Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics
Volume 5, Numbe 1 (June 2016)
ISSN: 2254-7088
29
The Occupy and Indignados mo emen and he
impo ance o poli ical con ex : di e ences
be ween occasionals and egula s in Spain and
he UK
C is ina Gomez-Roman, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela
Jose Manuel Sabucedo, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela
Abs ac
In his wo k we look in o he indi iduals’ easons ha led Occupy p o es e s o
pa icipa e in his mo emen . We in e iewed Occupy pa icipan s in he UK and
Spain. We wan ed o ind ou i he easons ha lead hem o pa icipa e a e he
same in bo h coun ies. The con ex o he coun y whe e he demons a ion was
held was aken in o accoun , as well as he di e ences he e may be in he easons
o pa icipa ion i we conside whe he hey a e occasional o egula pa icipan s
in collec i e p o es ac ions. Using a wo-by- wo design de ined by coun y o
demons a ion and he his o y o mobilisa ion (occasional s. egula ), ou esul s
show impo an di e ences in bo h ac o s. The s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e,
highligh ing he impo ance o analysing he con ex whe e he demons a ion akes
place and which mo i es mus be unde lined in o de o a ac pa icipan s o
p o es s.
Keywo ds
Poli ical con ex ; pa icipa ion mo i es; Occupy; Spain; UK.
JEL classi ica ion
D74; D83; E65.
Gomez-Roman ● Occupy and Indignados mo emen
30
In May 2011, housands o people h oughou Spain, ou aged by socio-economic
p ospec s and he lack o poli ical esponsibili y, o ganised ma ches and p o es s in
58 di e en ci ies (Feixa, 2013). Beginning in Mad id and sp eading quickly
h oughou he coun y, p o es e s ook o e squa es and se up encampmen s,
some las ing o weeks. In hese camps, pa icipan s deba ed and managed he
occupa ion h ough gene al assemblies and a ious issue-speci ic wo king g oups.
On 15 Oc obe 2011, a simila scene played ou nex o S Paul's Ca hed al in
London, whe e a g oup o ac i is s me and began an occupa ion, which las ed
un il 14 June 2012. Inspi ed by he camps in Spain, pa icipan s deba ed and
managed he occupa ion h ough gene al assemblies and smalle commissions,
s eaming hei p o es s li e on social media.
Pa icipan s o bo h coun ies ha e been e e ed o as he Indignados and Occupy
mo emen , espec i ely. These mo emen s do no a ise in a acuum; hei
appea ance was inspi ed by he global p o es wa e ha s a ed in Tunisia, la e
sp ead ac oss No h A ica and he Middle Eas , in wha was called he A ab
Sp ing (Cos anza-Chock, 2012; Gledhill, 2012; Teje ina, Pe ugo ía, Benski, &
Langman, 2013). These p o es s we e also ela ed o he poli ical-economic c isis
aking place in Eu ope (Hal o sen, 2012), and as a esul o dissa is ac ion wi h he
global c isis and he ine icien decisions by go e nmen s in esponding o i . They
ejec ed “poli ics as usual,” demanding a mo e equal and anspa en
inancial/economic sys em (Democ acia Real Ya, 2014; Occupy London, 2014).
These mo emen s we e he beginning o a wa e o p o es s ha ook place in
2011-2012 esul ing in wha is known as a new cycle o p o es (Ta ow, 1991).
These mo emen s we e able o expand a discou se i ing wi h he gene al eeling
o indigna ion. They we e no claiming o speci ic issues ( o ins ance: ejec ing
labou e o m, demons a ing agains abo ion o clima e change), bu demanding a
adical change in applying democ acy, a adical change o he poli ical sys em i sel
( an S ekelenbu g, 2012; Langman, 2013).
In addi ion, he Spanish and B i ish examples had a con agion e ec on o he
coun ies: he USA, Tu key, he Ne he lands, among o he s, all subsequen ly
s a ed hei own simila mo emen s. The squa es in se e al in e na ional ci ies
we e also simila ly occupied, acco ding o an S ekelenbu g (2012: 224): ‘In
Feb ua y 2012, he e we e squa es occupied in 1590 ci ies wo ldwide.’ This
mo emen was a con e gence o ac ics and ideas, no no el on hei own, bu
which, when combined, we e able o ene gise ac i ism ha hadn’ been seen o
se e al yea s, a ac ing no only media a en ion bu he in e es o many
academics wo ldwide (Picke ill & K insky, 2012). A simila mo emen occu ing in
se e al coun ies p o ides a unique oppo uni y o academic s udy.
P e ious esea ch in he Occupy/Indignados mo emen has s udied his p o es
ela ed o i s pa icula o ganisa ional s uc u e (Manilo , 2013), o has execu ed
single case s udies in di e en egions o Occupy demons a ions (monog aphic in
Social Mo emen S udies, 2012; Picke ill & K insky, 2012; Howa d & P a -Boyden,
2013; Hal o sen, 2015). Howe e , hese s udies didn’ make compa isons in o de
o es ablish i pa icipan s in he p o es ha e he same mo i es o pa icipa e. The
analysis o poli ical p o es s, and mo e speci ically he Occupy/Indignados
mo emen , canno be ca ied ou in isola ion, s udying one single ac ion. As
Klande mans and Smi h (2002: 6) poin ed ou , ‘compa a i e esea ch o mo emen
pa icipa ion is impo an . I ells us ha wha holds o a pa icipan in one
mo emen , o a one poin in ime, o in one place is no necessa ily ue o a
pa icipan in ano he mo emen , o a a di e en ime o place’. In his case,
compa ing he same mo emen in wo coun ies, we can examine how a ia ions
esul om di e ences in he con ex in which he p o es akes place, and how
hey in e ac wi h hese con ex s, inc easing ou knowledge in he gene al
dynamics o p o es s.
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 5(1)
31
In his wo k we a e in e es ed in es ablishing he indi idual easons leading
p o es e s o pa icipa e in he ac ions o he Indignados and Occupy mo emen :
Wha has led hem o ake pa in he p o es s? In o de o do so, we ha e
in e iewed Occupy pa icipan s in he UK and Spain. We wan ed o ind ou i he
easons ha lead hem o pa icipa e a e he same in bo h coun ies and i he e
a e di e ences among hem. We ake in o accoun he con ex o he coun y
whe e he demons a ion was held, and also he di e ences he e may be in he
easons o pa icipa e, di e en ia ing whe he hey a e occasional o egula
pa icipan s in collec i e p o es ac ions. In line wi h ecen wo k (Ve lhus &
Walg a e, 2009; Saunde s, G asso, Olcese, Rains o d, & Roo es, 2012; Rüdig &
Ka yo is, 2013), we unde s and ha e en wi hin he same demons a ion di e en
p o iles o p o es e may exis : hose who ha e been aking pa in p o es all hei
li es ( egula s) and hose who, due o c isis ci cums ances and he appea ance o
a new mo emen ( a om s anda d poli ical pa ies o ade unions), a e
occasionals ( hose who don’ ha e a long adi ion o pa icipa ion).
Con ex ha ma e s: Coun y whe e he
demons a ion akes place.
Al hough he assump ion ha he inc ease in he numbe o people who claim o
ha e aken pa in p o es s in ecen decades has no been wi hou con o e sy
(Biggs, 2014), he ac is in ecen yea s he e has been objec i e da a showing a
conside able inc ease in he numbe o demons a ions (ESS, in Jiménez, 2011;
Thomas & Louis, 2013). This inc ease in he numbe o p o es s has p obably been
due o he e ec o he economic c isis and ci izens’ disenchan men wi h he
policies unde aken o espond o i . Dissa is ac ion wi h democ acy and poo us
in go e nmen s and poli icians appea s o be impo an in he pa icipa ion o
ci izens (Gómez-Román & Sabucedo, 2014).
Ou app oach assumes ha in p o es dynamics we need o conside he poli ical
con ex , ha is, he pe cep ion and in e p e a ion people hold on he poli ical
en i onmen whe e hey a e embedded. We need o ake in o conside a ion hese
pe cep ions o he poli ical con ex o unde s and he di e ences be ween
pa icipan s. Depending on hese in e p e a ions, hey will ac i a e di e en
mo i a ions encou aging indi idual pa icipa ion. The con ex will ha e a bea ing on
he p o ile o he pa icipan and on mo i a ions o pa icipa ion. Social mo emen s
ha e a c ucial ole in c ea ing discou ses i ing wi h hese pe cep ions. They mus
be able o ame he si ua ion in an a ac i e way so as o b ing as many people
possible o demons a ions.
One o he i s a emp s o s udy he complex ela ionship be ween p o es and
con ex was a longi udinal s udy o ou cen u ies o ac ion epe oi es in F ance, by
Cha les Tilly (1986), who demons a ed ha he epe oi es o ac ion changed
acco ding o an e ol ing con ex . Ano he mo e ecen a emp o s udy his
ela ionship be ween p o es and con ex was a compa a i e s udy by Walg a e
and Ruch (2010). They o mula ed he e m ‘issue-speci ic con ex ’ o e e o he
in e ac ions be ween na ional con ex and he issue(s) o he demons a ion. The
au ho s’ e idence s ems om he demons a ions agains he wa in I aq. In hei
s udy, he issue o he demons a ion was he same in each o he coun ies bu he
na ional con ex di e ed conside ably. The au ho s showed ha he composi ion o
he c owd a ied depending on his con ex ual a ia ion. In a mo e ecen wo k,
Klande mans, an S ekelenbu g, Damen, an Leeuwen and an T oos (2014)
obse ed ha a leas he ac o s on s age may a y conside ably as a esul o he
con ex ual se ing in which hey a e s aged. They ound ha he na ional con ex
wi hin which hese demons a ions a e aking place added in o ma ion o he
scene; u he mo e hey obse ed consis en di e ences due o his con ex ual
a ia ion.
Gomez-Roman ● Occupy and Indignados mo emen
32
In his wo k, we compa e wo Occupy demons a ions in wo coun ies o Eu ope:
Spain and he UK. These coun ies a e simila because he c isis hi bo h ha d and
he wo ha e adi ionally low us in go e nmen . The UK and Spain ha e become
mo e indeb ed as a esul o he G ea Bailou and acco ding o McNally (2010)
public deb in hese coun ies is now abo e 60 pe cen . Bo h coun ies ha e had o
ake aus e i y measu es o con on his di icul si ua ion. Fo ins ance, in Spain,
among o he aus e i y measu es, he socialis go e nmen included an inc ease in
highe a e income ax and 8 pe cen spending cu s, public sec o wo ke s ha e
had hei pay cu by 5 pe cen and sala ies ozen, and he e i emen age was
aised o 67. In he same line, in he UK, he Conse a i e-Libe al Democ a
Coali ion go e nmen ook he bigges cu s in s a e spending since he Second
Wo ld Wa , as well as inc easing he e i emen age o 66, cu ing 490,000 public
sec o jobs, and making budge cu s o 19 pe cen on a e age up o 25 pe cen in
mos go e nmen depa men s (Fa nswo h & I ing, 2012).The si ua ion in Spain
was clea ly wo se a ha ime: he le el o unemploymen was a ha ime 22.85
pe cen , wice he a e age o he Eu opean Union (INE, 2012; EUROSTAT, 2012);
while he UK’s unemploymen was he wo s in he coun y since 1994, i was only
a ound 2.62 million (8.2 pe cen ). The Spanish economy was also in he
Eu opean Union’s spo ligh , as hey decided on he necessi y o a bailou plan.
Alongside he economic c isis in Spain, he e was also a poli ical c isis aking
place. Poli icians we e iden i ied as he hi d mos impo an p oblem in Spain,
ollowing unemploymen and he economic c isis (Anduiza, C is ancho, &
Sabucedo, 2013).
As o he in luence o he ad e si y o he na ional se ing, we p esume ha in
Spain, he pe cep ions o he poli ical con ex unde lying mo emen claims would
in luence mo i a ions o pa icipa e in Occupy demons a ions.
Di e en pa icipan s a he same demons a ion:
Occasionals and egula s
Acco ding o he Eu opean Social Su ey, he numbe o people claiming o ha e
pa icipa ed in a demons a ion in he pas 12 mon hs has inc eased be ween 2008
and 2012 (ESS, 2012). This inc ease in he numbe o p o es s and he people who
claim o ha e pa icipa ed in i , a e indica o s ha du ing he c isis pe iod a la ge
numbe o people who ha e no p e iously pa icipa ed egula ly may ha e been
mobilised. The un a ou able poli ical and economic en i onmen and he
appea ance o a mo emen a om usual mobilisa ion agen s ( ade unions o
poli ical pa ies) encou aged he pa icipa ion o ci izens who we e p e iously
ou side o poli ics. The e o e, in his pa icula poli ical and economic con ex , i is
e y impo an o s udy hose who a e pa icipa ing no only in gene al e ms, bu o
ind ou i hei mo i es a e he same o he occasionals (o spo adic pa icipan s)
and he egula s ( hose who ha e been pa icipa ing egula ly). We s ongly belie e
hose who only pa icipa e occasionally in hese imes o c isis we e no in he
demons a ion o he same easons as he usual p o es e s. We unde s and ha
he economic and poli ical con ex o ha dship and he eme gence o a mo emen
like Occupy ha e made he p o es mo e a ac i e o hose ci izens who a e no
egula ac i is s.
While i is ue ha in ecen yea s he e has been a la ge numbe o empi ical
s udies explaining he gene al causes o p o es beha iou ( an Zome en, Pos mes
& Spea s, 2008; Dal on, an Sickle, & Weldon, 2009; an S ekelenbu g &
Klande mans, 2010), he ac is he e a e s ill ew wo ks dealing wi h he exis ence
o mul iple p o iles o p o es e wi hin he same p o es . In one o hese s udies,
Saunde s e al. (2012), he au ho s classi y ou di e en p o iles depending on he
equency and in ensi y o hei pa icipa ion: no ices, e u ne s, epea e s and
s alwa s. Ve lhus and Walg a e (2009) also s udied he di e ences be ween i s -
ime s and s alwa s, es ing a se ies o hypo heses o explain he di e ences
be ween hem. In a mo e ecen wo k, Rüdig and Ka yo is (2013) ound new
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 5(1)
33
pa icipan s o be mo e simila o he gene al popula ion han hey a e o
es ablished p o es e s. Taking in o accoun he indings o he h ee s udies, we
can conclude, in ac , he e a e signi ican di e ences among pa icipan s,
especially conside ing hei his o y o pa icipa ion in p o es . Regula s pa icipa e
mo e in a ious social and poli ical o ganisa ions. They a e ideologically si ua ed
on he le and hey ha e a wo se e alua ion o how he sys em wo ks. They ha e
a mo e poli ically de ined iden i y.
In his pape , we use an excellen amewo k no only o es ablish i he e a e
di e ences be ween occasionals and egula s, bu mo eo e whe he hose p o iles
a e close when we conside he coun y o he p o es . Tha is, a e he Occupy
occasionals om bo h coun ies mo e simila o each o he ? O a e p o es
pa icipan s, ega dless o equency o pa icipa ion, mo e alike depending on he
coun y in which he p o es akes place? Is i he con ex o he coun y whe e he
e en akes place ha c ea es simila i ies be ween pa icipan s and hei easons
o pa icipa ing, o is i he ac ha hey a e occasionals o egula s?
Explana ions o Collec i e Ac ion
As men ioned abo e, how people in e p e he poli ical con ex in which hey a e
imme sed can be decisi e in o e coming he ba ie s o pa icipa ion and can also
de ine he indi idual easons why someone pa icipa es. Classic s udies o social
psychology on he in luence o con ex a e e y clea examples o how human
beha iou is a unc ion o he en i onmen (Zimba do, 2007; Lewin, 1936). How
people pe cei e and in e p e hei en i onmen in luences hei beha iou . I he
in e p e a ion o ha con ex is so impo an , hen we mus conside hese
in e p e a ions in o de o be e unde s and wha has led people o pa icipa e in a
p o es as unique as Occupy.
We shall desc ibe hose socio-poli ical and psychological a iables ha we belie e
can help us unde s and how pa icipan s in e p e ed his poli ical con ex and how
hese pe cep ions a e c ucial o hei pa icipa ion. In wha ollows we p o ide
explana ions o collec i e ac ion, unning om pe cep ions o he poli ical con ex
( us in ins i u ions, sa is ac ion wi h democ acy, poli ical o ien a ion and poli ical
alues) o psychological mo i es (ange , e icacy and iden i y). We ela e hose
a iables o he coun y whe e he demons a ion akes place as well as
mobilisa ion his o y, he ea e o mula ing hypo heses o guide ou analyses.
The lack o us in ins i u ions and poo sa is ac ion wi h democ acy can eed he
in en ion o pa icipa e in p o es ac ions (Ande son & Mendes, 2006; Dal on e al.,
2009). Since he sys em does no espond o he demands o hei people, hey
choose al e na i es o change he s a e o hings. The e o e, in his s udy we asked
pa icipan s in Occupy demons a ions o hei eelings o us and sa is ac ion
wi h he sys em. We unde s and hese le els will be low, bu hey will be
signi ican ly lowe among Spanish pa icipan s (H1a), due o he wo se economic
ci cums ances o ha coun y. Fu he mo e, we unde s and hese le els will be
e y poo among egula p o es e s, mainly due o he disappoin men c ea ed by a
sys em hey ha e been igh ing agains epea edly (Gómez-Román & Sabucedo,
2014). Occasionals, hough disgus ed wi h he sys em i sel , a e no as much so as
egula s, since hey a e only spo adically epudia e he men ioned sys em (H1b).
Ano he a iable o help us be e unde s and how people in e p e his poli ical
con ex is poli ical o ien a ion. How a pe son iden i ies on he scale o ideological
le / igh posi ion is undamen al o in e p e a ions o he en i onmen a ound hem.
The poli ical o ien a ion o ci izens p o ides a gene al amewo k o unde s anding
con ex . I can e en be unde s ood as a heu is ic om which people u n o explain
many o he phenomena occu ing in he en i onmen . This poli ical o ien a ion
p o ides a clea guide o unde s anding ce ain poli ical issues and wha posi ion
should be aken on hese issues (Hooghe & Kee n, 2013). Ha ing de ined a
poli ical o ien a ion, indi iduals c ea e pa icula poli ical a i udes (Nie, Ve ba, &
Gomez-Roman ● Occupy and Indignados mo emen
34
Pe ocik, 1979) and eac acco dingly. Pa icipan s unde s and ha he Occupy
mo emen , as can be unde s ood om i s discou se, should be in e media e on he
le / igh scale, and should no be iden i ied wi h any ideology. Howe e , pe
p e ious li e a u e (Ve lhus & Walg a e, 2009; Saunde s e al., 2012), we expec
he e will be di e ences in his espec be ween occasionals and egula s. I has
been ound p o es pa icipa ion is mo e common among hose who iden i y wi h
he le (Dal on e al., 2009), so we expec he egula s o be loca ed along his pa
o he ideological spec um (H1c).
As commen ed be o e, indi iduals beha e based on how hey in e p e eali y.
Poli ical alues, close o ideological o ien a ion, can also ac as a guide o
in e p e ing he en i onmen . The e a e se e al classi ica ions and scales o
poli ical alues (Ingleha , 1990; Alexande , Ingleha , & Welzel, 2012; G asso y
Giugni, 2013). One such classi ica ion p oposal, by Hea h, E ans and Ma in
(1994), di e en ia es be ween gene al o ien a ions o an economic le - igh scale
( ela ed o economic and poli ical equali y and go e nmen in e en ion e sus ee
en e p ise) on he one hand, and indi idual libe ies o libe a ian-au ho i a ian on
he o he (i ems ela ed wi h eedom o hough , conscience o he igh o
associa ion and he ela ionship pe son-poli ical ins i u ions).
Gi en he impai ed economic si ua ion, we belie e he p o es e s in he Spanish
p o es will sco e mo e highly on he scale o economic alues, because hey
pe cei e a h ea o hei basic needs and will he e o e main ain mo e ma e ial
conce ns (H1d). We also expec di e ences be ween occasionals and egula s in
bo h coun ies. We unde s and occasionals ake o he s ee s because hei quali y
o li e has been h ea ened and hey will be mo i a ed by economic alues
(especially in Spain). Regula ac i is s, howe e , a e demanding no only an
economic change, bu also a modi ica ion o he sys em’s unc ioning. This posi ion
is mo e ele an o indi idual libe ies (H1e).
Once we know ha he in e p e a ion o poli ical con ex by pa icipan s may impac
hei easons o engaging in collec i e ac ion, we would like o expound he
psychological heo ies ha migh explain pa icipa ion in demons a ions. In
social psychology, he e is some consensus on he exis ence o h ee psycho-
sociological explana ions o collec i e ac ion, hose being injus ice, e icacy and
iden i y ( an Zome en e . al, 2008; an S ekelenbu g & Klande mans, 2010). These
h ee ames, p oposed by Gamson (1992), a e undamen al in unde s anding
pa icipa ion, se e o in e p e eali y, a e socially cons uc ed and cul u ally
con ex ualised, and encou ages pa icipa ion in collec i e ac ion (Gamson, 1992).
The i s ame co esponds o he pe cep ion o injus ice. When one pe cei es
onesel as no being ea ed as dese ed, o ha an expe ienced si ua ion is un ai ,
hen one would like o do some hing o change i (Gu , 1970). I is impo an o
no e ha he si ua ion does no always ha e o be objec i ely unjus . I mus be
pe cei ed subjec i ely as un ai (Kelly & B einlinge , 1996). Mo eo e , i one
conside s onesel o be poo , bu inds an accep able jus i ica ion o one’s po e y,
e en i he si ua ion ac ually is objec i ely un ai , one will no pe cei e i as such
and will do no hing o change i . Mobilised ci izens unde s and hemsel es o be
un ai ly ea ed and so ha e decided i is ime o ac . This injus ice ame has a
cogni i e componen , g ie ances, and an emo ional one, ange . Acco ding o a
me a- analysis by an Zome en, e al. (2008), he componen o bes explain
collec i e ac ion is ange . Acco dingly, we expec pa icipan s in bo h coun ies o
show high le els o ange , bu because he g ie ance si ua ion in Spain is wo se,
hese le els should be highe he e (H2a). Fo occasionals and egula s, we
expec , gi en he egula s ha e been pa icipa ing in he pas in simila ac ions,
allowing hem o mo e quickly access a sense o g ie ance (T e sky and
Kahneman, 1981), so ha is why we expec hem o be ang ie (H2b).
Ano he ame p oposed by Gamson is he e icacy ame. People would no go o
he s ee s o p o es i hey did no belie e hey could ge some hing ou o i .
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 5(1)
35
P o es e s do cos -bene i calcula ion o pa icipa ion (Klande mans, 1984). I
indi iduals hink a alis ically, e.g., "No hing I do can change hings”, o “I is no in
my powe o do any hing", hey will no pa icipa e. Bu when hey belie e ha
h ough join e o , he g oup will be able o espond o ele an e en s, o e come
obs acles and achie e collec i e in e media e goals, hey will ha e su icien
eason o join he mobilisa ion (Ho nsey, e al., 2006). Acco dingly, pa icipan s in
bo h coun ies a e expec ed o show eelings o e icacy in some way, bu because
he Occupy mo emen had al eady been success ul in Spain and Wall S ee a he
ime i ook hold in he UK, we expec he an icipa ion o success o be g ea e
among B i ish esponden s (H2c). Rega ding occasionals and egula s, as he
egula s ha e p e ious expe ience o success ul pa icipa ion, we expec egula s
will be mo e op imis ic han occasionals in conside a ion o p o es as e ec i e
(H2d).
The hi d collec i e ac ion model ame ha Gamson sugges ed is he iden i y
ame. P o es pa icipa ion equi es a s ong sense o collec i e iden i ica ion wi h
he g oup o igh ing collec i ely agains a common disad an age (Simon e al.,
1998). This sha ed eeling can p o oke he necessi y o ac join ly agains he
same p oblem (Sabucedo, Du án, & Alza e, 2010). Acco ding o S ü me and
Simon (2004), when people iden i y hemsel es wi h a g oup and assume ha he
ad e se condi ion is mo i a ed by an in e g oup powe con lic , i becomes wha is
called poli icised iden i y. The mo e people iden i y wi h a g oup, he mo e hey a e
inclined o p o es on behal o ha g oup (Reiche , 1996). Acco ding o his
amewo k, he sense o iden i ica ion should be p esen among he pa icipan s o
Spain and he UK, al hough in he o me , gi en he poli ical si ua ion is wo se and
as hey may eel mo e agg ie ed by he ou -g oup, hey po en ially would be
showing mo e iden i ica ion (H2e). In he case o mobilisa ion his o y, being a
egula implies ha ing been in p e ious si ua ions whe e hey sha ed expe iences
wi h o he pa icipan s, so his iden i ica ion should be s onge among egula s,
al hough ce ainly no absen in occasionals (H2 ).
I we base ou ideas on he p ecep s abo e, he p incipal objec i es o he
in es iga ion a e as ollows. Fi s , we shall examine whe he he e a e di e ences
be ween he di e en mo i a ions o pa icipa ion in Occupy pa icipan s in Spain
and he UK. I is expec ed ha he mo i es will di e in in ensi y be ween bo h
coun ies. Second, we shall examine whe he he e a e di e ences in he mo i es
o pa icipa ion be ween occasionals and egula s. I is expec ed ha egula s will
sco e mo e highly in mo i es de e mining pa icipa ion in collec i e ac ion. Thi d,
we shall y o asce ain whe he he in e ac ion be ween he loca ion and
mobilisa ion his o y p oduces changes in he mo i a ions o hese p o es e s o
pa icipa e. I is expec ed ha he e will be s onge mo i es o pa icipa ion among
egula s, especially in Spain, and ha hei pe cep ions o he poli ical con ex will
ha e been a ec ed, gi en ha hey a e expe iencing a wo se economic scena io.
Me hod
Pa icipan s and p ocedu e
Ou da a on pa icipan s in p o es s sel -s yled by he mo emen as Occupy we e
collec ed in Spain and he UK in 2011, ollowing he me hodology sugges ed by
he collabo a i e Eu opean esea ch p ojec Caugh in he Ac o P o es :
Con ex ualising Con es a ion. Fo u he in o ma ion we ecommend an
S ekelenbu g, Walg a e, Klande mans, & Ve lhus (2012).
Responden s comple ed ques ionnai es―so-called p o es -su eys―dis ibu ed
du ing he demons a ion (n=500-1000)― o be e u ned o he uni e si y using p e-
s amped en elopes. The esponse a e o he demons a ions luc ua ed be ween
25 and 35 pe cen . All ques ionnai es and p ocedu es a e s anda dised. In o de
o con ol o esponse biases we also conduc ed sho (2-3 minu es) in e iews
Gomez-Roman ● Occupy and Indignados mo emen
36
wi h a subsample o he esponden s (n=100-200) comp ising ques ions iden ical o
hose in he p in ed ques ionnai e. By compa ing he ace- o- ace in e iewees
esponse o he iden ical ques ions in he e u ned ques ionnai es we can es ima e
he esponse bias. On a e age, somewha olde and mo e highly educa ed
demons a o s we e mo e likely o e u n he ques ionnai e. This non- esponse did
no esul in biased indings.
As o he sampling o pa icipan s, we designed a sampling s a egy such ha
each pa icipan had he same likelihood o being selec ed. Demons a ions we e
co e ed by a eam consis ing o 3-4 poin e s, and 12-15 in e iewe s. Each poin e
had a eam o 4-5 in e iewe s. The poin e s selec ed he in e iewees, while
in e iewe s conduc ed he in e iews and handed ou ques ionnai es. Sepa a ing
hese wo oles appea ed o be c ucial in p e en ing sampling biases (Walg a e &
Ve huls , 2011). As in e iewe s end o selec people hey belie e o be willing o
coope a e, hey o en end up p oducing biased samples. In e iew eams s a ed a
di e en poin s o he p ocession and wo ked owa ds each o he , app oaching
e e y n- h pe son in e e y n- h ow. The esul was samples we belie e o be
ep esen a i e o he demons a o s p esen .
Ou inal sample consis s o 175 pa icipan s: 122 in Spain (55.8 pe cen male wi h
a mean age o 40, SD=14.23); and 53 in he UK (61.5 pe cen male wi h a mean
age o 40, SD=15.31). The e we e no di e ences among pa icipan s in e ms o
socio-economic class o educa ional le el.
Design
In his s udy we p opose a 2x2 ac o ial design (coun y whe e he p o es was
held: Spain s. The UK; and pa icipan p o ile: occasional s. egula s).
Ins umen s
The pa icipan s esponded o a ques ionnai e, which included he ollowing
a iables:
Independen a iables
Place o demons a ion: The UK o Spain
Occasional s. Regula : We sepa a ed pa icipan s by aking in o accoun hei
equency o pa icipa ion. They we e o answe he ollowing ques ions: “How
many imes ha e you aken pa in a demons a ion in he pas ? E e ?” and “In he
pas wel e mon hs?” The e we e 5 possible answe s: “Ne e ”, “1 o 5”, “6 o 10”,
“11 o 20” and “mo e han 20 imes”. Occasional a e hose ones who answe ed 1-5
in he i em “e e ” and ne e o 1-5 in “ he pas 12 mon hs”. Regula s a e hose who
answe ed mo e han 21 “e e ” and mo e han 6 “in he pas 12 mon hs”.
Dependen a iables
Mos ques ions we e se ou on a Like scale wi h 5 possible answe s anging om
1 (no a all) o 5 ( e y much). Those cases whe e a di e en measu e was used
a e indica ed.
Ange . This was measu ed wi h he ques ion, “To wha ex en do you eel ange
when you conside he cu en economic c isis?”
E icacy. This was measu ed om he ollowing s a emen s: “O ganized g oups o
ci izens can ha e a lo o impac on public policies in his coun y” and “I ci izens
om di e en coun ies join o ces, hey can ha e a lo o impac on in e na ional
poli ics.” (α = .71)
Collec i e iden i y. This was measu ed wi h he ollowing ques ions: “To wha
ex en do you iden i y wi h he o he people p esen a he demons a ion?”, “To
Eu opean Jou nal o Go e nmen and Economics 5(1)
37
wha ex en do you iden i y wi h any o ganisa ion s aging he demons a ion?” (α =
.58)
Sa is ac ion wi h democ acy. The pa icipan s had o answe he ques ion, “In
gene al, how sa is ied o dissa is ied a e you wi h he unc ioning o democ acy in
you coun y?” whe e 0 was no a all sa is ied and 10 was e y sa is ied.
Poli ical us . Pa icipan s we e gi en a lis o ins i u ions (Na ional go e nmen ,
Na ional pa liamen , Poli ical pa ies, T ade Unions, Judicial sys em and Eu opean
Union) and we e asked o indica e how much us hey had in hem. (α = .81)
Le / igh placemen : The pa icipan s had o answe he ques ion, “In poli ics
people some imes alk o ‘le ’ and ‘ igh ’. Whe e would you place you sel on his
scale, whe e 0 means he le and 10 means he igh ?”
Poli ical alues: We asked pa icipan s o wha ex en hey ag ee o disag ee wi h
he ollowing s a emen s; o he economic le - igh alues we used he ollowing:
“Go e nmen should edis ibu e income om he be e o o hose who a e less
well o ”, “E en he mos impo an public se ices and indus ies a e bes le o
p i a e en e p ise” ( e e sed coded). (α =.54). Au ho i a ian/libe a ian alues we e
measu ed wi h he i ems: “Child en should be augh o obey au ho i y” ( e e se
coded), and “People om o he coun ies should be allowed o come o my coun y
and li e he e pe manen ly i hey wan o.” (α =.53).
Resul s
Fi s , we p esen da a showing he dis ibu ion o occasionals and egula s in bo h
coun ies (Table I). Second, we p esen he MANOVA wi h coun y o
demons a ion (Spain s. he UK) and mobilisa ion his o y (occasional s. egula s)
as ixed ac o s; and ange , e icacy, iden i y, and pe cep ion o poli ical con ex as
dependen a iables (Table II).
Table I. Dis ibu ion o esponden s acco ding o hei mobilisa ion his o y and
coun y
As expec ed, Occupy demons a ions a ac mo e occasionals (54.9 pe cen ) and
ewe egula s (45.1 pe cen ), in bo h coun ies. These da a a e ele an because
hey show how new o ganisa ions can se e o channel discon en in imes o
economic c isis and poli ical disa ec ion, mobilising a g ea numbe o spo adic
pa icipan s.
The high numbe o egula p o es e s epo ed in he Spanish case compa ed o
he B i ish da a mus be also no ed (47.5 s. 39.6 pe cen ). This is ela ed o he
high numbe o p o es s aking place in Spain e e y yea (Jiménez, 2011) and he
high numbe o people who acknowledge o pa icipa ing equen ly in
demons a ions (ESS, 2012), con i ming once again ha p o es is one o he mos
ep esen a i e o ms o collec i e ac ion in Spain.
Al hough we do no ha e la ge numbe s and he sample is unbalanced, we mus
highligh he ele ance o hese da a, especially in Spain’s Occupy, he i s
demons a ion o he mo emen , and as such ou s a e unique da a.
Spain UK To al
Occasional 64 (52.5%) 32 (60.4%) 96 (54.9%)
Regula 58(47.5%) 21 (39.6%) 79 (45.1%)
To al 122 53 175
Gomez-Roman ● Occupy and Indignados mo emen
44
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