Bli zk ieg Agains Democ acy: Gende
Equali y and he Rise o he Populis
Radical Righ in Spain
Alba Alonso
1
* and Julia Espinosa-Faja do
2
Populis adical igh pa ies (PRRPs) a e gene ally conside ed de imen al o
democ acy. Resea ch on hei damaging po en ial ends o ocus on hei in lu-
ence in igge ing policy backsliding bu lea es he p omo ion o gende equali y
ou o he equa ion. This s udy explo es he case o Vox in Andalusia, a sou he n
egion o Spain, o show how PRRPs also con ibu e o de-democ a iza ion
h ough hei capaci y o e ode he equali y amewo k. We demons a e how
hey can e ec i ely disman le and e ame c ucial policies, e en when no in
o ice. This opens new analy ical pa hways o s udying he ole o PRRPs in
unde mining democ a ic sys ems.
In oduc ion
Populis adical igh pa ies (PRRPs) ha e long been conside ed a
h ea o libe al democ acy (Akke man 2003;Campani and Pajnik 2017;
Mudde 2016). Thei elec o al upsu ge has aised conce ns o e hei impac
on cons i u ional checks and balances. These g oups end o apply an exclu-
siona y concep ualiza ion o “ he people” ha is hough o jeopa dize mino -
i y igh s and libe al alues, such as equali y and di e si y. Recen schola ly
wo ks highligh he need o de elop a esea ch agenda ha sc u inizes he pol-
icy in luence o PRRPs in o de o g asp “ he eal h ea hey migh ep esen ”
(Bia d 2019, 165). Explo ing hei e ec i eness in igge ing policy change
makes i possible o cap u e hei capaci y o p omo ing de-democ a iza ion,
e en om ou side go e nmen . Howe e , ocusing on opics in which PRRPs
enjoy owne ship lea es o he ele an issues ou o he equa ion (Bia d,
Be nha d, and Be z 2019).
1
Facul ade de Ciencias Polı´ icas e Sociais, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela, San iago de
Compos ela, Spain;
2
Facul ad de Ciencias del T abajo, Uni e sidad de Ca´diz, Je ez de la F on e a (Ca´diz),
Spain
*[email p o ec ed]
socpol: Social Poli ics, Fall 2021 pp. 656–681
doi:10.1093/sp/jxab026
#The Au ho (s) 2021. Published by Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-
NonComme cial-NoDe i s licence (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-
comme cial ep oduc ion and dis ibu ion o he wo k, in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is no al e ed
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By inco po a ing a gende lens, his s udy opens new analy ical pa hways
o examining he ole o PRRPs in unde mining democ a ic sys ems. Gende
equali y now cons i u es a co e alue o libe al democ acy (Isaac 2017). The
de elopmen o policies o p omo e he desc ip i e and subs an i e ep esen-
a ion o women is a c ucial componen o democ a iza ion p ocesses
(McB ide and Mazu 2010;Pax on 2008;Waylen 2015). Howe e , ecen
schola ly deba es o en sideline he e osion o he equali y amewo k as an in-
dica o o de-democ a iza ion (Ko a´ s 2020;K izsa´n and Roggeband 2018;
Ve loo and Pa e no e 2018). Cu en ly, PRRPs cons i u e key opposi ion o
equali y policies in se e al coun ies and a a ious le els o go e nmen
(Kan ola and Lomba do 2020). Bu he ac ual in luence o PRRPs in b inging
abou policy change om ou side go e nmen has ye o be ca e ully
sc u inized.
This a icle seeks o ill hese gaps. We d aw om Tilly’s wo k in conside -
ing ha s a e inac ion o p e en inequali y is cen al o cap u ing mo es o-
wa d de-democ a iza ion (Tilly 2007). Acco dingly, we a gue ha iden i ying
se backs in he equali y amewo k is c ucial o app ehending such p ocesses
and will p o ide be e unde s anding o he ole o PRRPs in e oding democ-
acies. To explo e his hypo hesis, we s udied he case o Vox in Andalusia,
sou he n Spain. This PRRP ecen ly pu an end o “Spanish excep ionalism”
(Tu nbull-Duga e 2019). Though no in o ice, he pa y has shown clea e-
sol e o use hei le e age o e ode he exis ing policy amewo k. The inclu-
si e s a egy o he mains eam igh , which enjoys Vox’s pa liamen a y
suppo in se e al key ins i u ions, may well acili a e policy in luence (Bia d,
Be nha d, and Be z 2019). Thus, he esea ch ques ion ha guides ou s udy
is: wha in luence does Vox ha e o b ing abou changes in equali y policies
and push owa d de-democ a iza ion?
The Au onomous Communi y o Andalusia o e s sui able empi ical ma e-
ial o ou case s udy. Spain is a highly decen alized s a e whe e egional
ins i u ions enjoy signi ican compe encies, no ably in wel a e p o ision
(Ve ge and Alonso 2020). They a e also c ucial o unde s anding he mul ile-
el na u e o he pa y sys em in his coun y. Andalusia was he i s e i o y
in Spain o expe ience he elec o al success o Vox, which en e ed he egional
pa liamen in Decembe 2018, ou mon hs be o e he pa y’s eme gence a
he s a e le el. In Janua y 2019, he pa y signed an ag eemen o pa liamen-
a y suppo o he new Andalusian coali ion go e nmen comp ising he
wo mains eam igh -wing pa ies, he Pa ido Popula (PP) and Ciudadanos
(Cs). Tha ag eemen has since been eplica ed in se e al egions and speaks
o he cu en cen ali y o Vox in Spanish poli ics. Andalusia also has a s a-
ble, well-de eloped equali y amewo k and has been a gende equali y o e-
unne in he quasi- ede al Spanish se ing (Ve ge and Alonso 2020). The
con ex he e o e p o ides po en ial o bo h policy esilience and policy
backsliding.
Bli zk ieg Agains Democ acy 657
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The wo k o K izsa´n and Roggeband (2018) p o ided he dimensions o
iden i ying speci ic indica o s o policy backsliding. Fi s , we sough o de e -
mine i Vox has de eloped discu si e s a egies o openly delegi imize he
equali y amewo k, along simila lines wi h o he PRRPs (Kan ola and
Lomba do 2020). Second, we looked o he p esence o policy in luence,
which is unde s ood he e as any ac ion by PRRPs ha in luence policymaking
wi h he aim o ansla ing a pledge in o a decision (Bia d 2019). The s udy
was designed o p o ide ins ances ha demons a e he capaci y o Vox o in-
duce a ious changes in Andalusian equali y policies, om eo ien ing goals
o e oding consul a ion mechanisms. The empi ical ma e ial was ob ained
h ough documen a y analysis o pa y mani es os, pa liamen a y in e en-
ions, in e pa y ag eemen s, and annual budge s, om Decembe 2018, when
he Andalusian elec ions we e held, o Decembe 2019. Se en in-dep h in e -
iews wi h key in o man s we e ca ied ou om Sep embe 2019 o Feb ua y
2020 o p o ide complemen a y in o ma ion on he pe iod analyzed.
Following on om his in oduc ion, he heo e ical amewo k and ou
case s udy a e p esen ed in he second and hi d sec ions. The ou h sec ion
in oduces he me hodology ha unde pins his wo k and o e s wo sec ions
o no el empi ical analysis ha explo e Vox’s discu si e s a egies and exam-
ples o hei policy in luence. The conclusion assesses he c ucial ole o he
PRRPs and highligh s he need o include a gende pe spec i e in de-
democ a iza ion s udies.
De-democ a iza ion P ocesses and he Populis Radical
Righ
Schola ly deba e is ongoing a ound he idea ha he enemy o libe al de-
moc acy is no so much he PRRPs as hei policies. Resea che s a e gi ing in-
c easing a en ion in unde s anding he capaci y o PRRPs o in luence
mains eam pa ies and eo ien goals and agendas, despi e hei a he lim-
i ed elec o al success (Bia d, Be nha d, and Be z 2019;Odmalm and Hepbu n
2017;Ro¨ h, A onso, and Spies 2018). Immig a ion policies ha e become a
p ominen a ea o analysis, as hey encapsula e he push owa d a less inclu-
si e democ acy while connec ing wi h co e componen s o PRRP ideology
(Akke man 2012). Gende conce ns, howe e , ha e emained on he pe iph-
e y, e en hough an i- eminism and adi ional concep ions o masculini y
and eminini y a e acknowledged as a common ea u e o he ideological
unde pinnings o PRRPs (Mudde 2019;Mudde and Kal wasse 2015). C ucial
aspec s o he discou se and poli ical p ac ice o hese pa ies a e o en o e -
looked as s udies lack a gende pe spec i e (Maiguashca 2019).
Feminis analyses inc easingly show he manne and he ex en o which
ideas abou gende in o m PRRP ideologies, and clea consensus is eme ging
ega ding hei cen ali y (Akke man 2015;E zeel and Rashko a 2017;
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No ocel 2012;Saue 2020). Spie ings (2020) speaks o he pi o al ole o gen-
de in connec ing he h ee co e ideological componen s o PRRPs, as es ab-
lished by Mudde (2016): na i ism, au ho i a ianism, and populism.
Acco dingly, gende “allows o hem o complimen people on being mo ally
jus abou an a ea o li e ha is so deeply eng a ed in hei iden i y, allude o
a no ion o o de ha no malizes di e ences, and a he same ime use gende
o showcase how he eli e, who is pushing emancipa ion beyond he in e es s
o he common man, is no e ec i ely p o ec ing emancipa ion om he
h ea s posed by (immig an o Muslim) ou side s” (Spie ings 2020, 52). As
an “emp y” signi ie , gende is easily ins umen alized o app op ia ed o pu -
sue exclusiona y p ac ices and depic a na i is concep ualiza ion o he
“people” (Askola 2019;Hadj-Abdou 2019;Ko olczuk and G a 2018). The
concep known as emona ionalism bes e lec s his s a egy (Saue 2020;
Spie ings and Zaslo e 2015;Ve loo 2018a). This discou se ames gende
equali y as a p inciple o be p o ec ed om he “pa ia chal o he ” and helps
no malize and mode nize PRRPs (E zeel and Rashko a 2017;No ocel 2017)
by p esen ing hem as “champions o women’s igh s” (Akke man 2015, 39).
This con ibu es o he epu a ional shield ha makes hem accep able in cu -
en Wes e n socie ies.
PRRP discou se depic s disc imina ion agains women as a non-Wes e n
phenomenon ha occu s elsewhe e (Askola 2019;Spie ings 2020;Ve loo
2018a). Acco dingly, hey a e gene ally eluc an o accep s a e p omo ion o
equali y. They claim ha gende and equali y policies ha e gone “ oo a ” in
sub e ing indi idual eedom and amily alues. Some nuances appea in he
s udies, which concede ha con ex -speci ic ac o s such as a ia ions in gen-
de egime ype migh explain he p esence o mo e mode n app oaches is-a`-
is mo e adi ional ones (Askola 2019; De Lange and Mu¨gge 2016; Spie ings
and Zaslo e 2015). Howe e , gende mains eaming, gende s udies, sexual
educa ion, and o he elemen s a e o en conside ed as pa o a eminis (and
supposedly “ o ali a ian”) ideological p ojec ha should be e adica ed
(Ve loo 2018a). Ins ead, PRRPs a gue ha a en ion should be gi en o amily
policies and issues ele an o comba ing p essing p oblems, such as he de-
mog aphic decline in Eu ope (Hadj-Abdou 2019;Kan ola and Lomba do
2019;Maye , Ajano ic, and Saue 2014). PRRPs a e o en in eg a ed wi hin a
b oade se o ac o s who ac i ely oppose he equali y amewo k (Pa e no e
and Kuha 2018). Opposi ion is unde s ood he e as “any ac i i y in which a
pe spec i e opposing eminis poli ics and gende þequali y policy is a icu-
la ed in a way ha can be expec ed o in luence o is ac ually in luencing poli-
ics o policymaking a any s age” (Ve loo 2018b, 215).
Explo ing he ac ual success o PRRPs in shaping policies is he e o e c u-
cial (Askola 2019;Ve loo 2018a). The e is some e idence o hei in luence
when hey go e n as single pa y (Ko a´ s 2020;K izsa´n and Roggeband 2018)
o in coali ion go e nmen s (Askola 2019;Hadj-Abdou 2019;Kan ola and
Lomba do 2019). Howe e , e y li le is known abou hei indi ec impac
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( o an excep ion, see Mo gan 2017), which is commonly epo ed when ex-
plo ing o he ypes o policies (Bia d 2019). Dema ca ion h ough banning
PRRPs o pushing o hei ma ginaliza ion by es ablishing a co don sani ai e
(Casal-Be oa and Rama 2021) has become a he uncommon (Akke man, De
Lange, and Rooduijn 2016). Eme ging esea ch agendas s ess ha policy in-
luence is ela ed o he inclusi e app oaches o he mains eam pa ies, which
help o no malize PRRPs. In all he po en ial collabo a ion scena ios, wo con-
di ions seem s ongly connec ed o he abili y o PRRPs o in luence policy:
(i) becoming a plausible elec o al h ea and (ii) signing a pa liamen a y sup-
po ag eemen wi h he pa y o pa ies in go e nmen (Bia d, Be nha d, and
Be z 2019). These p o ide signi ican blackmailing po en ial o eo ien ing
goals and agendas (Bia d 2019).
We a gue ha he impac o PRRPs on gende equali y policies ep esen s
ye ano he i al h ea o libe al democ acy and needs u he conside a ion.
In line wi h Tilly’s (2007) wo k, we unde s and ha mo emen s on he
democ a iza ion/de-democ a iza ion con inuum need o be in o med by he
p e alence o ca ego ical inequali ies amongs ci izens, including gende .
Thus, “ o he ex en ha ci izen–s a e in e ac ions o ganize a ound ca ego ical
di e ences also p e ailing in ou ine social li e, hose di e ences unde mine
b oad, equal, p o ec ed, mu ually binding consul a ion. They block o sub e
democ a ic poli ics because hey ine i ably ins all la ge esou ce dispa i ies in
he poli ical a ena” (Tilly 2007, 110). S a e ac ion o inac ion o p omo e
equali y hus becomes pa amoun in assessing e olu ion owa d de-
democ a iza ion.
Feminis schola ship has inc easingly d awn on his assump ion o add ess
democ a ic decline om a gende pe spec i e (Alonso and Lomba do 2018).
Ye , ew s udies ope a ionalize such p ocesses a a policy le el and look mo e
closely a he equali y amewo k (G zebalska and Pe o¨ 2018;K izsa´n and
Roggeband 2018). We a gue ha policy backsliding in p omo ing equali y
should be cen al o heo izing abou de-democ a iza ion and assessing he
ole o nongo e ning PRRPs. He e, we d aw on K izsa´n and Roggeband’s
(2018) pionee ing con ibu ion, which iden i ies mo es owa d less demo-
c a ic s a es based on Pi kin’s concep s o desc ip i e, subs an i e, and sym-
bolic ep esen a ion ( able 1). Thei ypology in ol es h ee se s o indica o s
ela ed o (i) delegi imizing gende equali y policies, (ii) disman ling, e am-
ing, and unde mining hei implemen a ion, and (iii) e oding consul a ion
mechanisms. The i s dimension cap u es a emp s o displace gende equal-
i y as a co e goal o libe al democ acy. In conco dance wi h Kan ola and
Lomba do (2020, 4), we wan ed o de e mine i discu si e s a egies o dele-
gi imize equali y policies a e a c ucial componen o PRRP e o s o
“in luence he agenda-se ing phase o policymaking and ame wha is poli i-
cally possible and legi ima e.” We we e especially in e es ed in discou ses
exp essing di ec opposi ion o exis ing equali y policies, as hey migh limi
he ange o ac ions o mains eam pa ies.
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The o he wo dimensions look a he inclusion o women’s oices and
ideas in he policymaking p ocess, bo h o which a e conside ed keys o a
mo e inclusi e and esponsi e democ acy (McB ide and Mazu 2010). The
eminis mo emen has been essen ial in pushing o ad ances in hese h ee
dimensions and a emp s o limi hei in luence a e conside ed e idence o
de-democ a iza ion p ocesses (Alonso and Lomba do 2018). We expec ed
hese indica o s o p o ide a mo e accu a e pic u e o PRRP policy in luence
and he implica ions o democ acy.
The End o “Spanish Excep ionalism”: The 2018
Andalusian Elec ions
The Andalusian elec ions o Decembe 2018 ma ked a miles one in he
ans o ma ion o he Spanish pa y sys em. Vox ob ained 11 pe cen o he
o e and 11 o he 108 sea s in he egional pa liamen . I s elec o al success
Table 1. Dimensions o cap u ing policy backsliding
Symbolic ep esen a ion Discu si e delegi imizing
o gende equali y
goals
a
Opposi ional s a emen s
on gende equali y
made by high-le el po-
li ical ac o s, ques ion-
ing he legi imacy o
gende equali y as a
goal, and disc edi ing
exis ing policies
Desc ip i e ep esen a ion E osion o consul a ion
mechanisms
Lack o in ol emen o
women’s igh s ad o-
ca es in policy p ocesses
beyond agenda-se ing
Subs an i e ep esen a ion Policy disman ling and
e aming
Disman ling exis ing poli-
cies o amending poli-
cies so ha hei
p io i ies o objec i es
change
Unde mining
implemen a ion
Discon inua ion o p o-
g ams o lack o und-
ing o policy
implemen a ion
Sou ce: Au ho s, based on K izsa´n and Roggeband (2018).
a
The o iginal de ini ion o his dimension e e ed o he go e ning pa y. He e, we ha e
adap ed he ope a ional de ini ion o include opposi ion pa ies, such as Vox.
Bli zk ieg Agains Democ acy 661
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has been eplica ed in se e al o he egional pa liamen s and a he s a e le el,
whe e i cu en ly holds 52 o he 350 ep esen a i e sea s. The deg ee o pa y
sys em agmen a ion had al eady doubled wi h he ins i u ional b eak-
h ough o le -wing Podemos and cen e - igh Cs in he 2014–2016 pe iod
(O iols and Co de o 2016). Howe e , wi h he ise and elec o al success o
Vox, Spain ell in o s ep wi h mos o he Wes e n democ acies (Tu nbull-
Duga e 2019). Founded in 2013 by o me membe s o he igh -wing PP,
s udies indica e ha Vox unde wen ideological and o ganiza ional ans o -
ma ion in 2017, when alignmen wi h o he PRRPs became cen al (Fe ei a
2019). This ca alyzed i s e olu ion om a ma ginal pa y a he inges o
Spanish poli ics o a main con ende in he compe i ion o domina e he igh
wing o he poli ical spec um.
An i- eminis discou ses ha e been a c ucial componen o Vox ideology
since i s incep ion and place his ac o on he “global igh ” (Co nejo and
Picha do 2017). As wi h o he PRRPs, ideas abou gende play a pi o al ole
in building an i-es ablishmen and na i is discou ses (Alonso and Espinosa-
Faja do o hcoming). Opposed o wha i calls he dic adu a p og e— he
“dic a o ship o he p og essi es”—Vox claims o be he sole pa y ep esen -
ing he adi ional (“au hen ic”) alues o he Spanish people. I s ini ial s a -
egy o a ain isibili y in mains eam and social media was pa ially
a icula ed a ound ejec ion o he exis ing legal amewo k o comba ing
gende -based iolence, which is a highly consensual issue in Spain and he
subjec o na ional c oss-pa y ag eemen s (Alonso and Espinosa-Faja do
o hcoming). Vox ins umen alized i o show how gende equali y policies
had gone “ oo a ” in Spain and o po ay eminism as pa o he es ablish-
men . P o ec ing na i e women om he h ea o nonau och honous men
has also become a ecu en opic in Vox’s mos ecen elec o al campaigns,
amids calls o s ic e immig a ion policies.
The mains eam igh in Spain did no conside exclusiona y s a egies o
isola e Vox. Ins ead, i apidly es ablished g ounds o collabo a ion when i
did no hold enough sea s o o m a s able go e nmen a he egional le el
and in ele an municipali ies such as Mad id. Vox has used ha le e age o
inco po a e an i- eminis demands in o in e pa y nego ia ion p ocesses
(Fe ei a 2019).
1
The Andalusian case is especially in e es ing in ha ega d. Thei leading
candida e in he egional elec ions was he well-known an i- eminis judge
F ancisco Se ano. He had been sen enced o a wo-yea suspension o issu-
ing an unlaw ul esolu ion in a case o gende -based iolence. This helped
pa e he way o in eg a ing an i- eminis posi ions in o he elec o al cam-
paign and subsequen pa liamen a y wo k. I also makes Andalusia an ideal
case s udy o ini ia ing an agenda o explo e he policy in luence o Vox.
The Spanish quasi- ede al se ing has p o ided egional ins i u ions wi h
signi ican powe s o de elop hei own equali y amewo ks (Ve ge and
Alonso 2020). This means ha hey ha e long enjoyed hei own bodies, laws,
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and policies, which ha e con ibu ed o he consolida ion o gende equali y
as a co e alue o Spanish democ acy. Andalusia s ands ou as a egion wi h
he mos s able and ad anced amewo ks. Among he i s e i o ies o se
up an equali y agency, he Andalusian Women’s Ins i u e (IAM, by i s
Spanish ini ials) has ope a ed unde he same ins i u ional model since 1989.
In 2007, he IAM began collabo a ing wi h he Women’s Pa icipa ion
Council, an assembly ep esen ing a a ie y o ci il socie y o ganiza ions
(CSOs). Andalusian laws on equali y be ween men and women, gende -based
iolence, and he igh s o lesbians, gays, bisexuals, anssexuals, and in e sex-
uals (LGBTI) a e among he mos ad anced in Spain and unde wen signi i-
can e o ms in 2018. The gende budge ing me hodologies de eloped in he
egion a e ecognized as good p ac ice in Spain and elsewhe e (Puig-
Ba achina e al. 2017).
The ideology o he pa y in go e nmen is conside ed a majo explana o y
a iable o his deg ee o de elopmen , as Andalusia had a social democ a ic
go e nmen o o e o y yea s. In Spain, emula ion pa e ns ha e con ib-
u ed o he gene aliza ion o equali y policies ac oss egions. Howe e , schol-
a ly wo ks show signi ican a ia ions ha can be a ibu ed o he ideology o
he pa y in go e nmen (Ve ge and Alonso 2020;Bus elo 2016). Ou case
s udy ea u es a coali ion o med by he leading pa y, PP, wi h wen y-six
sea s, and Cs, wi h wen y-one. The PP is a Ch is ian Democ a ic pa y ha
has led egional and s a e go e nmen s o signi ican pe iods o ime in
Spain. PP-led go e nmen s a e associa ed wi h less ans o ma i e app oaches
o ackling inequali y, as well as budge cu s and he disman ling o equali y
ins i u ions in imes o aus e i y (Alonso and Lomba do 2018). They hold
conse a i e posi ions on issues such as ep oduc i e igh s and end o p i i-
lege a amily-o ien ed pe spec i e. Ne e heless, hey ha e been gene ally sup-
po i e o highly consensual policies such as ac ions o add ess gende -based
iolence o equali y in he job ma ke . Despi e ini ial opposi ion, hey ha e
also pu o wa d legisla ion o p o ec LGBTI igh s.
Cs is a newe cen e - igh pa y wi h an ambiguous app oach o gende
issues. A sel -p oclaimed eminis libe al pa y, i s posi ions e ol e a ound
employmen , wo k–li e concilia ion, iolence agains women, and ocal de-
ense o LGBTI igh s. Howe e , i has a a he con lic i e ela ionship wi h
he Spanish eminis mo emen in imes o high mobiliza ion. I s iews on
opics such as su oga e mo he hood o gende quo as ha e been highly con-
o e sial. Al hough ideologically ola ile, i s ac ions when holding o ice e-
eal i s posi ion mo e accu a ely.
Adding ye ano he laye o complexi y o his pic u e is Vox, which holds
he mos ex eme posi ion on gende issues in Spain. I s policy p io i ies may
well con amina e mains eam pa y posi ions and policies, illus a ing he
changes in deg ee ha ha e been iden i ied in he li e a u e on gende equali y
(Spie ings and Zaslo e 2015) and o he sphe es (Mudde 2019). In o he
Bli zk ieg Agains Democ acy 663
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wo ds, PRRP posi ions a e no in insically di e en om hose o main-
s eam igh -wing pa ies. They basically di e in hei le el o adicaliza ion.
Ou s udy p o ides a ine- uned analysis o he policy in luence o Vox in
he ame o his unp eceden ed coali ion go e nmen in Andalusia. I cons i-
u es a plausible h ea o he well-es ablished equali y policies o he egion
and o Spanish democ acy i sel .
Me hodology
The ime ame o his s udy ex ends om Decembe 2018, when Vox
ob ained egional pa liamen a y ep esen a ion o he i s ime, o Decembe
2019. In o ma ion on key policy changes was upda ed un il Augus 2020 o
comple e he exis ing da a. Despi e he sho ime lapse, he ich empi ical
ma e ial ga he ed o his analysis shows he apid ans o ma ion o Vox in o
a cen al poli ical ac o wi h s ong in luence in he mains eam igh . The
analysis co e s he h ee dimensions men ioned ea lie , which we e de eloped
by K izsa´n and Roggeband ( able 2).
Fi s , based on he pionee ing con ibu ion o Kan ola and Lomba do
(2020), ou analysis looks a how discou ses un eil di e en s a egies o
openly delegi imize equali y policies. Ou me hodological app oach elied on
c i ical ame analysis (Ve loo 2007), o iginally inspi ed by Bacchi’s (1999)
“wha ’s he p oblem app oach.” We unde s and “gende ” and “equali y” as
con es ed concep s ha can hold di e en (o en implici ) de ini ions o he
Table 2. Me hodological s a egy
Type o ep esen a ion Goal Me hodology
Symbolic ep esen a ion To iden i y discu si e
s a egies o delegi i-
mizing gende equali y
goals
C i ical ame analysis o
Vox’s pa y mani es os
and pa liamen a y
ac i i y
Desc ip i e ep esen a ion To cap u e policy in lu-
ence in he e osion o
consul a ion
mechanisms
Documen a y analysis and
in-dep h in e iews o
he s udy and ollow-up
o in e pa y
ag eemen sSubs an i e ep esen a ion To cap u e policy in lu-
ence in policy disman-
ling and e aming,
and he unde mining o
implemen a ion
Sou ce: Au ho s.
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Ag eemen signed in Janua y 2019 made i possible o o m he cu en coali-
ion go e nmen and gua an eed an absolu e majo i y in he pa liamen a y
o e o nomina e Juan Manuel Mo eno as he egional p esiden .
15
This docu-
men included he i s se o measu es ha challenged he equali y amewo k
by adop ing a (he e ono ma i e) amily-cen e ed app oach. Al hough ac ions
such as he c ea ion o a egional minis y o amily issues o he de elop-
men o a p og am o suppo p egnan women in ulne able si ua ions we e
no con a y o p io PP go e nmen s in Spain, hey exceeded he ini ial
pledges o he coali ion pa ne s, which we e ocused on childca e and concili-
a ion policies.
Subsequen ly, Vox ins umen alized nego ia ions on he alloca ion o pub-
lic esou ces in i s a emp o inco po a e mo e changes. The 2019 and 2020
Budge Ag eemen s signed by he h ee pa ies a ge ed co e componen s o
he equali y amewo k, such as gende mains eaming, sexual educa ion a
school, and gende -based iolence policies.
16
These ac ions di ec ly challenge
he egional legisla i e amewo k ha bo h PP and Cs had explici ly pledged
o suppo .
17
Measu es included in he Andalusian ag eemen s s ongly esemble hose
o o he con ex s (Askola 2019;G zebalska and Pe o¨2018;Hadj-Abdou 2019)
and subs an ia e he po en ial o PRRPs o b ing abou policy backsliding in
a ious a eas. Howe e , assessing he ole o PRRPs in e oding democ acy
equi es us o look o hei “ inge p in s” on e o s o ansla e poli ical
pledges in o policy decisions (Bia d 2019). In he ollowing sec ions, we will
ace hose ag eemen s o disco e i and how hey ha e managed o
Issue Coali ion ag eemen PP–Cs Pa liamen a y suppo ag ee-
men s wi h Vox
Educa ion Measu es o comba gende
s e eo ypes in educa ion
and p o ide ole models
o gi ls in masculinized
a eas.
Measu es o igh
“ideologically d i en”
educa ion and o ensu e
he ee choice o pa en s
LGBTI igh s E ec i e implemen a ion o
he egional Law o
Gua an ee he Righ s,
Equal T ea men , and
Nondisc imina ion o
LGBTI people and hei
ela i es
Sou ce: Au ho s.
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ans o m he equali y amewo k by disman ling and e aming policies o
e oding consul a ion mechanisms.
“No s one un u ned”: e aming and disman ling policies. The e i-
dence ga ne ed om his s udy gi es cause o conce n, as mos o Vox’s
demands a e now in place. Mos impo an ly, i shows he de elopmen o a
sys ema ic s a egy o e ame and disman le equali y policies in Andalusia.
Gene ally, he implemen a ion o he in e pa y ag eemen s has been e ec-
i e in eo ien ing policies owa d a amily-cen e ed app oach, which is a key
p io i y o Vox. The mos immedia e impac s a ec ins i u ional a chi ec u e,
as he i s concession pu in o p ac ice was he c ea ion o a egional minis y
o de elop amily policies. The p io go e nmen had es ablished a single de-
pa men o equali y and amily issues, he eby acili a ing he inclusion o a
gende pe spec i e. The wo a eas ha e now been disassocia ed wi h he c ea-
ion o a Regional Minis y o Heal h and Families ha includes a Sec e a ia
Gene al o Families.
Equali y has also been pushed o he sidelines in he go e nmen al s uc-
u e. The Regional Minis y o Equali y, Social, and Concilia ion Policies had
es ablished he Di ec o a e Gene al o Gende -Based Violence, Equal
T ea men , and Di e si y as he highes body wi h di ec esponsibili y in he
ma e . Combining such a cen al a ea o in e en ion wi h issues o equal
ea men and di e si y is cohe en wi h he app oach o Cs— he pa y man-
aging his depa men —and he p o ile o hei ep esen a i es. Howe e , i
implies a signi ican shi om o me egional adminis a i e a chi ec u e, in
which gende enjoyed a mo e p ominen and di e en ia ed ins i u ional ole.
Vox’s eques s o de elop new plans and p og ams ha e also yielded signi -
ican esul s. Family- ela ed policies a e expe iencing a boos wi h he o ma-
ion o he In e sec o al Family Commission o de elop a plu iannual plan
and law. Al hough hese issues we e a common conce n o all h ee igh -wing
pa ies, concep ualiza ions o he amily di e . While Cs ha e a signi ican
agenda o add essing LGBTI issues and emphasize di e si y as cen al o hei
app oach, Vox and ( o a lesse ex en ) PP p i ilege adi ional he e ono ma-
i e isions. Mo e esea ch is needed o de e mine i and how hei policies
emb ace non adi ional amilies.
The p og am o suppo p egnan women in ulne able posi ions is also
being de eloped. The 2020 budge has alloca ed e1 million o pu i in o p ac-
ice. Vox s ipula ed in all h ee in e pa y ag eemen s ha unds be di ec ed o
CSOs ha p o ided p egnan women wi h in o ma ion abou all exis ing
al e na i es o con inuing hei p egnancy, while espec ing hei inal deci-
sion. This app oach echoes legisla ion passed by se e al egional PP-led go -
e nmen s and has been ins umen al in alloca ing public money o an i-
abo ion o ganiza ions (Alonso and Paleo 2017). I ep esen s ye ano he
challenge o Cs, which so a has aligned wi h le -wing pa ies and he emi-
nis mo emen in suppo ing access o publicly unded abo ion se ices.
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P ac ices aimed a eo ien ing goals gene ally lead o a ia ions in budge
alloca ions. In Andalusia, public spending inc eased by 16 pe cen om 2017
o 2020 and he egional budge s o minis ies o e seeing equali y p og ams
and amily- ela ed p og ams inc eased by 13 and 19 pe cen , espec i ely.
Howe e , speci ic unding o egional equali y p og ams dec eased in e ms
o o e all expendi u e om 5.8 pe cen in 2017 o 5.6 pe cen in 2020. The
cen al go e nmen p o ided signi ican esou ces—e7 million in 2019 and
2020— o policy ac ions dedica ed exclusi ely o gende equali y, h ough he
Na ional Ag eemen on Gende -Based Violence. I hose unds a e excluded
om he o e all calcula ion, a 14 pe cen dec ease appea s in 2020. In con-
as , he 2020 budge e lec s he new p io i y o p o ec ing Andalusian ami-
lies, as eques ed by Vox. Funding o ha pu pose inc eased by e11.8
million, o mo e han 25 pe cen wi h espec o 2019. By expanding he pe-
iod o analysis, di e ences amongs annual budge s become e en mo e signi -
ican . This can lead o u he disman ling o equali y policies.
Alongside he in oduc ion o a (he e ono ma i e) amily-o ien ed ap-
p oach, Vox has impac ed key policies and ools ha a e common a ge s o
o he PRRPs (Ve loo 2018a). Fi s , Vox pe i ions ha e a ec ed he long-
s anding Andalusian equali y agency, IAM. In Decembe 2019, an audi ing
p ocess was ini ia ed o sc u inize i s pe o mance in p io pe iods. Along
wi h delegi imizing e ec s, his ac ion could lead o u he limi a ions on in-
e en ion, esou ces, o policy app oaches in he nea u u e.
Budge ing me hodologies se e as ano he example o Vox’s in luence and
ha e as po en ial implica ions o he p omo ion o equali y. The i s e ec s
o hei bid o elimina e gende mains eaming om he budge a y p ocess
a e al eady palpable. The copious Gende Impac Assessmen Repo o he 2020
Budge includes only a couple o e e ences o i .
18
This signi ican shi com-
pa ed o o me epo s a ec s he co e o Andalusia’s gende mains eaming
oolbox. As s a ed ea lie , his is a leading egion o de eloping and imple-
men ing gende budge ing me hodologies. The i s egula ions we e passed in
2003 and subsequen ly consolida ed in se e al egional no ms and me hodo-
logical ools. Re- aming he s a egy o include “equal ea men and equal
oppo uni ies be ween men and women” se e ely unde mines i s ans o ma-
i e po en ial.
Finally, gende -based iolence s ands ou as he issue ha bes illus a es
Vox’s capaci y o in luence mains eam igh -wing pa ies. Despi e hei con-
sis en suppo o he exis ing legal amewo k, PP and Cs ha e pu o wa d a
2020 egional budge ha included he alloca ion o e300,000 o und a ele-
phone se ice o assis ic ims o in a- amily iolence.
19
I has been ac i e
since Oc obe 2020. In Andalusia, he e was al eady a dedica ed elephone se -
ice (016) o assis women su e ing gende -based iolence and ano he se -
ice (112) o gene al eme gencies and o he kinds o abuse. This new
measu e has helped e- ame exis ing policies and ques ions he amoun o
public esou ces alloca ed o women. In he p ocess, Vox has success ully
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challenged he eminis iews ha unde gi d he Andalusian
20
and Spanish
policy amewo ks while ad ancing a degende ed ision o he phenomenon
ha includes men as ic ims. Howe e , he well-es ablished legal amewo k
may p o e esilien and dissuade he PP and Cs om implemen ing u he
ollbacks.
Al oge he , hese changes e eal he e ec i eness o Vox in helping o eo -
ien he goals o key ins i u ions, p og ams, and budge s in he egion, and i s
s ong po en ial o u he disman le key componen s o he equali y
amewo k.
De unding eminis o ganiza ions and e oding consul a ion
mechanisms. The e ec i eness o he pa y also ex ends o he e osion o
consul a ion p ocesses. Vox has emba ked on a c usade a ge ing eminis
g oups and hei access o public unding. In e pa y ag eemen s pledged o
e iew access o subsidies unde p io socialis go e nmen s. The 2020 Budge
Ag eemen s a es ha “many exis ing subsidies, s emming om he o me
go e nmen ’s policies, ep esen an example o bad p ac ice ... a e ision has
o be unde aken o p e en bene icia ies who do no p oduce any ac ual
added alue [ o socie y] om seeking only hei own inancial
sus ainabili y.”
21
In o ma ion ga he ed o his s udy e eals ha his measu e has al eady
signi ican ly impac ed eminis o ganiza ions. While compa ison o he 2017
and 2020 budge s shows a 13 pe cen inc ease in subsidies o CSOs, his igu e
emains below he gene al inc ease in public spending. The new amewo k
elimina es public subsidies o ade unions and g oups igh ing agains sexual
a icking and p os i u ion, as well as hose gi ing suppo o mig an women
o o mino s who a e ic ims o gende -based iolence. Fo ins ance, he mos
ecen public call ini ially p o ided unds o 317 p ojec s, bu he inal esolu-
ion inco po a ed only se en y-six o hem. A change in he e alua ion c i e ia
a he end o he yea excluded 241 applica ions ela ed o p og ams on gende
equali y, gende -based iolence, and women a isk o social exclusion. The
CSOs excluded om his call include well-known eminis o ganiza ions, such
as he Eu opean Women’s Lobby o Muje es en Zonas de Con lic o [Women
in Con lic A eas]. This has se e ely a ec ed many o hem, as he lack o i-
nancial esou ces is leading o indeb edness ha could p e en hem om ap-
plying o u u e egional subsidies.
These same g oups we e pa o he main Andalusian consul a ion mecha-
nism, he Women’s Pa icipa ion Council, which showed li le ac i i y du ing
he pe iod analyzed. While elec ions o de e mine i s composi ion concluded
in la e Janua y 2020, as o summe 2020, no plena y sessions had aken place
and he in e nal s uc u e o he commission—including i e spokespe -
sons—had ye o be es ablished.
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The s a egy o de und eminis o ganiza ions, along wi h he pa icipa ion
o an i-abo ion g oups in ele an go e nmen p og ams, migh well lead o
u he se backs. Should he p eeminence o eminis oices in decision-
making disappea , policies a e likely o be u he disman led and degende ed,
leading o mo e widesp ead de-democ a iza ion.
Conclusions
Schola ly wo ks explo ing he ole o PRRPs ag ee on hei capaci y o in-
luence policies om bo h inside and ou side go e nmen . This is a c ucial as-
pec o hei po en ial o e oding democ acy. Howe e , esea ch a en ion
mainly ocuses on immig a ion issues while se backs in p omo ing gende
equali y a e o en deemed seconda y o o e looked.
This s udy e eals he need o inco po a e a gende lens o unde s and he
success o PRRPs in unde mining democ acy. Ou analysis o Vox in Spain
con ibu es o heo ies abou he ole o gende ideas in PRRPs. Fa om be-
ing pe iphe al, ideas abou gende can po en ially in o m pa y ac i i y. These
ideas a e no only cen al in a icula ing an i-es ablishmen and na i is dis-
cou ses, as highligh ed in p e ious s udies, bu migh also in luence candida e
selec ion, elec o al campaigning, and pa liamen a y wo k.
Mo e impo an ly, ou esea ch helps o expand schola ly wo ks on PRRPs
and policy in luence. I illus a es how gende issues can be an in eg al pa o
hei s a egy o impac he posi ions and policies o mains eam igh pa ies,
e en om ou side go e nmen . In ou case s udy, Vox has wo ked in pa lia-
men o openly delegi imize he exis ing equali y amewo k. Thei discu si e
s a egies align wi h PRRPs in o he con ex s by depic ing gende equali y as a
a he i ele an issue ha has been pushed on o he poli ical agenda by ep e-
sen a i es o a eminis and allegedly “ o ali a ian” p ojec . The o iginali y o
his s udy lies in i s capaci y o show how PRRPs can success ully use hei le-
e age o push o ollbacks in gende equali y policies. In he absence o a co -
don sani ai e, Vox ad anced i s p io i ies in in e pa y nego ia ions by
including demands o unde mine he pilla s o he equali y amewo k. We
ha e demons a ed i s e ec i eness in doing so. Ou analysis e eals ha some
o Vox’s eques s ha e al eady been pu in o p ac ice by he coali ion go e n-
men o Andalusia. These changes a e helping o eo ien goals owa d amily
and na ali y issues, e ode he ins i u ional in luence o eminis ac o s, and po-
en ially disman le exis ing measu es. Gende -based iolence policies illus a e
he ex en o which PP and Cs ha e abandoned some o hei mo e ele an
pledges in o de o mee Vox’s demands. Measu es o add ess “in a- amily
iolence” pose an unp eceden ed challenge o he esilience o gende ed equal-
i y policies in Spain. Because he pa y’s app oach has been analogous in a a-
ie y o ins i u ions, we conside ha he gene al conclusions o his s udy can
eliably in o m abou he Spanish con ex .
Bli zk ieg Agains Democ acy 675
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Finally, his a icle connec s wi h heo ies o de-democ a iza ion and s ud-
ies on he ole o PRRPs by conside ing equali y policies as cen al a he han
pe iphe al o he democ a ic s a e. By combining Tilly’s (2007) concep ual
cons uc wi h indica o s o policy backsliding om he wo k o K izsa´n and
Roggeband (2018), ou esea ch adds a gende pe spec i e o exis ing
app oaches. We conside he in luence o Vox on policy in such a sho pe iod
o ime o be a bli zk ieg agains Spanish democ acy. This pa y has e ec i ely
begun o e ode he gene al commi men o gende equali y while unde min-
ing he subs an i e and desc ip i e ep esen a ion o women. Fu u e s udies
in his a ea should he e o e iden i y how and o wha ex en PRRPs b ing
abou policy ollbacks ha ad ance de-democ a iza ion. The Spanish case will
be o pa icula in e es in ha ega d.
No es
1. See o example: h ps://www.eldia io.es/andalucia/Vox-negociaciones_
Andalucia-Andalucia-pac o_PP-Cs-igualdad- iolencia_de_gene o_0_
852865162.h ml.
2. Guiding ques ions e e ed o he diagnosis o he p oblem (Wha is he
p oblem? Wha a e he causes and who a e he ac o s esponsible?), he
p ognosis (Wha o do? Who mus ac ?), and no ma i i y (Wha is he
ideal? Wha is de imen al o he ideal?).
3. The sea ch e ealed ha mos documen s connec ed wi h equali y we e
agged unde “gende equali y” and “gende -based iolence” labels in
he pa liamen a y eposi o y ags. We added o he ele an e ms such
as ‘ amily’ in o de o cap u e Vox’s posi ion.
4. Gene al budge s and budge s alloca ed o Regional Minis y o Equali y,
Social, and Concilia ion Policies and he Regional Minis y o Heal h
and Families we e analyzed. Budge s dedica ed o gende equali y p o-
g ams and o amily we e also e iewed. We looked mo e closely a
esou ces o CSOs p omo ing gende equali y.
5. We in e iewed key s akeholde s om he Andalusian Pa liamen ,
he egional equali y agency IAM and he Andalusian Women’s
Pa icipa ion Council. In au umn 2019, ou in e iews we e ca ied
ou o ollow up on changes in gende equali y policies and ga he
u he e idence. We added h ee in e iews in win e 2020 o ob ain
mo e in o ma ion abou he 2020 Regional Budge ha had been ap-
p o ed in Decembe 2019.
6. 11-19/PNLC-000130 Non-law p oposal ela ed o alse ideologically
d i en app oaches (DSPA 104, June 19, 2019).
7. 11-19/APP-000327 Reques o he Cabine o appea be o e he Plena y
o he Chambe o epo on he policies o he Andalusian Boa d o
he P omo ion o he Bi h Ra e (DSPA 116, July 8, 2019).
8. 1-19/APP-000327 Reques o he Cabine o appea be o e he Plena y
o he Chambe o epo on he policies o he Andalusian Boa d o
he P omo ion o he Bi h Ra e (DSPA 116, July 8, 2019).
676 A. Alonso and J. Espinosa-Faja do
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9. 11-19/PNLC-000074 Nonlaw p oposal in Commission ela ed o he
Comp ehensi e Plan o Suppo Families (DSPA 51, Ap il 1, 2019).
10. 11-19/PNLP-000012, Nonlaw p oposal ela ed o he 10 Ma ch demon-
s a ions. Women o he Wo ld Pla o m (DSPA 32, Ma ch 4, 2019).
11. 11-19/POC-001519 An o al eques om he Commission ega ding he
homogenei y equi emen in he p epa a ion o epo s by psychosocial
eams (DSPA 192, Oc obe 23, 2019).
12. 1-19/APP-000327 Reques o he Cabine o appea be o e he Plena y
o he Chambe o epo on he policies o he Andalusian Boa d o
he P omo ion o he Bi h Ra e (DSPA 116, July 8, 2019).
13. h ps://www.womenwo ldpla o m.com/en/who-we-a e (accessed Ma ch
15, 2020).
14. 1-19/APP-000327 Reques o he Cabine o appea be o e he Plena y
o he Chambe o epo on he policies o he Andalusian Boa d o
he P omo ion o he Bi h Ra e (DSPA 116, July 8, 2019).
15. Ag eemen be ween PP and VOX o he In es i u e o he P esiden o
he Regional Go e nmen o Andalusia (Janua y 9, 2019).
16. Ag eemen o Ad ance owa ds a New Budge a y Policy ha Re lec s
he Go e nmen o Change in Andalusia (June 10, 2019) and
Ag eemen be ween PP, Cs, and VOX o Ad ance owa ds a New
Budge a y Policy ha Re lec s he Go e nmen o Change in
Andalusia, and Commi men o Suppo he D a Bill on he Budge
o he Au onomous Communi y o Andalusia o he Yea 2020
(Oc obe 23, 2019).
17. In 2004, he PP opposed some elemen s included in he s a e-wide egu-
la ion o add ess gende -based iolence. None heless, his has been a
cen al issue in hei equali y agenda since he 1990s.
18. h ps://www.jun adeandalucia.es/o ganismos/haciendaindus iayene
gia/a eas/p esupues os/gene o/paginas/gene o-in o me-indice.h ml.
19. The se ice is managed by he Social and Ca e Se ices o he Andalusian
go e nmen .
20. Law o 27 No embe , modi ying Law 13/2007 on measu es o p e en
and p o ide in eg al p o ec ion om gende -based iolence.
21. Ag eemen among PP, Cs, and VOX o Ad ance owa d a New
Budge a y Policy ha Re lec s he Go e nmen o Change in
Andalusia, and Commi men o Suppo he D a Bill on he Budge
o he Au onomous Communi y o Andalusia o he Yea 2020
(Oc obe 23, 2019).
Acknowledgmen s
We wish o hank Ru h Rubio, Emanuela Lomba do, and Johanna Kan ola o
hei kind in i a ion o pa icipa e in his special issue; he anonymous e iewe and
he edi o s o hei cons uc i e commen s; and all he people who gene ously ag eed
o be in e iewed o his esea ch.
Bli zk ieg Agains Democ acy 677
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Funding
Alba Alonso wishes o acknowledge he unding ecei ed om he Xun a
de Galicia o suppo he esea ch g oup Rede A mela USC (g an numbe
ED431B 2020/23).
Con lic o in e es
The au ho s decla e ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
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