P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
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Pee - e iew unde esponsibili y o he Saka ya Uni e si y
doi: 10.1016/j.sbsp o.2015.01.705
ScienceDi ec
INTE 2014
The powe in digi al li e acy and algo i hmic skill
Má ia Cse nocha, Pi oska Bi ób
*
a,bUni e si y o Deb ecen, Kassai ú 26. Deb ecen 4028, Hunga y
Abs ac
We a gue ha in educa ional con ex s ICT (In o ma ion and Communica ions Technology) and CS (Compu e Sciences) should
no be sepa a ed. To suppo ou ideas, we p esen me hods ela ed o he minimalis p inciple wi h which s uden s wi h di e en
in e es s would de elop algo i hmic skills e en in an ICT en i onmen , and his in oduc o y phase would lead he s uden s on o
mo e se ious CS s udies. The co e o hese me hods is ha om he e y beginning o CSI educa ion algo i hms should be looked
o in e e y compu e - ela ed p oblem. Deep-app oach me acogni i e me hods should be applied, ins ead o uncon olled
sequences o su ace-app oach me acogni i e ac i i ies such as aimless clicking, unplanned wande ing, and elying on he newes
ea u es in g aphical use in e aces (GUI). Ou eam has de eloped a deep-app oach me acogni i e me hod o eaching
sp eadshee o no ices, which is in acco dance wi h he concep o building algo i hms o sol e compu e - ela ed p oblems. The
h ee co ne s ones o he me hod a e (1) in oducing as simple and as ew unc ions as possible, (2) building mul ile el o mulas
based on hese unc ions, and (3) ocusing on he p oblem ins ead o he ea u es o he so wa e. As he s uden s make p og ess,
he numbe o unc ions would be inc eased, bu gene al pu pose unc ions would s ill be ocused on. Tes ing ou deep-app oach
me hod has p o ed ha i is a lo mo e e ec i e in eaching sp eadshee han he classical su ace-app oach, wiza d-based
me acogni i e me hods, since all he basic elemen s a e in acco dance wi h he minimalis heo y, which ad ises eaching as
simple a language as possible o beginne s o de elop basic algo i hmic skills. Beyond he di ec ad an ages o he me hod,
sp eadshee would se e as an in oduc o y language o high le el p og amming languages, which is ou ul ima e goal.
© 2014 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d.
Pee - e iew unde esponsibili y o he Saka ya Uni e si y.
Keywo ds: deep- and su ace-app oach me acogni i e p ocesses; de eloping algo i hmic skill; eaching sp eadshee
* Co esponding au ho . Tel.: +36-52-512-900/75128; ax: +36-52-512-996.
E-mail add ess: cse noch.ma ia@in .unideb.hu
© 2015 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Pee - e iew unde esponsibili y o he Saka ya Uni e si y
551
Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
1. In oduc ion
Digi al compe ency and digi al li e acy ha e been among he mos popula exp essions ea u ing in he cu icula
o he las ew yea s, and he e ec o bo h o hese on di e en gene a ions – he Y and Z gene a ions o digi al
na i es ( he bi -gene a ions) and he X gene a ion o digi al immig an s (Dani, 2013; Jukes, McCain & C ocke ,
2010) – is one o socie ies’ main conce ns. We mus gi e some conside a ion o hese newly coined exp essions and
some backg ound in o ma ion ela ed o hem. Fi s o all, he mos impo an poin is o emphasize ha in o de o
de elop digi al compe ency e ec i ely and e icien ly, and o achie e digi al li e acy, o mal educa ion is needed.
Fo o mal educa ion, eache s a e needed, and o eache s, eache educa ion is needed. A his poin he loop is
closed, and we ace he chicken and he egg p oblem: who eaches he eache s i he e a e no eache s? In Compu e
Science/In o ma ics (CSI) educa ion his is one o he mos c ucial ques ions and o an answe we ha e o look back
in ime o he eme gence o he subjec . The con adic ions, bo h o he science i sel , and o he de eloping
comme cialized wo ld as i in e ac ed wi h he science, ha e a ec ed bo h eache s and eache educa ion and
consequen ly he de elopmen o digi al li e acy.
The pionee eache s we e sel -educa ed, in mos cases no supe ised, and i so, ce ainly no by expe s in he
me hodology o he subjec , because i did no exis . These i s eache s mainly augh p og amming languages,
algo i hms, bina y a i hme ic, and compu e a chi ec u e. O e ime hey became accep ed in hei local
en i onmen , whe he hey we e quali ied o no ; hey used me hods hey had de eloped hemsel es, wi hou
p o ing hei e iciency o e ec i eness, due o a lack o ime and me hods.
In he mean ime, compu e science de eloped a an inc edible speed, and he new mouse-based g aphical use
in e aces (GUI) inc eased he numbe o use s and changed he app oach and a i ude owa ds compu e s. E e yone
s a ed o use compu e s ega dless o whe he hey had any backg ound knowledge, and so wa e de elope s
encou aged hem o do so. These companies claimed ha by using he GUI and i s accompanying wiza ds he use s
would be able o sol e p oblems. Use s need do no hing mo e han click he e and he e and hey will ind he
solu ion.
E en eache s ell o his, and gi ing up he eaching o algo i hms, swi ched o aimless clicking, no looking o
he algo i hms in hese new p og ams; consequen ly hey s opped de eloping hei own and he s uden s’ algo i hmic
skills.
Nomencla u e
A ICT: In o ma ion Communica ion Technologies
B CS: Compu e Sciences
C CSI: Compu e Science/In o ma ics, including bo h ICT and CS
D CAAD-based (Compu e -Algo i hmic And Debugging-based): deep-app oach me acogni i e p ocesses o
compu e ela ed ac i i ies wi h an emphasis on building algo i hms and debugging esul s
E TAEW-based (T ial-And-E o Wiza d-based): su ace-app oach me acogni i e p ocesses o compu e
ela ed ac i i ies highly dependen on he g aphical in e ace
1.1. Fiasco
1.1.1. Fac s and esul s
Recen s udies ha e ound ha mo e han 90% o e-documen s ha e e o s (Panko & Au igemma, 2010; To ,
Blondel & B uilla d, 2008; To , 2010, Cse noch & Bujdosó, 2009; Cse noch 2010), and uneduca ed compu e use s
cause se ious inancial losses by p o iding un eliable da a and by aking much mo e ime han p oblems equi e
( an Deu sen & an Dijk, 2012). Along wi h hese indings, o he publica ions ha e p o ided e idence ha hese
mis akes a e due o a lack o algo i hmic skills and hinking (Angeli 2013; Panko & Au igemma, 2010; Bi ó &
Cse noch, 2013a, 2013b). Howe e , he S uden s On Line session o he PISA 2009 su ey p o ed ha compu e
usage in schools does no necessa ily inc ease he le el o digi al compe ency (OECD, 2011). This ambigui y clea ly
indica es ha we ha e se ious p oblems wi h he me hods employed o each CSI in mos coun ies. Faced wi h
hese p oblems, coun ies ha e eac ed in di e en ways. In he Uni ed Kingdom in 2012 he numbe o compu e
552 Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
classes was inc eased, in o de o ocus on he de elopmen o he algo i hmic skill, while in Hunga y he numbe o
CSI classes was educed in he 2013 Co e Cu icula. In 2012 F ance in oduced In o ma ique e sciences du
nume ique (ISN) as an op ional subjec in he science ack o he 12 h g ade. Despi e his, no mo e han one six h
o F ench s uden s s udy CSI only o one yea . Who is igh ? Which pa h should be ollowed? Which a e he mos
e ec i e and e icien ways o imp o e?
The answe lies mainly in he cha ac e is ics o he science. The p oblems o CSI educa ion eme ge om he
pa icula i ies and con adic ions o he science, namely ha i is:
x a new science wi hou any di ec p edecesso s,
x a science de eloping a a speed p e iously unknown in any o he science,
x a science wi h i s own comme cialized wo d de eloping a ound i , and
x a science ope a ing in he con ex o he p essu es and he needs o compu e usage and o in o ma ion.
In his hea ily indus ialized science, esea ches and eache s ha e o ind me hods o de elop basic algo i hmic
skills which a e e ec i e, e icien , and las bu no leas , accep able o he di e en gene a ions o compu e use s.
1.1.2. ICT is blamed
Recen epo s indica e ha o ice packages a e o blame o his iasco, and hey should be banished om CSI
cou ses. One o he mos ex eme iews is Go e’s, who s a es ha “Ins ead o child en bo ed ou o hei minds
being augh how o use Wo d and Excel by bo ed eache s, we could ha e 11 yea -olds able o w i e simple 2D
compu e anima ions using an MIT ool called Sc a ch. By 16, hey could ha e an unde s anding o o mal logic
p e iously co e ed only in Uni e si y cou ses and be w i ing hei own Apps o sma phones.” (Go e, 2012).
In ou opinion, e en hese 11 and 16 yea -olds should be able o c ea e e o - ee e-documen s. Go e is mis aken
when he hinks ha CSI classes should no each how wo d p ocessing and sp eadshee . These classes should each
he s uc u e o documen s and o mulas, and he algo i hms behind hem. Ac ually, hese p og ams a e qui e
challenging. Typing and aimlessly clicking on he su ace should be banished, no he p og ams hemsel es. In
gene al, o ice packages a e ha mless. They a e p og ams which ope a e on algo i hms, and we ha e o ind and
each he algo i hms behind hese p og ams. Those eache s who ind hese p og ams bo ing and make hei s uden s
hink he same a e e ec i ely saying ha hey hemsel es ne e ha e looked o hese algo i hms.
1.1.3. Su ace-app oach me acogni i e p ocesses – easons
Ou eam has launched he Tes ing Algo i hmic and Applica ion Skills (TAaAS) p ojec in he 2011/2012
academic yea . In he TAaAS p ojec we es ed he In o ma ics knowledge and he usage o e minology o
eshmen s uden s a he Facul y o In o ma ics o he Uni e si y o Deb ecen, Hunga y on he i s week o hei
a i al.
In he TAaAS p ojec i has been p o ed ha mos o he compu e ela ed ac i i ies a e me acogni i e p ocesses
(Bi ó & Cse noch, 2013a), because use s a e supposed o ead and unde s and he signs and messages o he GUI
and he wiza ds, and hey mus make hei decisions on he basis o he in o ma ion o e ed. Howe e , he esul s o
he TAaAS p ojec clea ly indica e ha in mos cases use s adop ial-and-e o d i en solu ions (TAEW, T ial-and-
e o wiza d-based) (Cse noch & Bi ó, 2013a), mainly because hey do no unde s and and a e no in e es ed in he
messages p o ided by he so wa e. Consequen ly, hese me hods o c ea ing e-documen s can be ca ego ized as
su ace app oach me hods, and such as hey a e no su icien o p oblem sol ing, and consequen ly, de eloping
digi al compe ency, digi al li e acy, and algo i hmic skills.
Se e al o he consequences o he eache s’ choice o he TAEW-app oach could be epo ed, bu we mus
emphasize one which has a - eaching consequences: he me hod is no sui able o measu ing he s uden s'
knowledge (Cse noch & Bi ó, 2013b). The es s o he TAaAS p ojec ha e also e ealed ha he eache s ha dly
know any mo e han he s uden s, and mo e disconce ingly, hey a e no able o judge he s uden s’ knowledge
(Cse noch & Bi ó, 2013b).
Simila esul s we e ound by es ing he s uden s’ and he eache s’ p og amming skills (Bi ó & Cse noch
2013a). The esul s o he es clea ly show ha bo h he s uden s, and mo e un o una ely, he eache s, ha e
p oblems wi h acking codes bo h in p og amming and sp eadshee . A e seeing he eache s' esul s i is no
wonde ha in gene al hey a e no able o de elop he algo i hmic skills o he s uden s. The o he su p ising and
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Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
disappoin ing esul o he es is ha hose who passed he middle le el g adua ion exam – whe e knowledge o
o ice packages is es ed on compu e – ha e no been helped in de eloping hei algo i hmic skills. The esul s o
he es a e in acco dance wi h ou indings, conside ing he di e en me acogni i e app oaches in eaching
compu e applica ions and p og amming (Cse noch & Bi ó, 2013a, 2013b). Based on hese es s, i is clea ha in
o de o de elop algo i hm skills, digi al hinking p og amming and applica ions should no be sepa a ed om each
o he , because compu e ela ed p oblems – he p oblems o he digi al wo ld – a e based on algo i hms.
2. Resul s
2.1. Deep-app oach me acogni i e p ocesses
To sol e he p oblems o he digi al wo ld algo i hms ha e o be buil and hese algo i hms ha e o be coded. The
me hods which suppo his app oach a e en i led Compu e -algo i hmic And Debugging-based me hods (CAAD)
(Cse noch & Bi ó, 2013a, 2013b), and a e classi ied as deep-app oach me acogni i e p ocesses (Case & Guns one,
2002, 2003; Case, Guns one & Lewis, 2001). The CAAD app oach can be applied o any compu e ela ed p oblem.
We ha e de eloped and es ed CAAD-based me hods o sol ing sp eadshee (Cse noch, 2012; Cse noch & Bi ó
2013a) and wo d p ocessing p oblems (Cse noch, 2009). In bo h cases he p ima y aims o he me hods a e ha in
ad ance o he ac ualiza ion o he p oblem he algo i hms ha e o be c ea ed, and, based on he algo i hm, he
coding p ocess ollows (Bi ó & Cse noch, 2013a, 2013b, 2014). Wi h sp eadshee , since i is classed as a unc ional
language he coding p ocess is mo e closely ela ed o o he p og amming languages, while in wo d p ocessing he
coding in he planned o de is ca ied ou by clicking on he command bu ons, illing in he ields in GUI.
2.2. Theo e ical backg ound o he CAAD-based app oach
The co e o ou CAAD-based me hod is based on he ollowing heo ies:
x he Minimalis heo y (Ca oll, 1990; Nielsen, 1993; Wa en, 2004),
x he Guided-ins uc ions heo y (Ki schne , Swelle & Cla k, 2006),
x Phenomenog aphy (Boo h, 2001),
x Cons uc ionism (Pape & Ha el, 1991).
In he ollowing chap e s he implemen a ion o hese ou heo ies a e discussed in de ail in he con ex o he
sp eadshee en i onmen . We a gue ha based on hese heo ies e icien and e ec i e me hods o de eloping
algo i hmic skills would be c ea ed in he ICT en i onmen .
1.1.4. Minimalis heo y in he sp eadshee en i onmen
F om ime o ime, he mos popula so wa e publishe s elease new packages on he ma ke boas ing new
ea u es, which a e o cou se mo e powe ul han hei p edecesso s. Sp eadshee p og ams, in addi ion o hese new
ea u es, in oduce new unc ions, specialized o sol e speci ic p oblems. Howe e , on one hand, hese new
unc ions make he p og am mo e di icul o use and unde s and o no ices, while on he o he hand, he e is no
way o p epa e a gene al pu pose sp eadshee p og am o sol e all he wo ld's p oblems, so he e can ne e be
enough upg ades. All hese e o s a e in ain.
Acco ding o he minimalis heo y, we can each sp eadshee o no ices wi h as ew and as simple unc ions as
possible (Table 1, G oup 1), and along wi h hese unc ions we can each how o build algo i hms o sol e mo e
demanding p oblems, ocusing on he p oblem, no on he so wa e. Simple unc ions ha e wo cha ac e is ics; (1)
hey a e gene al pu pose unc ions, and (2) hey ha e only a ew a gumen s. The o he ool o sol e p oblems using
hese simple gene al pu pose unc ions is he c ea ion o mul ile el unc ions. Building mul ile el unc ions can be
well demons a ed by he popula Russian (ma joska) dolls (Fig. 1). The encapsula ed unc ions beha e in exac ly
he same way as he encapsula ed dolls do:
x we s a building he mul ile el unc ion wi h he inne mos unc ion,
x ou side i comes i s hype nym, whose one a gumen – he inpu – is he ou pu o he inne mos unc ion,
x his ela ionship be ween hyponyms and hype nyms con inues un il we each he ou e mos unc ion,
x he ou pu o he ou e mos unc ion is he ou pu o he mul ile el unc ion.
554 Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
Table 1. Th ee s eps o in oducing gene al pu pose sp eadshee unc ions
S ep 1
S ep 2
S ep 3
SUM()
MATCH()
SMALL()
AVERAGE()
INDEX()
LARGE()
MIN()
ISERROR()
AND()
MAX()
OR()
LEFT()
NOT()
RIGHT()
ROW()
LEN()
COLUMN()
SEARCH()
OFFSET()
IF()
TRANSPOSE()
ROUND()
Fig. 1. Russian (ma ojska) dolls simula ing he encapsula ion o unc ions in a mul ile el unc ion
Nielsen in 1991 and Wa en in 2004, claimed ha sp eadshee p og ams ul ill he expec a ions o he minimalis
heo y bu nei he o hem p o ided u he de ails o me hods. As has been men ioned in sec ion 1.1.3, he me e
exis ence o a sp eadshee p og am does no in i sel ul ill he equi emen s o he minimalis heo y. Howe e , a
CAAD-based app oach o sp eadshee , as ou lined in his chap e , would be he igh ool o do his.
2.2.1. Guided-ins uc ions heo y
Ki schne , Swelle & Cla k's (2006) pape gi es de ails ega ding why i is ha minimal guidance du ing
ins uc ion does no wo k. The eason is simple: e y li le is s o ed in long e m memo y. This inding is in
acco dance wi h ou CAAD-based app oach.
Wi h sp eadshee he CAAD-based app oach means ha algo i hms ha e o be buil bo h a wo kbook and
o mula le els. Fo no ices we ocus on he o mula le el. A his le el we each a small numbe o gene al pu pose
unc ions (Table 1) and how o c ea e mul ile el unc ions o sol e p oblems (Fig. 1). Again, wi h hese wo ools
and hea ily guided ins uc ions a he beginning we can de elop he basic algo i hmic skills o he s uden s, and la e
on, based on his knowledge he s uden s will be able o ee hemsel es om he eache s’ s ic guidelines and
sol e p oblems on hei own. Howe e , we ha e o emphasize he e ha c ea ing sp eadshee o mulas equi es
algo i hms and he me hods o c ea ing o mulas ha e o be lea ned. Clicking and wande ing aimlessly in a huge
p og am will esul no in any knowledge en e ing long e m memo y bu a he us a ion, bo edom, and e o -
illed documen s. Wi h guided ins uc ions o no ice sp eadshee end-use p og amme s, beyond he di ec
ad an ages o de eloping algo i hmic and debugging skills, we can each ou s uden s how o educe he endency o
p oduce e o s in sp eadshee documen s.
The o he impo ance o guided ins uc ions a he beginning is ha sp eadshee languages, since hey belong o
he g oup o unc ional languages, would se e as in oduc o y p og amming languages which lead on o high le el
p og amming languages. This is one o he easons ha in eaching sp eadshee we ha e o use he same al eady
p o en me hods o eaching p og amming languages.

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Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
2.2.2. Phenomenog aphy
Ma on and Boo h (1998) p o ed ha lea ning has wo aspec s ha a e inex icably in e wined: (1) he “wha ”
aspec , which e e s o he con en o lea ning, and (2) he “how” aspec , which e e s o he way in which lea ning
akes place. I has been empi ically es ablished ha wha e e i is ha lea ne s lea n ( he “wha ” aspec ), a
quali a i e a ia ion is o be ound in he ou come, and, co espondingly, wha e e lea ning asks a e unde aken
( he “how” aspec ), he e is a quali a i e a ia ion in he ways he lea ne s app oach hem, o go abou hem. The e
is a deg ee o consis ency in he na u e o he a ia ion in he “how” aspec in ha he e is an o e all pa e n o deep
and su ace app oaches. A deep app oach o a lea ning ask is cha ac e ized by he lea ne 's in en ion o inding
meaning in he con en h ough ackling he ask, whe eas in a su ace app oach ocus is a he on mee ing he
demands o he ask as such.
The lea ne 's expe ience is always one o lea ning some hing, in some way, and in some con ex ; by holding he
lea ne 's expe ience o lea ning as he ocus o s udy h oughou – and no s udying he lea ning o he con en and
he ac s and he con ex as sepa a e and dis inc ocuses – he con en , he ac , and he con ex emain uni ed as
cons i uen s o he lea ne 's expe ience.
In 2001 Boo h de ailed and p o ided examples o hei phenomenon. She claims ha he i s o m o lea ning
migh be exempli ied, in compu e ela ed ac i i ies, by acqui ing u he aspec s o a pa ly-known p og amming
language, o lea ning o w i e p og ams in ye ano he impe a i e p og amming language, o by lea ning o wo k in
ano he new ope a ing en i onmen , o acqui ing mas e y o a pa icula se o echniques. The second o m o
lea ning, cha ac e ized a he by seeing hings in a new way and b inging new pe spec i es o bea on hings, is
mo e like lea ning unc ional p og amming o objec -o ien ed p og amming when hi he o only impe a i e
p og amming has been encoun e ed, and ha ing o app oach p oblems in qui e a new way, ha ing o conside new
s uc u es, and o de elop new ways o unde s anding.
In a simpli ied way, we can say ha Ma on and Boo h ound ha hose me hods which ocus only on con en and
in which s uden s canno see he ou come o he lea ning expe ience a e no e ec i e enough. I is like no seeing
he wood o he ees. S uden s a e los in he echnical de ails and canno g ab he main idea. In Wa en’s wo ding
(2004) his concep is exp essed in he ollowing o m: “The e is a need o an app oach ha allows he Compu e
Science issues o be in he o eg ound and he language issues in he backg ound.” In a human compu e in e ac ion
(HCI) he p oblem, he p og amme should be he ocus o he ac i i y, no he language, he so wa e, he
en i onmen , o he ha dwa e.
Ma on and Boo h’s heo y can easily be adap ed o sp eadshee en i onmen . Howe e , using TAEW-based
su ace app oach me hods in sp eadshee s he p ima y aim o he p ocesses is o ind a sui able unc ion. Bu i
should no wo k his way: i s he algo i hm has o be buil and hen we ha e o apply ools o code ou algo i hm.
The ool is al eady p o ided in sec ion 2.2.1. This me hod is in acco dance wi h Boo h’s second o m o lea ning:
s uden s gain expe ience in a unc ional language wi h a pe spec i e owa ds o he high le el p og amming
languages.
Boo h’s i s o m o lea ning is p esen in a leas wo di e en o ms in sp eadshee . Fi s o all, in he di ec
en i onmen , whe e despi e being amilia wi h only a ew unc ions, demanding p oblems could be sol ed.
Fu he mo e, he abili y o sol e p oblems in a sp eadshee en i onmen migh lead o simila p oblem-sol ing
abili ies in o he p og amming languages.
In gene al, we s a e ha he goal o lea ning sp eadshee is no o lea n unc ions bu o sol e p oblems. The
unc ions a e only ools which a e needed o coding; consequen ly, hey should no be he p ima y a ge o he
lea ning p ocess. In mos In o ma ics cou se books long lis s o sp eadshee unc ions a e p esen ed, like in a
e e ence book, sugges ing ha s uden s ha e o lea n hese unc ions. The whole p ocess should be he o he way
a ound: p oblems should be p esen ed in hese cou se books and he unc ions should only play a mino ole.
I we each only a ew simple and gene al pu pose unc ions along wi h he me hods needed o build mul ile el
unc ions
x he unc ions can be easily emembe ed and
x bo h he unc ions and he building o mul ile el unc ions can be adap ed o o he p og amming languages.
In his concep bo h sp eadshee cou se books and sp eadshee classes should use au hen ic ables ins ead o
yping and c ea ing a i icial ables du ing he class. The hind ance caused by yping ables in a lea ning sp eadshee
en i onmen has a eaching consequences. He e, we ind he connec ion o he nex heo y: a i icial ables will no
556 Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
p o ide da a and consequen ly he e will be no need o cons uc hem. Again, in e es is los . In a sp eadshee
en i onmen we ha e o con ince he s uden s ha hey “despe a ely” need his piece o so wa e; hey ha e o see
he powe in his p og am om he e y beginning.
2.2.3. Cons uc ionism
Nei he phenomenog aphy no cons uc ionism suppo yping da a sou ces in in oduc o y applica ion classes.
The unexpec ed consequences o yping ables in in oduc o y sp eadshee classes a e lis ed below.
x Typing is bo ing. S uden s ge bo ed a he e y beginning.
x Typing is no In o ma ics. Consequen ly, yping s eals ime om eal In o ma ics.
x Typed da a is uncon ollable. S uden s ype a di e en speeds and wi h di e en abili ies. Consequen ly, he
esul s a e ha d o use in a class oom en i onmen .
x The amoun o da a is no su icien . Consequen ly, s uden s will ind ha c ea ing sp eadshee o such a small
amoun o da a is a was e o ime.
x Manually yped ables a e no challenging enough. No one is in e es ed in in o ma ion e ie al in a sho and
bo ing able.
x S uden s canno see he powe o a sp eadshee h ough yping. Consequen ly, hey lose in e es in i be o e hey
become amilia wi h i .
Lea ning and using applica ions should be a c ea i e occupa ion. Tha is whe e he cons uc ionism heo y has i s
ole. I we use au hen ic sou ce documen s o in o ma ion e ie al and i we c ea e documen s which would
communica e he desi ed con en , hese p ocesses a e no hing else bu a cons uc ion o in o ma ion o sou ces o
in o ma ion. Al hough hese documen s do no necessa ily each he wide public, he s uden s in hei mic o
communi y – e en in a class – do cons uc some hing which has a alue, he alue o in o ma ion.
2.2.4. The ac ualiza ion o CAAD in sp eadshee
Based on he heo ies ou lined in he p e ious chap e s we ha e de eloped a deep-app oach CAAD-based
me acogni i e me hod on he o mula-le el o sp eadshee p og ams. The me hod is applied o a a ely used bu
powe ul ea u e o sp eadshee , namely he Condi ional Single Resul A ay Fo mula (CSRAF). This ea u e o
sp eadshee p og ams equi es
x knowledge o a ew simple and gene al pu pose unc ions – minimalism,
x knowledge o how o build mul ile el o mulas – cons uc ionism,
x comple e guidelines om eache s a he beginning – guided ins uc ions,
x meaning ul, usually au hen ic ables wi h a huge amoun o da a – phenomenog aphy,
x he eache s’ choice o demanding p oblems a he s uden s' le el – cons uc ionism, phenomenog aphy,
x s uden s’ awa eness o p oblems – cons uc ionism, phenomenog aphy.
Th ough he cou se o he applica ion o CSRAFs, sp eadshee p og ams
x se e as a ool o building algo i hmic skills – phenomenog aphy,
x se e as an in oduc o y language o high le el p og amming languages – phenomenog aphy,
x se e as an en i onmen o sol ing demanding da a e ie al p oblems – cons uc ionism, phenomenog aphy,
x se e as an en i onmen o debugging o mulas – guided ins uc ions, cons uc ionism, phenomenog aphy,
x se e as a ool o lowe ing he numbe o e o - illed documen s – guided ins uc ions, cons uc ionism,
phenomenog aphy,
x inc ease s uden s’ con idence – cons uc ionism, phenomenog aphy,
x inc ease s uden s’ skills in handling p oblems – cons uc ionism, phenomenog aphy.
I has been p o ed wi h he es s conduc ed on he TAaAS p ojec ha one o he main easons o e o p one
documen s is he almos exclusi e usage o TAEW-based me hods, especially in he lea ning s age. Based on hese
heo ies we swi ched o a CAAD-based me hod whose ocus is he building o CSRAFs. The me hod was i s
applied o gi ed high schools s uden s pa icipa ing in applica ion compe i ions. The s uden s’ esul s in hese
compe i ions imp o ed a g ea deal. Encou aged by he esul s o he compe i ions we applied he me hod o a
couple o no mal In o ma ics classes, and i also wo ked.
557
Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
2.2.5. S uden s’ de elopmen in a CAAD-based en i onmen
The i s es s o he me hod we e ca ied ou wi h uni e si y s uden s in he academic yea 2011/2012 and we e
epea ed in he ollowing wo yea s. The s uden s we e es ed h ee imes.
x The i s s age o he es was ca ied ou a he beginning o he s uden s’ e ia y s udies, wi h s uden s who had
p e iously s udied sp eadshee wi h TAEW-based me hods in elemen a y and high schools. Consequen ly, in
e ms o he me hods wi h which he s uden s we e amilia , a his s age he e was no di e ence be ween G oup1
and G oup2.
x The second s age o he es ook place immedia ely a e s uden s had co e ed sp eadshee wi h a CAAD-based
me hod (G oup1).
x The hi d es was applied one yea la e , es ing s uden s who had co e ed sp eadshee s wi h CAAD-based
(G oup1) o TAEW-based me hods (G oup2).
In all h ee es s we we e ocusing on he me hods he s uden s used o c ea e sp eadshee o mulas. In he i s
es he s uden s’ esul s we e ex emely low, below 5% on a e age (Fig. 2.). In he second es he esul s o hose
s uden s who co e ed sp eadshee wi h he CAAD-based me hod inc eased o abo e 60% (Fig. 3, le ). In he hi d
es he ques ion was wha knowledge is s o ed in long e m memo y. I was ound ha hose s uden s who lea ned
wi h he CAAD-based me hod had esul s a ound 40%, while hose who used he TAEW-based me hod we e s ill
unable o sol e hese p oblems (Fig. 3, igh ).
Fig. 2. The s uden s’ esul s in he i s TAaAS es in Sep embe , a e co e ing sp eadshee wi h TAEW-based me hods in elemen a y and high
schools
Fig. 3. The s uden s’ esul s in he second es , a e co e ing sp eadshee wi h he CAAD-based me hod (le ), and in he hi d es , in nex
No embe , one yea a e co e ing sp eadshee wi h CAAD- o TAEW-based me hods ( igh )
558 Má ia Cse noch and Pi oska Bi ó / P ocedia - Social and Beha io al Sciences 174 ( 2015 ) 550 – 559
The o he goal o he es was o de ec whe he he CAAD-based me hod made he s uden s swi ch o he
mul ile el o mulas ins ead o using he e o p one buil -in unc ions o , based on hei p e ious 6–8 yea s o
s udies, hey s ill s uck o he buil -in unc ions.
I was ound ha he s uden s using he CAAD-based me hod almos exclusi ely swi ched o he mul ile el
CSRAFs, while in he o he g oup some s uden s p e e ed he CSRAFs o mulas. Thei solu ions, due o he lack o
guided ins uc ions, we e no co ec , bu he aces o mul ile el o mulas we e ecognizable.
As was men ioned in sec ion 2.2.5, he me hod was i s in oduced o high school s uden s, and hei abili y o
sol e sp eadshee p oblems imp o ed signi ican ly; howe e , hei imp o emen was no es ed di ec ly, bu
obse ed h ough hei esul s in compe i ions.
Simila imp o emen s we e egis e ed by es ing 8 h g ade s uden s s udying sp eadshee wi h a CAAD-based
app oach, in compa ison wi h 8 h g ade s uden s s udying wi h he popula TAEW-based me hod (Majlá h, 2013).
All hese indings mean ha he me hod can be applied o he di e en le els o he educa ion sys em.
3. Summa y
I has been p o ed in he las couple o yea s ha mo e han 90% o sp eadshee documen s ca y mis akes, and
uneduca ed compu e use s cause se ious inancial losses by p o iding un eliable da a and by aking much mo e
ime han p oblems equi e. I has also been p o ed ha su ace app oach me acogni i e me hods a e no e ec i e
and e icien enough o de elop he skills equi ed o sol e sp eadshee p oblems. E en hough he minimalis heo y
claimed in 1993 ha sp eadshee languages would be pe ec in oduc o y languages, me hods ha e no been
de eloped. The eason was ha he minimalis heo y on i s own was no enough o de elop a me hod which would
be used in educa ion; h ee addi ional heo ies – guided ins uc ions, phenomenog aphy, and cons uc ionism – had
o eme ge.
Based on his heo e ical backg ound we ha e de eloped a deep app oach me acogni i e me hod – he compu e -
algo i hmic and debugging (CAAD) based me hod – o sol ing compu e ela ed p oblems, especially hose wi hin
compu e applica ions. In sp eadshee p og ams he ool which ul ills all he equi emen s o he CAAD-based
me hod is he condi ional single esul a ay o mula (CSRAF). The co e o his me hod is ha we use as ew and as
simple gene al pu pose unc ions as possible, and de elop he echnique necessa y o c ea e mul ile el unc ions.
By es ing he me hod i was ound ha i is much mo e e ec i e and e icien han he widely used and
comme cialized TAEW-based me hods. The s uden s using he CAAD-based me hod p o e o be mo e con iden
and sa e in c ea ing sp eadshee o mulas. Beyond his p ima y esul , ou es s also p o ed ha wi h he CAAD-
based me hod he s uden s’ algo i hmic skills ha e de eloped, and ha knowledge is s o ed in long e m memo y.
Nielsen’s p edic ion o he powe hidden in sp eadshee and his sugges ion o use sp eadshee as an in oduc o y
p og amming language has been p o ed wi h ou CAAD-based me hod.
4. Acknowledgemen
The publica ion was suppo ed by he TÁMOP-4.2.2.C-11/1/KONV-2012-0001 p ojec . The p ojec has been
suppo ed by he Eu opean Union, co- inanced by he Eu opean Social Fund and pa ly by OTKA (K-105262).
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