ujei as-Pé ez, 2014).

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Conside ing he speci ic ope a ions, “In e ing a plausible cause” and “P oposing
explana ions” we e he mos equen in ela ion o he p ac ice o p oposing knowledge, in
compa ison o “In e ing he scope o a decision” and “Making sense o da a”. This sugges s
ha s uden s conside ed mo e impo an o ind he cause o he eme gency a he han
add essing i s consequences. This inding is in line wi h hose epo ed by o he s udies, such
as C ujei as-Pé ez and Jiménez-Aleixand e's (2015) who also ound ha s uden s alloca ed
mo e ime o iden i y he cause o b owning in apples a he han making a p oposal o p e en
i . In ela ion o e alua ing knowledge “Appealing o consis ency wi h p e ious knowledge”
and “Con as ing claims wi h a ailable e idence” we e mo e equen han “Acknowledging
he absence o da a”. The epis emic ope a ion “Pe suading o he membe s” was ound and
included in communica ing knowledge whe eas “Building consensus” co esponded o
legi imising knowledge. The dis inc ion be ween g oups acco ding o he di e en epis emic
ope a ions iden i ied in hei discussion was also explo ed.
In ela ion o he gene al deba es, he analysis di e s o he p e ious one in he sense ha
i ocused in de e mining how he epis emic ope a ions con ibu ed o a speci ic decision. In
o de o accu a ely display ha , a se ies o g aphs we e cons uc ed. These g aphs showed he
di e en epis emic ope a ions iden i ied in he deba e du ing he join decision-making p ocess.
Fo each ope a ion, i s alignmen wi h he ac i a ion o deac i a ion o a gi en esou ce (o i s
ebu al) was p esen ed. I should also be added ha he g aph includes a empo al dimension,
as he ope a ions a e shown in he o de in which hey occu . Fo gene al deba es, he epis emic
ope a ions ela ed o he p ac ice o e alua ing knowledge, namely “Appealing o consis ency
wi h p e ious knowledge” and “Con as ing claims wi h a ailable e idence” we e mo e
equen when di e en posi ions collide, whe eas he epis emic ope a ions o p oposing
knowledge s ill domina e when he e was no a clea disag eemen be ween he g oups. I we
conside ha mo e ope a ions ela ed o he p ac ice o e alua ing knowledge demons a es a
be e pe o mance in a gumen a ion his inding is coinciden al wi h Io danou and Kuhn’s
(2019). Acco ding o hese au ho s, s uden s who we e con on ed wi h posi ions ha we e
con a y o hei own pe o med be e in a gumen a ion. Mo eo e , he epis emic ope a ion
“Recognising alue o o he posi ions”, included in he p ac ice o legi imising knowledge,
appea ed in se e al ins ances, in con as wi h small g oup discussions. The esul s show
ambi alence be ween he p edominancy o p oposing and e alua ing knowledge in ela ion o
he absence o p esence o opposing posi ions in ela ion o he managemen o esou ces, which
will be u he explo ed in he sec ion “Conclusions and educa ional implica ions”.
In summa y, he esul s co esponding o he wo esea ch ques ions add essed in
publica ion 2 (RQ2a and RQ2b) show a e y de ailed cha ac e iza ion o he epis emic
ope a ions iden i ied h ough discou se analysis. This implies an accomplishmen in de ec ing
he epis emic ope a ions ha a e mo e ele an o a gumen a ion in a ole-play game and also
he ones ha need o be p omp ed h ough addi ional in e en ion. As s a ed be o e, hese issues
will be explo ed in he sec ion “Conclusions and educa ional implica ions”.
The analysis o RQ2c and RQ2d ocused on iden i ying he epis emic disciplina y
knowledge ha s uden s ook in o conside a ion when add essing a eal ood eme gency. The
ac i i y in publica ion 3 has wo phases: a) he design o an expe imen which p omo es
s uden s’ engagemen in he scien i ic p ac ice o inqui y; and b) he e alua ion o he eal
ou come o he ou b eak, which p omo es hei engagemen in inqui y and a gumen a ion. As a
eminde , epis emic disciplina y knowledge ela es o he knowledge be ween p ac ising
Sec ion 3. Discussion
137
scien i ic communi ies (Kelly, e al., 2012) and mo e speci ically o how his knowledge is used
in he scien i ic communi y and i s main cha ac e is ics (Kelly, 2008a).
Be o e he analysis, a li e a u e e iew was ca ied ou o iden i y he epis emic disciplina y
aspec s associa ed wi h scien i ic p ac ices (C ujei as-Pé ez e al., 2021), in his case inqui y
and a gumen a ion. Some speci ic examples o he epis emic disciplina y knowledge ha would
p o ide meaning ul engagemen in inqui y o his pa icula ac i i y a e "conside ing
sys ema ici y as a ea u e o he scien i ic me hodology ha leads o alued o ms o
knowledge" (Sando al & Reise , 2004), "acknowledging ha he ou come o a single
expe imen is a ely su icien o es ablish a knowledge claim" (Osbo ne e al. 2003) o ha "i
is impo an o conduc a clea , hones and accu a e da a collec ion" (Geo gia Depa men o
Educa ion, 2016). Rega ding he a gumen a ion p ac ice, s uden s should conside ha "a claim
mus answe he ques ion and be suppo ed by e idence" (Chen e al. 2016), ha " he quali y o
claim and e idence is impo an o es ablishing a con incing a gumen " (McNeill e al., 2006;
Sampson e al., 2011) o ha "au ho i y is less pe suasi e han e idence" (Ki leson, 2011;
Sando al & Çam, 2011).
The ub ics o he analysis o hese esea ch ques ions we e de eloped a e se e al
in e ac ions be ween da a and li e a u e. The app oach o in oducing epis emic knowledge
was mainly implici , meaning ha he s uden s we e unawa e o he ole o epis emic
knowledge, as i was allegedly p omp ed by he ac i i y. Ne e heless, a couple o ques ions
ela ing o he selec ion o he samples and he ole o he design o he expe imen we e asked
mo e explici ly.
In ela ion o he design phase, he e was no a clea pa e n be ween he use o epis emic
disciplina y knowledge among small g oups. In e ms o equency, he epis emic knowledge
“Conside ing he need o ensu ing ep esen a i i y o he samples selec ed in an in es iga ion”
appea ed in 10 ou o 36 ins ances ollowed by “Iden i ying he need o conduc ing an
expe imen o answe he ques ion being in es iga ed” and “Re e ing o he ele ance o he
e idence in d awing conclusions”, wi h 7 ins ances each. “Recognising he need o conduc ing
a eliable in es iga ion” and “Acknowledging he ole ha e idence plays in an in es iga ion”
appea ed in 6 ins ances each whe eas he epis emic knowledge “Conside ing he need o
conduc ing a ep oducible in es iga ion” did no appea in he s uden s’ con e sa ions. This
con as could be explained by he ype o ques ions ha s uden s we e asked du ing he ac i i y,
as hose we e ela ed o he sampling and he ele ance o he expe imen al design, a he ha
explici ly asking i an expe imen has o be conduc ed mo e han once in o de o be conside ed
alid. All six g oups iden i ied a leas h ee di e en epis emic disciplina y aspec s,
demons a ing ha hey ook in o conside a ion se e al ea u es o he expe imen al design,
which is a good indica o in hei use o disciplina y knowledge ha is deemed ele an o an
adequa e engagemen in inqui y. Fu he conside a ion o his ma e is add essed in he sec ion
“Conclusions and educa ional implica ions” o his hesis p ojec .
In ela ion o he e alua ion phase, he disciplina y epis emic knowledge ele an o each
epis emic p ac ice was analysed join ly, and i needs o be no ed ha his knowledge can o e lap
be ween scien i ic p ac ices (Jiménez-Aleixand e & C ujei as-Pé ez, 2017), as i happened wi h
“Re e ing o he ele ance o he e idence in d awing conclusions”, which is highly ele an
o an adequa e engagemen in bo h inqui y and a gumen a ion. Again, he e was no a clea
pa e n among small g oups and in e ms o equency, he epis emic knowledge “Recognising
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138
he ole o in es iga ion in decision-making o sol e a scien i ic o socio-scien i ic issue”
appea ed in 6 ou o 11 ins ances, ollowed by “Conside ing he ole o au ho i y in jus i ying
conclusions”, wi h 3 ins ances, he a o emen ioned “Re e ing o he ele ance o he e idence
in d awing conclusions”, wi h 2 ins ances and “Alluding o he easibili y o he design o
sol ing a scien i ic o socio-scien i ic issue”, which was no iden i ied in any o he s uden s’
con e sa ions. The in e p e a ion o his indings is p o ided in “Conclusions and Educa ional
Implica ions”.
In summa y, he esul s co esponding o he wo esea ch ques ions collec ed in
publica ion 3 (RQ2c and RQ2d) show again ha discou se analysis allows o accu a ely depic
how s uden s use disciplina y epis emic knowledge in o de o del e in o he necessa y ea u es
o conduc ing an expe imen al design such as ep esen a i i y, eliabili y…, as well as o de ec
he ones ha a e no p esen and he e o e need o be p omp ed by u he in e en ion, which
is ex emely ele an o an adequa e engagemen in inqui y. Discou se analysis also allows o
es ablish a ela ion be ween disciplina y epis emic knowledge and a gumen a ion, gi en ha
s uden s need o conside he ole o e idence in gene a ing an a gumen and o unde s and ha
e idence mus ou weigh au ho i y (Ki leson, 2011), some hing ha he scien i ic communi y
ag ees on. Simila ly, we can also de ec he epis emic aspec s ele an o a gumen a ion ha
a e no p esen in he discou se, and he e o e need o be ackled by p omp ing hem wi h
addi ional s a egies, such as asking a ge ed ques ions in o de o s uden s o e lec on a
pa icula ma e . I we ake in o conside a ion ou p e ious scena io whe e “Conside ing he
need o conduc ing a ep oducible in es iga ion” did no appea , we could in oduce ques ions
such as: a) Is i impo an o epea he expe imen ? o b) Is i impo an ha mo e han one
pe son conduc s he expe imen ? In his sense we ag ee wi h Pun ambeka y Kolodne (2005)
in ecognising as essen ial he sca olding om he eaching p ac ice.
To summa ise he esul s achie ed h ough he second esea ch objec i e, i is app op ia e
o highligh ha epis emic knowledge can be examined h ough he lens o di e en
pe spec i es ha consequen ly con ey di e en in o ma ion. In his case, he choice o he
social pe spec i e p o ides some insigh on how knowledge is es ablished h ough in e ac ion
in a ole-play ha ep esen s a ic ional alimen a y eme gency. Mo eo e , he disciplina y
pe spec i e o e s an unde s anding on how s uden s use he knowledge abou scien i ic
p ac ices ha is ele an o an e ec i e engagemen in inqui y and a gumen a ion. Al hough
bo h pe spec i es a e ela ed o he p ocesses o knowledge cons uc ion and alida ion, i is
in e es ing o no e he con as be ween he in e ac ion wi h he membe s o he g oup in a
science class oom and he alignmen wi h he con ibu ions o he scien i ic communi y ela ed
o he na u e o scien i ic p ac ices on how o app op ia ely es ablish and e ine knowledge.
3.1.3 Use o da a in he scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion
The hi d esea ch objec i e “Examining s uden s’ use o da a in he scien i ic p ac ice o
a gumen a ion” is speci ied in hese wo esea ch ques ions, add essed in publica ion 4.
RQ3a) Which sou ces o in o ma ion do s uden s use o making a decision du ing a ole-
play game o sol e an alimen a y eme gence?
RQ3b) Which c i e ia do s uden s conside mo e impo an o making a decision du ing a
ole-play game o sol e an alimen a y eme gence?
Sec ion 3. Discussion
139
The examina ion o RQ3a and RQ3b, which aim o analyse he ole-play game, allowed o
assess s uden s’ pe o mances in he scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion, h ough he
examina ion o he sou ces o in o ma ion and he c i e ia ha he s uden s used while ying o
sol e he alimen a y eme gency. Bo h, sou ces o in o ma ion and c i e ia a e ep esen a i e o
he nego ia ion p ocesses ha ake place du ing socio-scien i ic decision-making. They can also
be linked o he h ee goals ha Be land and Reise (2009) p opose o a gumen a ion, which
a e: a) using e idence and science concep s o make sense o he speci ic phenomena being
s udied; b) a icula ing hese unde s andings (gene a ing a gumen s); and c) pe suading o he s
o hese explana ions. Sou ces o in o ma ion ep esen he need o conside di e en
con ibu ions in o de o make an in o med decision, whe eas c i e ia ep esen he main ocus
o a pe son o a g oup when conside ing how o make a pa icula choice. As s a ed ea lie , he
ole-play game is di ided in small g oup discussions and gene al deba es. Sou ces o
in o ma ion and c i e ia a e examined o bo h he small g oup discussions and he gene al
deba es. The ca ego ies o he ub ics o he analysis o bo h sou ces and c i e ia a e selec ed
ollowing he design o he ole-play. The coding is de eloped induc i ely ollowing g ounded
heo y (Yin, 2011).
In ela ion o he sou ces o in o ma ion, he mos equen ly used by s uden s was
“Specula ion” wi h 108 men ions ou o he 266 o al, ollowed by “In o ma ion abou he
esou ces” wi h 69, “In o ma ion abou he disease”, wi h 48, “Rules o he game”, wi h 25 and
“Pe sonal expe iences”, wi h 16. All h ee g oups used “Specula ion” as hei p ima y sou ce
among o he simila i ies, bu di e ences can also be obse ed, o example, in he a ia ion o
he use o he sou ce “In o ma ion abou he disease”, which is no o iously less p e alen in one
o he g oups in compa ison o he o he wo. The abundance o “Specula ion” can be linked o
he na u e o he ole-play, which occu s h ough ec ea ions (Rao & S upans, 2012) and has a
lo o po en ial o igge ing s uden s’ imagina ion (Eilks e al., 2013). Fo he analysis o small
g oup discussions, hese we e di ided in episodes ha ep esen a signi ican shi in he opic
o con e sa ion ( o example, episode 4, in e p e a ion o he su ey o pa ien s is ollowed by
episode 5, ac i a ion and deac i a ion o esou ces). The di ision in episodes allowed o accoun
o he sou ces o in o ma ion ha appea ed h oughou he small g oup discussions and hose
who did no . I also allowed o compa e he g oups in a mo e speci ic manne , o example,
paying a en ion o one speci ic episode. In gene al, “Specula ion” was he sou ce mo e widely
dis ibu ed h oughou episodes in all g oups, ollowed by “In o ma ion abou he disease”. The
examina ion o he sou ces o in o ma ion in he h ee gene al deba es showed ha specula ion
did ansla e o gene al deba es, al hough i s u iliza ion dec eased, wi h only one ins ance
codi ied as specula i e in he hi d and las deba e. In con as , he ules o he game we e no
men ioned in any gene al deba e. Some insigh s as o hese esul s a e p o ided in he ollowing
sec ion.
In ela ion o he c i e ia, he mos equen ly used by s uden s we e “P e en ion o
con agion” and “Se e i y o disease” wi h 18 ins ances each, ou o 65. These c i e ia we e
ollowed by “In o ming he popula ion”, wi h 12 ins ances, “Economic cos ”, wi h 11, and
“Use ulness”, wi h 6 ins ances. I is impo an o highligh ha none o he g oups had he same
p ima y c i e ion and wo o he g oups did no men ion one o he c i e ia, which is di e en
o bo h. This indica es ha s uden s de elop di e en pe spec i es, which is one o he bene i s
o he ole-play men ioned by Me z (2005). In small g oup discussions, se e al episodes did no
include any c i e ia and each g oup had a di e en c i e ion ha is no men ioned in any episode.
The examina ion o he c i e ia in he h ee gene al deba es showed ha c i e ia ha we e
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
146
Conclusion 6: E alua ing knowledge being mo e common in he gene al deba es o he
ole-play han in he small g oups discussions has a link wi h he disag eemen s be ween he
p oposals o he di e en small g oups
Al hough he epis emic ope a ions ela ed o he p ac ice o e alua ing knowledge did
appea in he small g oups’ con e sa ions, hey we e mo e p e alen in he gene al deba es, bu
only when he g oups expe ienced disag eemen s be ween hei p oposals. This sugges s ha
s uden s a e mo e likely o engage in a gumen a ion when acing a con on a ion o di e en
ideas. This is coinciden al wi h Kuhn’s (2019) insigh s on wha gene a es a good a gumen :
e idence ha suppo s a ce ain posi ion o compa isons be ween di e en posi ions om a
c i ical s ance. Addi ionally, Io danou and Kuhn (2019) epo ed be e pe o mances in
a gumen a ion when s uden s deal wi h con as ing ideas a he han simila ones. I also needs
o be no ed ha he epis emic ope a ions o e alua ing knowledge a e essen ial o a p ope
engagemen in a gumen a ion. Mo e speci ically, hese ope a ions e e o con as ing claims
wi h e idence, demanding consis en explana ions o acknowledging ha he e is no enough
da a o each a p ope conclusion. All hese h ee ope a ions ha e a common denomina o : he
e idence o lack o he eo .
Conclusion 7: Epis emic disciplina y knowledge ela ed o inqui y iden i ied in he
s uden s’ con e sa ions du ing he design and he e alua ion phase o a eal ood eme gency
add essed many aspec s o he expe imen al design, bu missed some o he s
In gene al, all o he g oups whose con e sa ions we e examined, made use o disciplina y
epis emic knowledge in o de o exp ess he di e en ways in which an expe imen can be
us ed (expe imen is ca ied ou a ce ain way, samples a e ep esen a i e…) o app op ia e o
answe a ce ain ques ion (e idence plays a ole in he in es iga ion, he expe imen has o
p o ide a pa icula answe …). Howe e , all he g oups we e unsuccess ul in acknowledging
he need o he expe imen o be ep oduc ible and in add essing he app op ia eness o he
design o sol ing a SSI, which is in e p e ed as he esul o he ac i i y ackling mos ly sample
selec ion and no o he aspec s o expe imen al design (con ol o a iables, ins umen al
e o …) and also no p o iding mo e app op ia e ques ions ha p omo e u he e lec ion on
hese aspec s. As Van de Pol e al. (2010) poin ou , sca olding is no a echnique ha can be
applied in e e y si ua ion in he same way. I is a dynamic p ocess o in e ac ion be ween he
eache and he s uden s, and he ype o suppo s uden s ecei e depends on he ask and hei
esponse o i .
Gi en ha o he s udies epo ed ha s uden s aced challenges when planning an
in es iga ion (González Rod íguez & C ujei as Pé ez, 2016; Vílchez e al., 2015) we should
ha e conside ed he implica ions o in oducing a smalle pa o he expe imen al design. I
may be mo e di icul o s uden s o in eg a e epis emic disciplina y knowledge in o hei
discou se i hey do no ully g asp he en i e expe imen al design p ocess.
Conclusion 8: Epis emic disciplina y knowledge ela ed o a gumen a ion iden i ied in he
s uden s’ con e sa ions du ing he e alua ion phase o a eal ood eme gency add essed wo
impo an componen s o socio-scien i ic a gumen a ion
In his case, he epis emic knowledge ha s uden s used in hei con e sa ions add essed
he conside a ion ha he claim mus be suppo ed by he e idence o gene a e a good a gumen
(Sampson e al., 2011) bu also ha e idence mus always ou weigh au ho i y (Sando al &
Çam, 2011). This is pa icula ly ele an when dealing wi h SSIs, especially when compe ing
in e es s play a pa . Mo eo e , i is p ecisely wha occu s in he eal case p esen ed in his

Sec ion 4. Conclusions and educa ional implica ions
147
ac i i y, when a e y ques ionable decision was made by he Ge man au ho i ies ega ding a
ood ou b eak. S uden s mus weigh he in o ma ion a ailable a ha ime, he eme gency ha
occu ed and he e idence collec ed a e he ou b eak. This is in line wi h Sadle ’s (2009)
a i ma ion ha science is no con ined in a p o essional en i onmen , exis ing ins ead in he
eal wo ld.
Conclusion 9: An explici - e lec i e app oach is ecommended a e con as ing he
ou come o explici and implici app oaches in examining epis emic knowledge
In he same way ha occu s wi h he na u e o science (Lede man e al., 2013), epis emic
knowledge can be app oached implici ly, h ough he comple ion o ac i i ies; explici ly,
add essing i heo e ically o imp o e he s uden s' concep ions; o h ough an explici - e lec i e
app oach, which implies ha a he end o he ac i i ies in ques ion, i is necessa y o dedica e
some ime o analyse he epis emic aspec s in ol ed in he ac i i y and he implica ions o
hese aspec s in he cons uc ion o scien i ic knowledge. Conside ing ha na u e o science and
epis emic knowledge d aw om Epis emology o Science, i is easonable ha bo h equi e a
simila app oach o be adequa ely pe o med.
I is impo an o cla i y ha epis emic p ac ices (ac i i y 3 o he sequence, publica ion 2)
and epis emic disciplina y knowledge (ac i i y 2 o he sequence, publica ion 3) we e examined
in a di e en way in e ms on how epis emic knowledge was p omp ed in he s uden s’
con e sa ions. In publica ion 2, he app oach is implici , meaning ha s uden s we e no
speci ically asked ques ions abou epis emic knowledge, hey only ook pa in a ole-play wi h
a se o ules ha p omo e collabo a i e a gumen a ion. In publica ion 3, he app oach was
undamen ally implici , al hough he e we e some ques ions ha p omo e he conside a ion o
he impo ance o he expe imen al design o he co ec sampling o an expe imen , which a e
aspec s o disciplina y epis emic knowledge ela ed o inqui y and a gumen a ion. This means
ha some asks equi ed om s uden s in his ac i i y we e mo e explici o a ge ed, and his
had a di ec ela ion wi h he so o epis emic disciplina y knowledge mo e equen in hei
con e sa ions.
In summa y, he implici app oach is use ul o iden i y he epis emic knowledge ha is
absen in he s uden s’ con e sa ions and he e o e needs o be p omo ed wi h sca olding,
whe eas he explici app oach al eady p o ides guidance o p omp ing epis emic knowledge
in he discou se. Howe e , he la e needs o be ollowed by a e lec ion on he implica ions
ha epis emic knowledge has in he cons uc ion o scien i ic knowledge o in add essing socio-
scien i ic issues in o de o imp o e s uden s' engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices. This is in line
wi h some empi ical s udies ha epo ed s uden s' imp o emen s in hei pe o mances
ollowing he explici e lec i e app oach (C ujei as-Pé ez & Díaz-Mo eno, 2022;
Leblebicioglu e al., 2017).
4.1.3 Use o da a in he scien i ic p ac ice o a gumen a ion
The examina ion o O3. To examine s uden s’ use o da a in he scien i ic p ac ice o
a gumen a ion allowed us o es ablish wo conclusions.
Conclusion 10: Specula ion was he p ima y sou ce o in o ma ion du ing he ole-play,
and al hough i educed g adually and was no comple ely unexpec ed, i guided s uden s’
con e sa ions mo e han i was desi able
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
148
S uden s made use o se e al sou ces o in o ma ion du ing he ole-play, bu mos no ably
“Specula ion” ollowed by “In o ma ion abou he esou ces” and “In o ma ion abou he
disease”. This was no en i ely unexpec ed as he ole-pay de elops h ough ec ea ions (Rao
& S upans, 2012), which o igina e h ough na a ions o he ic ional e en s ha a e aking
place. These hough p ocesses ha e a e y s ong imagina i e componen , as Eilks e al. (2013)
desc ibed. Fo his eason, s uden s may choose o ollow hei own in e p e a ions ins ead o
ocusing on o he sou ces o in o ma ion such as he da a p o ided abou he esou ces o he
disease. Ne e heless, specula ion dec eases as he game p og esses, mo e no ably du ing he
gene al deba es, whe e he g oups come oge he o make a join decision. This inding indica es
ha s uden s do no con on hei p oposals undamen ally h ough specula ion, al hough i s ill
occu s in se e al ins ances. In his sense, making he ca ego ies o he sou ces o in o ma ion
ha s uden s use a ailable o hem could be a way o p e en ing specula ion om domina ing
he discou se and explo ing how s uden s con e alue o he di e en se s o da a hey ecei e.
Conclusion 11: The e was no a p e alen c i e ion in s uden s’ con e sa ions du ing he
ole-play and hey shi ed be ween small g oup discussion and gene al deba es, d awing a
pa allel wi h eal-li e si ua ions ha SSIs ep esen
S uden s’ con e sa ions did no e lec a clea p e e ence o any c i e ion. Mo eo e ,
gene al deba es showed how s uden s inco po a ed new c i e ia ha hey had no use be o e, as
well as dis ega ding o he c i e ia hey had men ioned. This inding indica es ha s uden s had
a willingness o ede ine hei cou se o ac ion (de ined by he c i e ia) when lis ening o o he
in e en ions. This esul is posi i e, gi en ha s uden s ha e a ce ain endency o igno e da a
when i con adic s hei belie s (Kuhn, 1991). In his sense, he ole-play can be a use ul ool
o p omo e s uden s’ conside a ion o o he pe spec i es. This inding is suppo ed by
Simmoneaux’s (2001) s udy ha desc ibed a g ea e change in s uden s’ opinion when
pa icipa ing in a ole-play a he han in classical deba e.
Addi ionally, he ac ha s uden s based hei a gumen s on di e en c i e ia, despi e
wo king wi h he same in o ma ion, es ablishes a pa allel wi h eal e en s (especially when
dealing wi h eme gency si ua ions) in which many pe spec i es mus be conside ed in o de o
make a decision and hus p e en u he consequences. This can be ela ed o he di e en
dimensions (scien i ic, echnological and social) ha con e ge in socio-scien i ic issues
(Papadou is, 2012).
4.2 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The educa ional implica ions ha a ise om he conclusions a e desc ibed as i ollows.
F om conclusions 1, 2 & 3, which a e ela ed o he i s esea ch objec i e, he educa ional
implica ions a e he need o eache s o app op ia ely p esen da a and e idence o s uden s o
he cons uc ion o a gumen s. In some cases, and aking in o accoun he implemen a ion o
he sequence o ac i i ies in he inal s udy, he in o ma ion needs o be simpli ied ( o example,
es ablishing a imeline o he e en s be o e and a e he ou b eak in he ac i i y 2), classi ied
( o example, dis inguishing be ween se e al sou ces o in o ma ion o he design o he
expe imen in he ac i i y 2) o adminis a ed ( o example, p o iding he in o ma ion a
di e en s ages as i happens in he ole-play). Some s udies ha e al eady discussed he need
o a p ope sca olding in o de o s uden s o meaning ul engage in scien i ic p ac ices
(Be land e al., 2020) and we ag ee ha u he p og ess in his di ec ion is needed.
Sec ion 4. Conclusions and educa ional implica ions
149
Ano he impo an educa ional implica ion is ha opics ha a e less amilia o s uden s
can add ano he laye o di icul y, hus he sca olding bo h om he design o he asks and
he eaching p ac ice becomes e en mo e impo an .
F om conclusions 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9, which a e ela ed o he second esea ch objec i e, he
educa ional implica ions a e he need o conside epis emic knowledge as an essen ial
componen o a meaning ul engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices. S oupe (2014) exp esses his
idea by s a ing ha s uden s become epis emic agen s when engaging in scien i ic p ac ices,
meaning by ha agency ha s uden s shape he knowledge and p ac ice o a science communi y.
In his sense, we need o be able o disce n be ween epis emic and non-epis emic discou se
du ing he s uden s’ con e sa ions and also how o p omp epis emic ins ances du ing asks ha
p omo e s uden s’ pa icipa ion in scien i ic p ac ices. The e o e, he e is a need o de eloping
p ope coding ools ha in o m eache p ac ice.
Ano he in e es ing implica ion a ises om he ac ha epis emic knowledge can be
analysed h ough he lens o se e al pe spec i es. In ou case, he social pe spec i e and he
disciplina y pe spec i e complimen ed each o he , as he o me ocuses on he in e ac i e
ac ions be ween he membe s o a communi y and he la e ocuses on he knowledge ele an
o a discipline o p ac ice. I is in e es ing o p esen coding ools ha con ibu e o mo e han
one pe spec i e, as hey in o m eaching in di e en ways.
Fu he mo e, a decision has o be made on how epis emic knowledge is p esen ed o
s uden s in he class oom. Al hough he e a e di e en pe spec i es (implici , explici and
explici - e lec i e) ha esul in di e en ou comes, i needs o be a conscious decision, in he
sense ha eache s need o be awa e o wha hey wan o achie e wi h each app oach.
F om conclusions 10 & 11, which a e ela ed o he hi d esea ch objec i e, he
educa ional implica ions a e he need o es ablish a clea di e en ia ion be ween e idence and
specula ion and he alue hey bo h ha e in d awing a conclusion. This can be a ained by asking
s uden s o ca ego ise he da a hey ha e and o iden i y which kind o in o ma ion hey use and
alue when elabo a ing p oposals o engage in decision-making p ocesses. In addi ion, when
pa icipa ing in a decision ha en ails di e en opposing c i e ia, he connec ion o eal-li e
e en s needs o be clea o de o s uden s o success ully pa icipa e in SSIs. This en ails
wo king owa ds an awa eness o he consequences han op ing o a pa icula c i e ion (o
c i e ia) can b ing o socie y when dealing wi h eal-li e e en s. In his case, a connec ion can
be es ablished wi h Sadle ’s (2009) asse ion ha science is no educed o p o essional ac i i y
bu exis s ins ead in he eal wo ld.
4.3 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE LINES OF RESEARCH
The limi a ions o his s udy co espond p edominan ly o i s me hodological design. Case
s udies a e designed in o de o allow a deep and de ailed analysis o he objec o s udy (Cohen
e al., 2007), and o ha hey a e conside ed sui able o explo ing complex phenomena (Yin,
2003), such as he educa ional p ocesses ha ake place du ing his hesis p ojec . Howe e , he
s eng hs o he case s udy also gene a e a se ies o d awbacks, he main one being he
impossibili y o gene alize he indings o he s udy (Cohen e al., 2007), since he esul s a e
cons ained o a pa icula con ex .
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
150
Fu he mo e, he inal s udy (as well as he p e ious pilo s udies) was ca ied ou in a eal
class oom, meaning ha ce ain elemen s canno be ully con olled. The e was an ini ial
con ac wi h all he eache s ha pa icipa ed in he s udy in o de o explo e he possibili y o
hem o conduc he ac i i y, bu i was deemed e y di icul due o he na u e o he sequence
o ac i i ies and he opic, which was no explici ly add essed in he cu iculum o seconda y
educa ion (CCEOU, 2015). This means ha we we e no able o con ol he ac ha an ex e nal
pe son un amilia o s uden s conduc ed he sequence o ac i i ies.
Teache s we e he ones ha di ided he s uden s in o small g oups aking in o conside a ion
p e ious dynamics in he class oom, as well as he knowledge and mo i a ion o he s uden s
in he subjec . I needs o be men ioned ha he e we e small changes be ween he small g oups
be ween he sessions. S uden s did no change g oups, bu some o hem missed one o wo o
he sessions.
In ela ion o iming, ou sessions we e des ined o he inal s udy, including he ime o
se ing he came as and audio eco de s in each session. Al hough mo e ime could ha e been
alloca ed o u he ins uc he s uden s in inqui y and a gumen a ion, i was no possible and
he lack o expe ience o he s uden s wi h asks in ol ing scien i ic p ac ices was aken in o
accoun du ing he design o he sequence. Howe e , a be e pe o mance could ha e been
a ained wi h mo e ime o engage in he asks and in his pa icula lea ning app oach.
Taking in o conside a ion he limi a ions and he indings o he s udy, we p opose wo
u u e lines o esea ch.
The i s line o esea ch ela es o he sca olding ha is necessa y o p omp s uden s o
e ec i ely use epis emic knowledge in o de o engage in scien i ic p ac ices. We ha e
discussed p e iously he explici - e lec i e app oach as he mos use ul one o s uden s o
unde s and he ole ha epis emic knowledge plays in science lea ning. Al hough some e o s
ha e been made in his di ec ion, i is necessa y o u he explo e he mos app op ia e
s a egies and he ype o ques ions ha need o be asked o s uden s. Ou analysis has shown
ha epis emic knowledge needs o be p omo ed om he eaching p ac ice, as he e a e
limi a ions o s uden s o pe o m well i hey do no ha e he p ope guidance o do so.
The second line o esea ch ela es o he coding o he s uden s’ con e sa ions ha ook
place du ing he sequence o ac i i ies. In he case o he ole-play, he coding o he epis emic
ope a ions in ela ion wi h he alignmen o a pa icula decision allowed o see e y easily how
iewpoin s can change when s uden s engage in a gumen a ion and wha ype o epis emic
ope a ions con ibu e o ha . In addi ion, hose indings indica ed ha opposing s ances we e
playing a ole in he ype o epis emic ope a ions ha appea ed. In his case, we p opose ha
mul idimensional coding, pa icula ly du ing he analysis o discou se in a powe ul ool o
explo e decision-making p ocesses.
We humbly hope ha he esul s o his hesis con ibu e o cla i y how epis emic
knowledge is essen ial o an adequa e engagemen in scien i ic p ac ices and also o unde s and
why s uden s expe ience di icul ies in inco po a ing his ype o knowledge in hei
con e sa ions in a lea ning se ing. We aspi e o b oaden he cu en unde s anding o inqui y
and a gumen a ion p ac ices and how o p ope ly design lea ning en i onmen s ha p omo e
collabo a i e lea ning. We also expec o con ibu e wi h some use ul app oaches on how he
Sec ion 4. Conclusions and educa ional implica ions
151
analysis o discou se can e ec i ely se e o examine epis emic knowledge h ough di e en
he lens o di e en pe spec i es. Finally, we since ely hope ha his p ojec can help eache s
ha a e in e es ed in in oducing inqui y and a gumen a ion in he class oom when eaching
science.

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APPENDIX
A. Handou s o ac i i ies 1 and 2 o he inal s udy.
Ac i i y 1. In oducing ood sa e y
Ac i i y 2. Analysing a eal case o a ood-bo ne ou b eak
B. Publica ions. Jou nal quali y indica o s and au ho isa ion.

Appendix
163
A. HANDOUTS OF ACTIVITIES 1 AND 2 OF THE FINAL STUDY.
ACTIVITY 1. In oducing ood sa e y
1) Wha do he wo ds “ ood sa e y” mean? Could hey be associa ed wi h any amilia
concep ?
2) A e hese people in a “ ood secu i y” si ua ion o no ? Why? I he answe is no, wha
could be he missing co ne s one?
3) Wha can be he scien i ic ad ances ha in luence he imp o emen o ood sa e y?
Why do you hink hey migh be necesa y?
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
164
ACTIVITY 2. Analysing a eal case o a ood-bo ne ou b eak
CHRONOLOGY OF THE EVENTS (FIRST PART)
✓ On May 22, he Ge man go e nmen no i ies he Eu opean Commission o an inc ease in
he numbe o cases o hemo hagic dia hea in he coun y, ela ed o he E. coli bac e ium.
✓ On May 26 he sena o om Hambu g appea s in he media indica ing ha he in ec ious
ou b eak was caused by a ba ch o cucumbe s om Alme ia (Spain).
✓ Tha same a e noon he Eu opean Commission issues a no i ica ion ha pu s ui s and
ege ables om Spain in he spo ligh . The Hambu g Hygiene Ins i u e indica es ha he E.
coli bac e ium was ound in wo cucumbe s o Spanish o igin, and in ano he o Du ch o igin.
✓ The Ge man au ho i ies ad ise he popula ion no o ea hese ui s and ege ables.
Supe ma ke s and g oce y s o es wi hd aw he p oduc s.
✓ The companies poin ed ou as guil y assu e ha hey ha e done all he necessa y es s
be o e expo ing he p oduc s and all we e nega i e.
✓ The in ec ion sp eads simul aneously in di e en pa s o Ge many, so he au ho i ies and
scien is s assume ha he cause o he ou b eak is due o p oduc s o na ional dis ibu ion
(Ge man o igin) Some o hose a ec ed s a e ha hey consumed soy in a es au an .
1) I you we e he scien is s in cha ge o es ablishing he cause o he ou b eak, how
would you design he expe imen ?
a) Chosen samples
EXPERIMENT’S SAMPLES
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5
JUSTIFICATION:
Appendix
165
b) Chosen sample om he human body (choose he mos sui able one)
HUMAN BODY’S SAMPLE
Blood
Swea
S ool
U ine
Sali a
Ano he
JUSTIFICATION:
c) Wha s ain o bac e ia could be causing he ou b eak? Why? How can we
be su e which ood he ou b eak comes om?
2) Why do you hink i is necessa y o design an expe imen be o e ca ying i ou ?
CHRONOLOGY OF THE EVENTS (SECOND PART)
✓ Pos e io analysis show ha he s ain o bac e ia ound in he cucumbe s is di e en om
he s ain ound in he s ool o hose a ec ed.
✓ S udies ocus in analyzing he soy, when inding ha many clien s o a es au an became
ill a e consuming i .
✓ The i s es s we e nega i e, bu he agg essi e a ie y was ound on an o ganic a m in
Lowe Saxony.
✓ Ge man au ho i ies ec i y and admi ha he E. coli bac e ium ound in cucumbe s is no
he same s ain o bac e ium ha is causing he dea hs, and ha he o igin o he ou b eak is
in sp ou ed soybean c ops in Lowe Saxony.
✓ The inal coun indica es ha 23 people died and mo e han 1000 we e a ec ed.
3) Do you hink ha he Ge man go e nmen ac ed app op ia ely om a scien i ic poin
o iew? Why? Is he e any di e ence wi h he WHO p o ocol ha we saw ea lie ?
LUCIA CASAS QUIROGA
166
B. PUBLICATIONS. JOURNAL QUALITY INDICATORS AND AUTHORISATION.
Casas-Qui oga, L., & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2019). Una expe iencia sob e segu idad
alimen a ia pa a abaja la a gumen ación en el aula de educación secunda ia. Re is a Eu eka
Sob e Enseñanza y Di ulgación de las Ciencias, 16(2), 1–9.
h ps://doi.o g/10.25267/Re _Eu eka_ensen_di ulg_cienc.2019. 16.i2.2201
Name and A ilia ion:
Lucía Casas Qui oga. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Bea iz C ujei as Pé ez. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Quali y indica o s: SJR (2019): 0,381 (Q2)
Au ho isa ion: We ha e ob ained w i en consen om Re is a Eu eka Sob e Enseñanza
y Di ulgación de las Ciencias o ep oduce he a icle e e enced abo e in his hesis. In
addi ion, he ep oduc ion o his a icle in he doc o al disse a ion is pe mi ed unde he
jou nal's license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
Speci ic con ibu ion: The doc o al candida e con ibu ed wi h a e ision o he li e a u e,
an ac i e ole on he design o he sequence and da a analysis. The ull pape was w i en
collabo a i ely be ween he wo au ho s.
Casas-Qui oga, L., & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2020). Epis emic ope a ions pe o med by high
school s uden s in an a gumen a ion and decision-making con ex : Se ocia’s alimen a y
eme gency. In e na ional Jou nal o Science Educa ion, 42(16), 2653–2673.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/09500693.2020.1824300
Name and A ilia ion:
Lucía Casas Qui oga. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Bea iz C ujei as Pé ez. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Quali y indica o s: JCR (2021): 2,518 (Q2); SJR (2021): 1,151 (Q1)
Au ho isa ion: We ha e ob ained consen ia email om In e na ional Jou nal o Science
Educa ion o ep oduce he a icle e e enced abo e in his hesis.
This is an Accep ed Manusc ip o an a icle published by Taylo & F ancis in In e na ional
Jou nal o Science Educa ion on 19 Oc 2020, a ailable online:
h p://wwww. and online.com/10.1080/09500693.2020.1824300
Speci ic con ibu ion: The doc o al candida e con ibu ed wi h a e ision o he li e a u e,
an ac i e ole on he design o he ole-play and conduc ed he da a collec ion. The da a analysis
and he w i ing o he ull pape was ca ied ou be ween he wo au ho s.
Casas-Qui oga, L., & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2021). Epis emic knowledge conside ed by
seconda y school s uden s in ol ed in he examina ion o a eal alimen a y eme gency. Jou nal
o Biological Educa ion, 1–13. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/00219266.2021.2012230
Appendix
167
Name and A ilia ion:
Lucía Casas Qui oga. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Bea iz C ujei as Pé ez. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Quali y indica o s: JCR (2021): 1,343 (Q4); SJR (2021): 0,427 (Q2)
Au ho isa ion: We ha e ob ained consen ia email om Jou nal o Biological Educa ion
o ep oduce he a icle e e enced abo e in his hesis.
This is an Accep ed Manusc ip o an a icle published by Taylo & F ancis in Jou nal o
Biological Educa ion on 30 Dec 2021, a ailable online:
h p://wwww. and online.com/10.1080/00219266.2021.2012230
Speci ic con ibu ion: The doc o al candida e con ibu ed wi h a e ision o he li e a u e,
an ac i e ole on he design o he inqui y and a gumen a ion ac i i y and conduc ed he da a
collec ion. The da a analysis and he w i ing o he ull pape was ca ied ou be ween he wo
au ho s.
Casas-Qui oga, L., & C ujei as-Pé ez, B. (2022). T abajando la espues a an e
en e medades de o igen alimen a io a a és del juego de ol. Enseñanza de Las Ciencias, 40(1),
221–241. h ps://doi.o g/10.5565/ e /ensciencias.3327
Name and A ilia ion:
Lucía Casas Qui oga. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Bea iz C ujei as Pé ez. Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela.
Quali y indica o s: JCR (2021): 1,217 (Q4). SJR (2021): 0,59 (Q2)
Au ho isa ion: We ha e ob ained w i en consen om Enseñanza de Las Ciencias o
ep oduce he a icle e e enced abo e in his hesis. In addi ion, he ep oduc ion o his a icle
in he doc o al disse a ion is pe mi ed unde he jou nal's license (CC BY 4.0).
Speci ic con ibu ion: The doc o al candida e con ibu ed wi h a e ision o he li e a u e,
an ac i e ole on he design o he ole-play and conduc ed he da a collec ion. The da a analysis
and he w i ing o he ull pape was ca ied ou be ween he wo au ho s.

O obxec i o p incipal des a ese é analiza os desempeños do
alumnado nas p ác icas cien í icas de indagación (análise
de in es igacións cien í icas) e a gumen ación (a aliación do
coñecemen o en base a p obas) du an e a súa pa icipación
nunha secuencia de ac i idades baseada en segu idade
alimen a ia e eme xencias sani a ias de o ixe alimen a io.
Tamén
se analiza o coñecemen o epis émico necesa io pa a unha
pa icipación axei ada do alumnado en di as p ác icas. Es a
in es igación si úase den o da me odoloxía cuali i i a, e mais
especi icamen e no es udo de caso. A es a exia
emp egada pa a a análise dos da os ob idos é a análise de
discu so, coa conseguin e cons ución das úb icas
necesa ias pa a da espos a aos obxec i os de in es igación.