Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
A ailable online 22 Ap il 2023
2352-409X/© 2023 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
A p edic i e model o Palaeoli hic si es: A case s udy o Mon o e de Lemos
basin, NW Ibe ian Peninsula
Mikel Díaz-Rod íguez
a
,
b
,
c
,
d
,
*
, Ram´
on F´
ab egas-Valca ce
a
,
d
, Augus o P´
e ez-Albe i
e
a
G upo de Es udos pa a a P ehis o ia do No oes e Ib´
e ico, A queoloxía, An igüidade e Te i o io (GEPN-AAT), Dp o. de His o ia, Uni e sidade de San iago de
Compos ela, P aza da Uni e sidade, n◦1, 15782 San iago de Compos ela, Spain
b
Depa men o A chaeology and He i age S udies. Aa hus Uni e si y, Moesgå d All´
e 20, 8270 Højbje g, Denma k
c
BIOCHANGE – Cen e o Biodi e si y Dynamics in a Changing Wo ld, Aa hus Uni e si y, Aa hus, Denma k
d
CISPAC – Cen o de In es igaci´
on In e uni e si a io das Paisaxes A l´
an icas, Edi icio Fon ´
an, Cidade da Cul u a de Galicia, Mon e Gai´
as, s/n, 15707 San iago de
Compos ela, Spain
e
Depa amen o de Eda oloxía e Química Ag ícola. Facul ade de Bioloxía, Uni e sidade de San iago Compos ela, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
P edic i e model
Palaeoli hic
Se lemen Pa e ns
Spa ial analysis
Ibe ian Peninsula
Eu ope
ABSTRACT
Al hough a heo e ical model o he se lemen pa e ns o Galician Palaeoli hic has been p oposed in he las
decades, i has no been s a is ically es ed. The p esen pape aims o check whe he his p e ious heo e ical
model can be e i ied s a is ically. Fo his pu pose, a me hodology based on he c ea ion o a p edic i e model
has been used in which he main en i onmen al a iables we e analysed and hei sui abili y o p edic ing he
loca ion o Palaeoli hic si es s a is ically e i ied. The p edic i e model shows ha he mos accu a e a iables
a e ele a ion, slope, cos o po en ial hyd ology, he cos o we land a eas, and isual p ominence. The esul s
demons a ed ha he heo e ical model was ul illed in some o he a iables p e iously p oposed. Thus, we
ha e shown he use ulness o his app oach o es hypo heses and he esul s ob ained open new possibili ies o
analysis in he s udy o he Palaeoli hic si es in NW Ibe ia.
1. In oduc ion
The s udy o se lemen pa e ns p o ides a la ge amoun o in o -
ma ion o unde s and pas socie ies and i has gene a ed conside able
in e es in ecen yea s. Cu en ly, some app oxima ions allow us o
econs uc pas e i o ies and analyse en i onmen al a iables ha
could be de e mining he se lemen pa e ns in hun e -ga he e soci-
e ies du ing he Palaeoli hic pe iod (e.g. Tu e o e al., 2013; Bu ke
e al., 2014; 2017; 2021b; Ga cía Mo eno and Fano Ma ínez, 2014;
Ludwig e al., 2018; W en and Bu ke, 2019). This s udy is based on he
econs uc ion o pas socie ies based on he analysis o hose en i on-
men al a iables ha could de e mine he choice o places o occupa ion
o hun e -ga he e socie ies du ing he Palaeoli hic pe iod. Fo his,
he e a e a se ies o ools such as Geog aphic In o ma ion Sys ems (GIS)
and spa ial s a is ics, he combina ion o which acili a es he c ea ion o
a p edic i e model, he e o e allowing he analysis and quan i ica ion o
di e en a iables ela ed o he choice o a speci ic loca ion by he
socie ies o he pas . Howe e , his ype o app oach based on spa ial
analysis is p ac ically non-exis en in he No hwes o he Ibe ian
Peninsula (de Lombe a He mida e al., 2015; Díaz Rod íguez, 2017; Díaz
Rod íguez and Ca e o Pazos, 2019; Díaz-Rod íguez e al., 2021; Díaz-
Rod íguez and F´
ab egas-Valca ce, 2022), excep o some app oxima-
ions applied o o he ch onologies and based on he applica ion o
loca ional pa e ns, quan i a i e modelling and p edic i e modelling
(Llobe a, 2015; Rod íguez Rell´
an and F´
ab egas Valca ce, 2015; Ca e o-
Pazos, 2018; Rod íguez-Rell´
an and F´
ab egas Valca ce, 2019; Ca e o-
Pazos e al., 2020).
The main objec i e o his pape is o s udy he se lemen pa e ns o
he Palaeoli hic si es om he Mon o e de Lemos basin (NW Ibe ia). We
ha e decided o choose his zone because i is an a ea ha has been
in ensi ely s udied in he las wo decades and i is one o he dis ic s
wi h he highes densi y o a chaeological si es o his ch onology in ha
pa o Ibe ia. As men ioned abo e, he e a e some p e ious app oaches
based on he applica ion o GIS, bu a s udy based on he applica ion o
p edic i e modelling has ne e been ca ied ou in his egion. We
belie e ha i is a good oppo uni y o apply his me hodology since i
* Co esponding au ho a : Facul ade de Xeog a ía e His o ia, Dp o. de His o ia, Uni e sidade de San iago de Compos ela, P aza da Uni e sidade, n
◦1, 15782
San iago de Compos ela, Spain.
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (M. Díaz-Rod íguez).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/jas ep
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.jas ep.2023.104012
Recei ed 7 No embe 2022; Recei ed in e ised o m 7 Ap il 2023; Accep ed 12 Ap il 2023
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
2
can p o ide ele an esul s. In he p esen wo k we hope o be able o
iden i y some o he p edic i e a iables o he occupa ion o hese si es.
Howe e , i is e y likely ha he esul ing a iables do no ma ch he
p edic i e a iables iden i ied in o he egions, since each a ea has i s
own cha ac e is ics shaping he pa e ns o occupa ion. In his case we
ha e an inland basin as opposed o a coas al a ea (Ga cía Mo eno, 2013;
Ga a e e al., 2020; Pa ow-Souchon e al., 2021), in a moun ainous e-
gion (Leloch e al., 2022). Also, o he s udies ca ied ou on a la ge scale
Fig. 1. (a) Loca ion o he egion s udied (in ed). (b) S udy a ea wi h he a chaeological si es ( ed do s) (c) Geomo phological and geological su ace o he s udy
a ea (modi ied om de Lombe a He mida e al., 2015). (d) Longi udinal p o ile o he Mon o e de Lemos basin (modi ied om de Lombe a He mida e al., 2015).
(Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colou in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he web e sion o his a icle.)
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
3
a e bound o yield di e en esul s (Bu ke e al., 2017; 2021a; W en and
Bu ke, 2019; Jochim, 2022). In o he wo ds, in coas al a eas he al i ude
o he a chaeological si es will be lowe han in he Mon o e de Lemos
basin; a chaeological si es, mo eo e , will be nea e o he sho e and o
he hyd ological esou ces (Ga cía Mo eno, 2010).
In he p esen s udy, se lemen pa e ns a e analysed based on he
c ea ion o a p edic i e model. Tha model has been ob ained using he
di e en a iables ha had been p e iously p oposed o he heo e ical
model es ablished by di e en esea che s. P edic i e modelling can be
de ined as a echnique ha o esees he loca ion o a chaeological si es
in a egion (Khole and Pa ke , 1986). A basic p emise o p edic i e
modelling is ha human spa ial beha iou is o a la ge ex en p edic -
able (Ve hagen, 2018). Fo his eason, we belie e ha i is possible o
iden i y hose en i onmen al a iables ha could be behind he decision
o hun e -ga he e socie ies when choosing a gi en loca ion o se le-
men in ha egion. We hink ha some a iables, p e iously es ab-
lished in he heo e ical model, would be impo an when choosing he
place o se lemen . Iden i ying hese a iables allows us o unde s and
he hun e -ga he e ways o in e ac ing wi h he e i o y.
2. Regional se ing
The s udy a ea analysed in his pape is he Mon o e de Lemos basin,
which is loca ed sou h o he p o ince o Lugo (Galicia, Spain) in he
No hwes o he Ibe ian Peninsula (Fig. 1a). This a ea is placed eas o
he Mi˜
no i e and no h o i s main ibu a y, he Sil i e (Fig. 1b) and
be ween wo a eas wi h high al i ude, how a e he Chan ada’s Su ace a
he wes (600 m.a.s.l.) and O Cou el Moun ain Range a he eas (1600
m.a.s.l.). Ano he impo an i e cou se o he basin is he Cabe Ri e ,
he main lu ial cou se o he basin. In he Mon o e de Lemos basin he
ansi ion o endo heic o exo eic d ainage and he de elopmen o
anscon inen al d ainage o he A lan ic Ocean is simila o he one
p oposed o he genesis o he Dou o and he Tejo/Tajo (Tagus) i e s,
in ol ing as main mechanism an o e spill induced by a majo clima ic
change o inc easing humidi y by middle Pliocene (Cunha and P´
e ez-
Albe i, 2022).
The su ace o he basin co esponds o he whole o he council o
Mon o e and o pa o hose ha bo de i , such as O Sa i˜
nao, Pan ´
on,
Sobe , Pob a do B oll´
on and B´
o eda. The Sil and ibu a ies mainly un
c oss he basin a ea, which mainly consis s o Palaeozoic me amo phic
ocks wi h mino g ani es, ha a e in ensely aul ed wi h WNW-ESE
di ec ion. A e an episode o neo ec onics and a subsequen lu ial
eo ganiza ion, Pleis ocene sedimen s linked o paleochannels, and al-
lu ial ans co e ed he ma gins o sil s and e ia y clays in a lake
en i onmen . These qua e na y deposi s, a anged in a sequence o la
su aces, a e iden i ied as lu ial e aces, glacis, and pedimen s
(Ameijenda Iglesias, 2011).
The Mon o e de Lemos basin p esen s ce ain peculia i ies ha
make i impossible o econs uc a ela i e sequence o opog aphic
le els ha p o ides a e e en ial amewo k o he li hic assemblages
loca ed on i s su aces, as has been ob ained in some o he main lu ial
basins o he Ibe ian Peninsula (San onja and P´
e ez-Gonz´
alez,
2000–2001; Cano e al., 1997). One o he p oblems is he spa se cha -
ac e o he Qua e na y lu ial e ace le els (Middle Cabe), ha a e
asymme ically dis ibu ed in he alley, being concen a ed in he
no he n sec o (Fig. 1d). Ano he p oblem consis s o he la ge ex en-
sion o p e-Qua e na y su aces ha makes i possible o se e al li hic
dispe sions asc ibed o di e en echnological Modes o be ound on he
same su ace. Finally, he e is also an impo an incidence o he
mo phogene ic p ocesses in he deposi s o he Mon o e de Lemos basin
(Ameijenda Iglesias e al., 2010).
In some p e ious s udies, a p elimina y sequence o di e en le els
o e osion was es ablished ha b ough oge he he su aces o he
Mon o e basin (Ameijenda Iglesias, 2011). A geomo phological anal-
ysis has also been ca ied ou , which has allowed he iden i ica ion o he
di e en geomo phological uni s o he basin in g ea e de ail (de
Lombe a He mida e al., 2015). These wo ks ha e allowed us o e i y
ha he opening o he basin b ough wi h i he p og essi e disa icu-
la ion o he exis ing lu ial ne wo k in ela ion o a pos -alpine ec onic
eac i a ion and linked o he exis ence o opical clima ic condi ions.
The Mi˜
no and Sil i e s we e “expelled” o he wes (Mi˜
no) and sou h
(Sil) p og essi ely i ing in o he e ain a ou ed by an eceden p o-
cesses (P´
e ez Albe i e al., 1993). The esul o he in e ac ion be ween
ec onic dynamics and he p og essi e change in lu ial dynamics has
esul ed in a se o s agge ed le els in he e i o y (Fig. 1c). Among
hem, due o hei a chaeological impo ance, we mus highligh he
le els associa ed wi h Paleo Mi˜
no, he wa e s ha lowed h ough whe e
he basin is oday du ing a phase p io o he embedding o he Mi˜
no-Sil
sys em, and on he o he hand, he Cabe Ri e , ha would d ain he
basin la e .
The ecen s udies had make possible he iden i ica ion o se e al
e olu iona y s ages in he basin a ea (Cunha and P´
e ez-Albe i, 2022):
(1) Du ing he Paleogene and Miocene, endo heic sedimen a ion
occu ed. (2) Du ing he la emos Miocene o Zanclean, p obably ca. 9.7
o 3.7 Ma, he climax o li hosphe e comp ession c ea ed mos o he
mode n elie ; sedimen a ion only occu ed locally a piedmon s, as
he e ome ic allu ial ans. (3) The ansi ion o endo heic o exo heic
d ainage o he A lan ic Ocean could be simila o he one p oposed o
he genesis o he Dou o and he Tejo/Tajo (Tagus) i e s, in ol ing as
main mechanism an o e spill induced by a majo clima ic change o
inc easing humidi y by middle Pliocene. 4) P obably du ing he las 1.8
Ma, he s age o lu ial incision has been esponsible o he de elop-
men o e ace s ai cases, alley en enchmen and cap u es.
The ela ionship o he si es wi h he di e en geomo phological
su aces o he basin allows us o obse e ha a la ge numbe o
a chaeological emains a e ound mainly on he allu ial ans iden i ied
in he sou h o he basin (n =19), on Palaeozoic o Te ia y subs a a
wi h li le de elopmen o he Qua e na y land ills (n =34), he lu ial/
allu ial su aces o he Paleo Mi˜
no (n =12), he lu ial o ma ions
ela ed o he Middle sec ion o he Cabe Ri e (n =6) and a ew a e
loca ed in he cu en allu ial plain (n =5).
The i s Palaeoli hic e e ence o he Mon o e basin was a qua zi e
handaxe ound in he middle XX cen u y a Vilaescu a (Cano Pan and
V´
azquez Va ela, 1991). The sys ema ic in es iga ion o his a ea began
in 2006 in he ame o wo conca ena ed esea ch p ojec s ha we e
ca ied ou and de eloped be ween 2006 and 2010, making possible he
loca ion o mo e han a hund ed a chaeological si es asc ibed o he
Palaeoli hic and e ealing a long human occupa ion du ing ha pe iod
in his egion (de Lombe a He mida e al., 2008, 2006; F´
ab egas Val-
ca ce e al., 2010, 2009, 2008, 2007; Rod íguez ´
Al a ez e al., 2008).
Along he su ey campaigns, a o al o 16 km
2
was e iewed, ep e-
sen ing 9.14 % o he o al ex ension o he Mon o e de Lemos basin
(Fig. 1b), a common co e age when su eying la ge egions (Díez
Ma ín, 2000). Th ough Landsa images i has been obse ed ha a
dense ege a ion co e o o es accoun s o 37.23 % o he su ace,
pas u e a eas ep esen 29.4 %, while open land o land dedica ed o
ag icul u e accoun s o 6.4 % and i is on he la e ha he wo ks ha e
ocused (Mille e al., 2010). Along wi h he su eying, a chaeological
exca a ions we e unde aken a some si es (de Lombe a-He mida e al.,
2011; Rod íguez ´
Al a ez e al., 2014).
A e he disco e y o li hic ma e ials in he a ea, wo esea ch
p ojec s we e p oposed, as men ioned abo e. Du ing he execu ion o
bo h p ojec s, some 104 a chaeological si es om he Palaeoli hic pe iod
we e disco e ed.
In he s udy a ea, he e a e ew wo ks amed in he Palaeoli hic and
ca ied ou om spa ial analysis and GIS. We can highligh a pape ha
discusses la ge-scale e i o ial mobili y and a emp s o de ine he
ou es o en y o he No hwes o he Ibe ian Peninsula (de Lombe a-
He mida e al., 2011). O he a icles analyse isola ed a iables such as
isibili y o mobili y in he Val e de si e, amed in he Uppe Palae-
oli hic (Rod íguez ´
Al a ez e al., 2008; de Lombe a He mida e al.,
2012). Ano he wo k has been ca ied ou ha deals wi h he analysis o
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
4
se lemen pa e ns h ough he s udy o a iables such as isibili y,
al i ude, aspec , slope, p oximi y o i e cou ses and leas -cos pa hs (de
Lombe a He mida e al., 2015). I is a p elimina y s udy based on he
desc ip i e analysis o he men ioned a iables, wi hou applying ana-
lyses based on spa ial s a is ics ha could p o ide mo e accu a e and
p ecise in o ma ion. Finally, a s udy analysing he occupa ion pa e ns
o Lowe Palaeoli hic si es in he Mon o e de Lemos basin h ough he
applica ion o desc ip i e s a is ical me hods was ca ied ou (Díaz
Rod íguez e al., 2021).
3. Ma e ial and me hods
3.1. Da a acquisi ion and so wa e
In he p esen s udy we made use o he in o ma ion and da a ob-
ained om he wo esea ch p ojec s p e iously men ioned. We ha e
no es ablished a ch onological di e en ia ion among he a chaeological
si es, and we ha e decided o c ea e a single model ha encompasses
hem all. We lack ch onological da a since we ha e a educed numbe o
si es and ha p e en s a s a is ical ea men o a minimum quali y.
Du ing he execu ion o hese p ojec s and wi h he objec i e o iden i-
ying and documen ing a chaeological si es du ing he su ey, he s udy
a ea was di ided in o ou heo e ically de ined sec o s, conside ing
hei geomo phological cha ac e is ics: he no he n sec o (whe e he
main Plio-qua e na y o ma ions a e concen a ed), he eas e n and
sou he n sec o s (in which he allu ial ans a e ound) and inally he
cen al sec o o he sub-basin. The la e could no be ho oughly su -
eyed because he p esen u ban nucleus o Mon o e de Lemos is
loca ed he e. The cons uc ions o his nucleus p e en ed he e iew o
la ge a eas o land likely o con ain ma e ial emains. Bu despi e his,
some inds o li hic ma e ial we e epo ed du ing building wo ks and
p obably many o he s ha e been des oyed in ha way (de Lombe a
He mida e al., 2015).
The a chaeological su eys we e ca ied ou in se e al campaigns
om 2006 o 2010. These ocused on a able land and land clea ance
a eas whe e soil isibili y was good. These asks we e nea ly impossible
o unde ake in densely ege a ed a eas ha , alas, make up a la ge pa
o he basin.
The su ey asks we e ca ied ou by g oups o be ween 5 and 9
people who inspec ed land plo s smalle han 1 ha, wi h su eyo s
keeping a dis ance o 3–7 m om each o he , walking along ansec s. In
he la ge plo s, he sepa a ion be ween ansec s was less han 15 m.
The plo was used as a egis a ion uni , iden i ying in i he numbe o
a e ac s. The cadas al egis y was used o calcula e he ex ension o
he plo s and geo e e encing hem on he su eying maps. The
coo dina es we e aken a he cen e poin o he dispe sions using a
T imble GEO Explo e 2005 (GeoXT) GPS wi h subme e p ecision. In
addi ion o he su eys, a chaeological exca a ions we e ca ied ou in
hose places whe e he densi y o a e ac s could indica e he exis ence
o si es in which he s a ig aphic con ex was p ese ed (de Lombe a
He mida e al., 2015).
The o al numbe o a e ac s eco e ed in he Mon o e de Lemos
si es amoun s o 3522, al hough a la ge pa o hem come om he
Val e de exca a ions (n =2037, objec s eco e ed in exca a ion)
(Fig. 2a). The dis ibu ion o he numbe o a e ac s pe si e can be
obse ed in he Fig. 2b. The e is g ea homogenei y in e ms o he
echnological and olling cha ac e is ics o he eco e ed li hic pieces.
Al hough mo e han 100 si es we e loca ed, in his s udy, we will only
use 76. These a e hose a chaeological si es o which we ha e mo e
accu a e in o ma ion based on he s a ig aphic posi ion o he pieces a
he ime o collec ion o he bea ing le el o he li hic indus y. In some
cases, we decided o exclude some poin s because hese a e e y close o
each o he ; o he wise, hey would cause an o e ep esen a ion wi hin
he sample, since he e would be wo si es in he same cell o he as e
map. Fo hese easons, we ha e included si es ha mee he c i e ia
men ioned abo e and his includes some isola ed indings conside ed.
Based on he mo pho- echnical analysis o he li hic assemblages, 21
si es we e assigned o Mode 2, 17 o Mode 3, 9 o Mode 4 and 29 p esen
sca ce and non-diagnos ic li hic assemblages (de ined as inde e mina e),
many o hem co espond o isola ed indings (1–4 a e ac s) and e y
dispe sed (F´
ab egas Valca ce e al., 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011;
Rod íguez ´
Al a ez e al., 2008; Rod íguez ´
Al a ez e al., 2014; de
Lombe a-He mida e al., 2011; de Lombe a He mida e al., 2012).
The ea men o spa ial da a has been ca ied ou wi h di e en
so wa e ha allows GIS analysis. The coo dina e sys em used is EPSG:
25,829 (ETRS89 / UTM zone 29 N). GRASS GIS has been used in e sions
6.4.3, 7.0.2 and 7.0.4 (G ass De elopmen Team, 2020). Quan um GIS
( e sions 2.8.1 and 2.10.1) (QGIS.o g, 2021) and SAGA GIS ( e sion
2.2.1) (Con ad e al., 2015) ha e also been used. The la es GIS so wa e
used has been A cGIS 10.3 (USC license) (Es i, 2011). I is he only one
ha does no sha e he GNU-GPI license. Finally, o ca y ou he
di e en analy ical app oaches, R e sion 4.0.5 was used, wi h he R
S udio g aphical in e ace (R Co e Team, 2021) and he packages
equi ed o un he analysis (Table 1).
The Digi al Ele a ion Model (DEM) has been used as a base map o
elabo a e he di e en loca ional a iables analysed in his pape . This
DEM has been ob ained om he Na ional Cen e o Geog aphic In-
o ma ion (CNIG) and has a esolu ion o 25 m. I is ca og aphy ha
collec s he in o ma ion ob ained om he pho og amme ic and LiDAR
ligh s o he Na ional Plan o Ae ial O hopho og aphy (PNOA)
Fig. 2. (a) Violin plo ha shows he numbe o a e ac s pe si e ( ed do s). (b) Violin plo ha shows he numbe o a e ac s pe si e ( ed do s) excep o Val e de
si e. (Fo in e p e a ion o he e e ences o colou in his igu e legend, he eade is e e ed o he web e sion o his a icle.)
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
5
(h ps://cen odedesca gas.cnig.es/Cen oDesca gas/index.jsp). Also,
he Geologic Map has been used and ob ained om he Spanish Go -
e nmen ’s online eposi o y (L´
opez Olmedo e al., 2022).
3.2. Spa ial dis ibu ion o si es
The i s s ep in ca ying ou he spa ial analysis o he a chaeological
si es o he Mon o e de Lemos basin consis ed o checking whe he
Comple e Spa ial Randomness (CSR) exis s. Fo his, a sample o andom
poin s was c ea ed, wi h he same numbe o poin s as he a chaeolog-
ical sample, wi h he objec i e o compa e bo h samples. The nex s ep
was o obse e whe he he dis ibu ion o bo h da a se s belongs o he
same popula ion o no , which would indica e ha he e a e no di e -
ences be ween he wo samples and he e o e we could no ejec he
CSR. Fo his, we ha e chosen he a iable UTM X, co esponding o he
x-coo dina e o each poin , and we ha e compa ed i be ween bo h
samples. The Shapi o-Wilk es was used o es no mali y, and he
Kolmogo o -Smi no (K-S) es was used o check i bo h samples belong
o he same popula ion. Simila ly, Ripley’s K unc ions and hei L and G
a ian s we e used (Bi and e al., 2013). The homogeneous and inho-
mogeneous K, L and G unc ions we e calcula ed (Baddeley e al., 2015)
using a con idence in e al based on Mon e Ca lo simula ions (n =99).
3.3. De ini ion o co a ia es
In ending o elabo a e he s a is ical analysis, we ha e selec ed some
co a ia es o es ablish he heo e ical model based on p e ious wo ks
ca ied ou in he s udy a ea and o he simila a eas. In he nex lines, we
will de ine he co a ia es used (Table 2 and Fig. 3). The p ocess o
ob aining each co a ia e is explained in g ea e de ail in he SI ile.
Al i ude (ALT) can be de ined as he ele a ion calcula ed based on
some e e ence da um. Usually, i is he sea le el (i i e e s o he
Table 1
Syn hesis o R packages used, au ho s and applica ion de ails.
Package
Au ho /s Applica ion De ails
dismo Hijmans e al.,
(2017)
Me hods o species dis ibu ion modelling.
geos a sp B own, (2015) Geos a is ical Modelling wi h Likelihood and
Bayes.
GGally Schloe ke e al.,
(2021)
This package is a plo ing sys em based on he
g amma o g aphics.
ggplo 2 Wickham e al.,
(2020)
Package o c ea ing g aphics.
maps Becke e al.,
(2021)
Display o maps.
map ools Bi and e al.
(2020a)
Se o ools o manipula ing geog aphic da a.
MASS Ripley e al.,
(2020)
Func ions and da ase s o suppo Venables and
Ripley.
pa chwo k Pede sen, (2022) Package o combining mul iple plo s.
ply Wickham, (2020) Se o ools ha sol es p oblems ela es wi h
applying o combining da a.
as e Hijmans e al.,
(2020)
Reading, w i ing, manipula ing, analysing, and
modelling o spa ial da a.
eadxl Wickham e al.,
(2019a)
Package o ead excel iles.
gdal Bi and e al.
(2020b)
P o ides bindings o he “GDAL” and “PROJ”
lib a y.
geos Bi and e al.
(2020c)
Package o opology ope a ions on geome ies.
sp Pebesma e al.
(2020)
Classes and me hods o spa ial da a.
spa s a Baddeley e al.
(2020)
Toolbox o analysing Spa ial Poin Pa e ns.
idy e se Wickham e al.
(2019)
Da a ep esen a ions and API design.
ioplo Adle and Kelly
(2022)
This package allows ex ensi e cus omisa ion o
iolin plo s.
Table 2
Condi ioning ype, a iables, ac onym, desc ip ion and ID numbe .
Condi ioning
ype
Va iables Ac onym Desc ip ion ID
Numbe
Abio ic Al i ude ALT Ele a ion a a gi en
poin , in me e s,
abo e sea le el. I is
calcula ed om a
DEM.
1
Abio ic Topog aphic
P ominence
Index
TPI100 Calcula ion o he
TPI ha consis s o
compa ing he
ele a ion o each o
he cells o he DEM
wi h he a e age o
he su ounding
ele a ions.
Calcula ed o 100 m
adii.
15
Abio ic Topog aphic
P ominence
Index
TPI500 Calcula ion o he
TPI ha consis s o
compa ing he
ele a ion o each o
he cells o he DEM
wi h he a e age o
he su ounding
ele a ions.
Calcula ed o 500 m
adii.
16
Abio ic Topog aphic
P ominence
Index
TPI1000 Calcula ion o he
TPI ha consis s o
compa ing he
ele a ion o each o
he cells o he DEM
wi h he a e age o
he su ounding
ele a ions.
Calcula ed o 1000
m adii.
17
Abio ic Slope SLO Slope o he g ound
a a gi en poin . I is
calcula ed om he
DEM.
13
Abio ic Aspec ASP Aspec o he g ound
a a gi en poin . I is
calcula ed om he
DEM.
12
Abio ic Cos o
po en ial
hyd ology
HYDROC Dis ance, in ime, a a
gi en poin o he
po en ial hyd ology.
I is calcula ed om
he DEM.
5
Abio ic Euclidean
dis ance o
po en ial
hyd ology
HYDROE Dis ance, in me e s,
a a gi en poin o
he po en ial
hyd ology. I is
calcula ed om he
DEM.
8
Abio ic Cos o we land
a eas
WET Wa e accumula ion
in a conjoin o poin s.
I is measu ed in
displacemen cos
ime. I is calcula ed
om he DEM.
2
Abio ic Cos o
po en ial
geology
GEOLC Dis ance, in ime, a a
gi en poin o he
po en ial geology. I
is calcula ed om he
DEM.
4
Abio ic Euclidean
dis ance o
po en ial
geology
GEOLE Dis ance, in me e s,
a a gi en poin o
he po en ial
geology. I is
calcula ed om he
DEM.
7
(con inued on nex page)
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
6
absolu e al i ude) o , o example, he bo om o a alley (i i is ela i e
al i ude). This co a ia e is men ioned in he speci ic bibliog aphy since
i is belie ed ha a chaeological si es a e loca ed a high poin s o he
landscape (de Lombe a He mida e al., 2015; F´
ab egas Valca ce e al.,
2010; Ramil Rego, 1989/1990, p. 194).
Palaeoli hic si es ha e been conside ed landma ks in he landscape.
We would be acing e e ence poin s ha would s and ou om he
su ounding e ain and would be isible o obse able om a ce ain
dis ance (F´
ab egas Valca ce and de Lombe a He mida, 2010). To model
his co a ia e, he opog aphic p ominence has been calcula ed, which
can be ob ained using di e en me hodological app oaches. In his case,
we use he Topog aphic P ominence Index (TPI). Following he ec-
ommenda ions o specialized esea che s (Nakoinz and Kni e , 2016)
and ou p e ious expe ience (Díaz Rod íguez and Ca e o Pazos, 2019),
he TPI was calcula ed o 3 di e en adii (100, 500 and 1000 m)
(TPI100, TPI500 and TPI1000).
The slope (SLO) can be de ined as he maximum deg ee o ele a ion
a ia ion a a gi en posi ion. I is ob ained om he DEM. This is a co-
a ia e ha has been aken in o accoun in some p e ious wo ks on he
Galician Palaeoli hic (de Lombe a He mida e al., 2015, p. 280) o o he
Ibe ian egions like he Can ab ian (Ga cía Mo eno, 2010), As u ian
(Fe n´
andez Fe n´
andez, 2010) and in he Sie a de A apue ca (Ma cos
S´
aiz, 2006).
Aspec (ASP) has been de ined as an impo an co a ia e o ind he
loca ion o a chaeological si es (de Lombe a He mida e al., 2015, p.
289). In some s udies, i has been desc ibed ha he majo i y o si es a e
o ien ed owa d he second and hi d quad an s (Ramil Rego and Ramil
Sonei a, 1996). This co a ia e has been ob ained om he DEM.
The ela ion be ween he palaeoli hic si es and he i e cou ses has
been de ended in p e ious s udies (F´
ab egas Valca ce and de Lombe a
He mida, 2010; Ramil Rego, 1989/1990, p. 193; Villa Quin ei o,
1996). The cu en ly hyd ological map p esen s ac ualisms because o
human an h opiza ion and he passage o ime in he landscape. To
achie e a mo e app oxima e image o wha exis ed in he pas , we ha e
decided o c ea e ou hyd og aphic ne wo k based on he DEM and use a
me hodology ha has been applied in p e ious wo ks (Ga cía Ga cía,
2015). The p oximi y o he si es o he po en ial hyd ology was calcu-
la ed om all he poin s o he s udy a ea o he close wa e cou se. I has
been measu ed in he dis ance (HYDROE) and displacemen cos ime
(HYDROC).
Al hough, in p e ious s udies, i has been aken in o accoun he
p oximi y o we land a eas and he isual con ol o e hese a eas
(C iado Boado e al., 1991; L´
opez Co dei o, 2002; 2015; de Lombe a
He mida e al., 2015). The we land a eas could be de ined as he accu-
mula ion o wa e in a conjoin o poin s. Fo his, he SAGA GIS so wa e
has been used, and mo e speci ically he Topog aphic We ness Index
(TWI), which indica es he opog aphic humidi y index in each o he
cells o he map used. Once his map was ob ained and gi en ha we
we e in e es ed in hose a eas in which his humidi y index is highe , we
p oceeded o calcula e he qua iles. In his way, we a e le wi h he
cells o he map wi h alues abo e he hi d qua ile. On he o he hand,
we mus bea in mind ha he calcula ion o he TWI is going o a ibu e
a e y high alue o he cells in which a i e coincides, bu we a e no
in e es ed in hose cells since hey would be alsi ying he da a. So, we
sub ac ed he hyd ological map, p e iously c ea ed, om he TWI
polygon map. Thus, we manage o s ay wi h hose highe humidi y
alues in which he i e s a e no ound. Then, we calcula ed he
displacemen cos ime om e e y poin o he s udy a ea o he close
we land a eas di ided in o poin s (WET).
Fo he Palaeoli hic hun e -ga he e s, i was impo an o ha e aw
ma e ials such as qua zi e o qua z in he icini y. These esou ces
could be ob ained om i e cou ses, in he o m o pebbles loca ed on
i e beaches, o collec ing aw ma e ials om he eins. We ha e
de ined ha as po en ial geology which has been men ioned in p e ious
s udies (Ramil Rego, 1989/1990; Villa Quin ei o, 1996; L´
opez Co -
dei o, 2002; 2015; F´
ab egas Valca ce and de Lombe a He mida, 2010;
de Lombe a He mida e al., 2012). We also conside ed he po en ial
geology o ca y ou he analyses. Fo his pu pose, we ha e used he
da a ob ained om he Mining Geological Ins i u e (IGME). Those a eas
ha could con ain aw ma e ials o in e es o Palaeoli hic hun e -
ga he e s ha e been selec ed and di ided in o poin s a es ablished
adii. Subsequen ly, he cos o mo ing, in ime (GEOLC) and dis ance
(GEOLE), om he es o he cells in he s udy a ea o he closes po-
en ial geology poin s has been calcula ed.
Wi hin he bio ic condi ioning, we used he a iable cos o po en ial
hun ing a eas. We employed he Cen al Place Fo aging P ey Choice
(CPFPC). This model was p oposed by M. Cannon (2003) and is based on
he heo y o o aging. I was used by Ma ín A oyo o s udy he pa e ns
o mobili y and con ol o he e i o y in eas e n Can ab ian. Fo ha
pu pose, Cannon’s model was applied o dee hun ing and goa s as he
mos ep esen a i e species o he Magdalenian die (Ma ín A oyo,
2008; 2009). In he p esen s udy, we ha e used he po en ial a eas o
hun ing goa s and ob ained a co a ia e based on he cos , in ime, om
any poin o he s udy a ea o hese po en ial hun ing a eas (CPFPCG). In
o de o ind hese, we ha e calcula ed he 1.2-hou isoch ones om he
si es and we ha e used he slope map o selec , wi hin he isoch ones,
hose cells wi h slopes g ea e han 30◦.
O he condi ioning ypes ha e also been conside ed. One o hem is
isibili y, which has been con empla ed o de ine he occupa ion o
a chaeological si es in p e ious wo ks (L´
opez Co dei o, 2002; 2004;
2015; Rod íguez ´
Al a ez e al., 2008; F´
ab egas Valca ce and de Lombe a
He mida, 2010; de Lombe a-He mida e al. 2011; de Lombe a He mida
e al., 2015). In his case, we ha e used he analysis o isual p omi-
nence. This consis s o calcula ing he poin s isible om each o he
Table 2 (con inued)
Condi ioning
ype
Va iables Ac onym Desc ip ion ID
Numbe
Bio ic Cos o
po en ial goa
hun ing a eas
CPFPCG Dis ance, in ime, a a
gi en poin o he
po en ial goa
hun ing a eas. I is
calcula ed om he
DEM, based in slope
and CPFPC model.
3
O he Visual
P ominence
VISPR Visible numbe o
poin s, in each cell,
om any o he
poin s selec ed. I is
calcula ed om he
DEM.
14
O he Cos o Leas
cos pa h
LCPC Po en ial Leas cos
pa hs be ween gi en
poin s. I is
calcula ed om he
DEM and conside ing
he slope and
hyd ology.
6
O he Index o
po en ial di ec
insola ion
DIRINS Calcula ion o
po en ial incoming
di ec insola ion. I is
ob ained om he
DEM.
10
O he Index o
po en ial
di use
insola ion
DIFINS Calcula ion o
po en ial incoming
di use insola ion. I
is ob ained om he
DEM.
9
O he Index o
po en ial o al
insola ion
TOTINS Calcula ion o
po en ial incoming
o al insola ion. I is
ob ained om he
DEM.
11
O he Wind
Exposi ion
Index
WIND Calcula ion o Wind
Exposi ion Index. I
is ob ained om he
DEM.
18
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
7
gi en poin s. Fo his, an obse e heigh o 1.75 m has been used. Once
he calcula ion is done, a as e ile is ob ained whe e he cells ha e a
alue ha shows he numbe o cells isible om each cell (VISPR).
The calcula ion o po en ial leas cos pa hs (LCP) will be measu ed
as he ela ionship ha exis s be ween he si es and he mo emen
h ough he su ounding landscape. We could de ine i as he ansi
ou e gene a ed be ween wo poin s, depending on a ious ac o s and
co esponding o he lowe cos in ene gy o ime. The na u al ansi
ou es o he so-called oyal oads we e ea ed in he bibliog aphy.
Es ablishing hese ou es as one o he a iables ha ma k he pa e n o
loca ion o he Palaeoli hic si es in he Galician egion (Ramil Rego and
Ramil Sonei a, 1996, p. 125; F´
ab egas Valca ce and de Lombe a He -
mida, 2010, p. 267; de Lombe a He mida e al., 2015, p. 289; L´
opez
Co dei o, 2015, p. 301; Díaz Rod íguez, 2017). This consis s o ca ying
ou a calcula ion o ansi ou es in a speci ic a ea, wi hou conside ing
he a chaeological si es. Fo his, i is necessa y o ha e a s a ing and
a i al poin . In esponse o his, we we e inspi ed by a p e ious wo k
ha used a me hodology based on he calcula ion o op imal ou es
be ween all poin s o he landscape, called FETE (F om E e ywhe e o
E e ywhe e) (Whi e and Ba be , 2012). In his wo k, an analysis was
employed ha uses all he poin s o a g id as s a ing poin s and a he
same ime as a i al poin s, in such a way ha he calcula ion allows
ep esen ing he e i o y co e ing e e y hing and c ea ing he leas cos
pa h. Howe e , ha equi es compu e equipmen ha is powe ul
enough o un hose analyses. The e o e, we ha e decided o adap his
model ollowing he me hodology used in ano he s udy (Rod íguez
Rell´
an and F´
ab egas Valca ce, 2015). I is a simpli ica ion ha has been
p e iously desc ibed in mo e de ail (Díaz Rod íguez, 2017; Díaz-
Rod íguez e al., 2021), bu b ie ly, i consis s in di iding he bo de o
he s udy a ea in o poin s a a ce ain es ablished adius be ween hem
and calcula ing he LCP be ween hem using a poin as a s a ing poin
and he es as s opping poin s and epea ing he analysis wi h all he
poin s (LCPC).
In some p e ious s udies, i has been men ioned ha he a chaeo-
logical si es o he Galician Palaeoli hic could be loca ed on slopes acing
wes o be e ake ad an age o he calo i ic alue o he sun’s ays
(Ramil Rego and Ramil Sonei a, 1996, p. 125). In addi ion, i seems
logical o hink ha insola ion could ha e played an impo an ole in
he occupa ion o an a chaeological si e. Howe e , i has no been
openly conside ed in he bibliog aphy e e ing o his a ea, bu i has
Fig. 3. Co a ia es analysed in he p esen s udy. (a) ALT co a ia e. (b) TPI100 co a ia e. (c) TPI500 co a ia e. (d) TPI1000 co a ia e. (e) SLO co a ia e. ( ) ASP
co a ia e. (g) HYDROC co a ia e. (h) HYDROE co a ia e. (i) WET co a ia e. (j) GEOLC co a ia e. (k) GEOLE co a ia e. (l) CPFPCG co a ia e. (m) VISPR co a ia e.
(n) LCPC co a ia e. (o) DIRINS co a ia e. (p) DIFINS co a ia e. (q) TOTINS co a ia e. ( ) WIND co a ia e.
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
8
been conside ed in o he egions o he Ibe ian Peninsula. Some s udies
ha e analysed i s in luence when choosing a place o occupa ion, as
occu s in he a ea o he As´
on Ri e Valley, in Can ab ia (Ga cía Mo eno,
2008; 2015). In ou s udy, he insola ion has been ob ained om SAGA
GIS, h ough he Po en ial Incoming Sola Radia ion module (Con ad
e al., 2015) and calcula ed in h ee di e en ways (DIRINS, DIFINS and
TOTINS).
The las o he a iables used in he analysis is ha o he p e ailing
winds (WIND). Shel e om p e ailing winds may be ano he a iable o
ake in o conside a ion when hun e -ga he e socie ies choose hei
places o occupa ion (Villa Quin ei o, 1996; Ga cía Mo eno, 2010; de
Lombe a He mida e al., 2015, p. 290). As o quan i y his a iable, i has
been ob ained he wind exposi ion index h ough he Wind E ec Index
om he SAGA GIS module (B¨
ohne and An oni´
c, 2009; Con ad e al.,
2015).
Table 3
Resul s o he s a is ical es s applied.
Shapi o-Wilk Tes
(si es)
Shapi o-Wilk Tes
( andom si es)
K-S Tes (si es s
andom si es)
W p- alue W p- alue D p- alue
0.87411 2.188
e-06
0.95329 0.007074 0.36807 7.229
e-05
Fig. 4. K, L and G Func ions (a- ).
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
9
3.4. P edic i e model
The p edic i e model can be conside ed one o he i s ools in he
GIS applica ions o a chaeology (Chu ch e al., 2000; Ve meulen, 2001).
I is a me hod ha allows he p edic ion o he alue o he p obabili y o
p esence o a dependen co a ia e in a place using one o mo e inde-
penden co a ia es. P edic i e models a e de ined as ools o p ojec
known pa e ns o ela ionships in o unknown imes o places (Wa en
and Asch, 2000). Also, can be de ined as a echnique ha ies o p edic
he loca ion o a chaeological si es o ma e ials in a egion (Khole and
Pa ke , 1986). The use o GIS in a chaeology a ose in No h Ame ica due
o he need o manage la ge ex ensions o land, di icul o manage wi h
con en ional su ey me hods. The objec i e was o ca alogue, in en o y
and p o ec he la ges possible numbe o si es. Faced wi h his di-
cho omy, p edic i e models we e de eloped ha would allow delimi ing
he a eas ha we e mo e likely o con ain a chaeological si es.
The i s applica ions o he p edic i e model we e based on he
in e sec ion o en i onmen al and, o a lesse ex en , cul u al a iables
ha we e measu ed in a Boolean way, conside ing he absence o
p esence o ce ain condi ions ha a ou ed human occupa ion in a
speci ic place. Tha is i in a speci ic place human habi a ion could no
exceed 800 m o al i ude, his duali y was es ablished, dis inguishing
hose si es wi h lowe al i udes as sui able (a alue o 1 was gi en) and
hose wi h highe al i udes as unsui able (a alue o 0 was gi en).
The passage o ime and he e olu ion o GIS allowed o ca y ou
p edic i e models mo e complex, ea ing he s udy a iables quan i-
a i ely, in such a way ha hey could be gi en mo e impo ance o some
o e o he s. This is based on he weigh ed alue me hod. In his way, i
seeks o p edic he loca ion o a chaeological si es, and i he pa e ns o
occupa ion o he human socie ies o he pas esponded o a se ies o
condi ions. In which some had g ea e impo ance han o he s in
esponse o he di e en ci cums ances a ec ing hose socie ies.
P edic i e models can be di ided in o h ee ca ego ies (Nakoinz and
Kni e , 2016). Fi s a e he poin densi y app oxima ions, which do no
conside he localiza ion p e e ence o si es (Ben-Said, 2021; Be an,
2020; Be an e al., 2013; Bi and e al., 2013). Second a e induc i e
app oxima ions, which a e based on known poin s ha ha e loca ional
cha ac e is ics ha can be ex apola ed o he whole popula ion (Ca e ,
2013; Deeben e al., 1997; Ve hagen and Whi ley, 2012). Finally we ind
deduc i e app oaches, which seek o answe he ques ion o why si es
a e in ce ain places (Kame mans and Rensink, 1999; K amme, 2005;
Ve hagen, 2007).
Based on Conolly and Lake (2006), we can es ablish ha o ca y ou
a model p edic ion, a se ies o phases mus be ollowed. Fi s o all, i is
necessa y o collec he da a, he ollowing is he s a is ical analysis o
hese da a, la e he applica ion o he model and inally i s alida ion is
ca ied ou (Duncan and Beckman, 2000, p. 36; Wa en and Asch, 2000,
p. 13).
In addi ion, i is based on he p emise ha i is possible o di e en-
ia e be ween a eas o he landscape wi h e idence o occupa ion (si es)
and landscape a eas wi hou such e idence (non-si es) in he unc ion o
one o mo e landscape a ibu es. In he i s phase, he loca ion o he
si es and “non-si es” h ough an a bi a y sampling p og am. Rega dless
Fig. 5. Pea son’s co ela ion es o he di e en co a ia es analysed.
Table 4
Mul i a ia e eg ession model esul s.
Coe icien s Es ima e S d. E o Z alue P (>|z|)
(In e cep ) 7.2294176 2.6165387 2.763 0.00573 **
ALT −0.0167014 0.0073815 −2.263 0.02366 *
SLO −0.3456405 0.1244542 −2.777 0.00548 **
VISPR 0.0458370 0.0204803 2.238 0.02521 *
WET −0.0017355 0.0011814 −1.469 0.14183
HYDROC 0.0007585 0.0004113 1.844 0.06514 .
Signi . codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘’ 1
M. Díaz-Rod íguez e al.
Jou nal o A chaeological Science: Repo s 49 (2023) 104012
16
Acknowledgemen s
This s udy is pa o he esea ch p ojec s Din´
amicas poblacionales y
ecnol´
ogicas du an e el Pleis oceno inal-Holoceno de las Sie as o ien ales
del No oes e ib´
e ico (R&D P ojec s o he Minis y o Science, PID2019-
107480 GB-I00), Ocupaciones humanas du an e el Pleis oceno en la cuenca
media del Mi˜
no (HUM2007-63662/HIST) and Poblamien o du an e el
Pleis oceno Medio/Holoceno en las coma cas o ien ales de Galicia
(HAR2010-21786/HIST). M. Díaz-Rod íguez is pa o he CLIOARCH
p ojec which has ecei ed unding om he Eu opean Resea ch Council
(ERC) unde he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a-
ion p og amme (g an ag eemen 817564); and he Neande EDGE
p ojec which has ecei ed unding om he Independen Resea ch Fund
Denma k (case numbe 9062-00027B). We a e e y g a e ul o he wo
anonymous e iewe s and he edi o , whose commen s ha e con ibu ed
signi ican ly and helped imp o e he ini ial e sion o his pape . The
analyses o his wo k ha e been ca ied ou in he s a is ical en i on-
men R (R Co e Team, 2021).
Fo ma ing o unding sou ces.
M. Díaz-Rod íguez is g an ed by Ma ga i a Salas Fellowship om he
Eu opean Union - Nex Gene a ion EU by he P og amme o he
equali ica ion, in e na ional mobili y, and a ac ion o alen h ough
he Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela (Spain) and he Minis y o
Uni e si ies (Spain).
Da a accessibili y.
The da a used in his pape and he code execu ed in R a e a ailable
a h ps://gi hub.com/mikeldiaz od iguez/pa e ns_mon o e and
a chi ed on zenodo (h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.7808861).
Appendix A. Supplemen a y ma e ial
Supplemen a y da a o his a icle can be ound online a h ps://doi.
o g/10.1016/j.jas ep.2023.104012.
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