c u l u a , l e n g u a j e y e p e s e n a c i ó n / c u l u e , l a n g u a g e a n d e p e s e n a i o n ˙ i s s n 1697-7750 · o l . x i i 2014, pp. 27-41
e i s a d e e s u d i o s c u l u a l e s d e l a u n i e s i a j a u m e i / c u l u a l s u d i e s j o u n a l o u n i e s i a j a u m e i
d o i : h p ://d x .d o i .o g /10.6035/c l .2014.12.2
In Vino Ve i as: Old Wine Ma ke s in New Global
Economic Ba les
In ino e i as: an iguos me cados inícolas en mode nas
ba allas económicas
william m. hawley
independen schola
Ab s A c : Wine ma ke s ha e suppo ed egional cul u es and in e na ional
alliances o cen u ies. Renaissance diploma ic and d ama ic language e e s o
F ench ma ke s, no economies, ex ending globally om Bo deaux o he Fa
Eas . Ye Shakespea e in en s ou ep esen a ion o he global economy’s ill-
go en gains and p eda o y specula ion in wine (and o he ) ma ke s. P ince Hal
le e ages he e y wine ma ke ha he de ides obsessi ely in o a na a i e o sin
and edemp ion. Hal consumma es his na a i e by ejec ing Fals a , whom he
iden i ies as an ea hly Bacchus. Bu Bu gundy’s p agma ic ep esen a ion o he
excellence o inicul u e in Hen y V i s he pa adigm o sus ainable ma ke places
in pa because he symbolism o ine wine is uni e sally es eemed. Today’s
economic c isis p o es ha he quasi-Hegelian idea o an e hical economy canno
be a ained h ough inancial in e dependence alone. Mo eo e , i alida es he
Renaissance na a i e ha esponsible wine ma ke s imp o e wi h age.
Keywo ds: wine, ma ke s, Shakespea e, Renaissance, ep esen a ion, p agma ism.
e s u m e n : Los me cados inícolas han apoyado las cul u as egionales y las
alianzas in e nacionales du an e siglos. El lenguaje diplomá ico y ea al del
Renacimien o hace alusión a los me cados anceses y no a las economías,
expandiéndose globalmen e desde Bu deos has a el Lejano O ien e. Es Shakes-
pea e quien inaugu a las ep esen aciones de la especulación dep edado a y las
ganancias ilíci as en la economía global a a és de los me cados inícolas (y
o os). El p íncipe Hal p o oca el endeudamien o del me cado inícola que él
mismo idiculiza obsesi amen e po medio de na a i as ancladas en el pecado y
la edención, así como con su ela o echazando a Fals a , al que iden i ica con
un mundano Baco. Sin emba go, la ep esen ación p agmá ica que Bo goña hace
A ículo ecibido el / A icle ecei ed: 18-08-2013
A ículo acep ado el / A icle accep ed: 21-02-2014
28
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sob e la excelencia de la i icul u a en En ique V se co esponde con el pa adigma
de los me cados sos enibles, en pa e debido al simbolismo de que un buen ino
es alo ado uni e salmen e. La c isis económica ac ual pone de mani ies o la idea
cuasi hegeliana de que no se puede consegui una economía é ica únicamen e po
medio de la in e dependencia inancie a, e incluso alida la na a i a enacen is a
de que los me cados inícolas esponsables mejo an con la edad.
Palab as cla e: ino, me cados, Shakespea e, Renacimien o, ep esen ación, p ag-
ma ismo.
Mode n ep esen a ions o he global economic c isis owe a deb o
Renaissance diploma ic and d ama ic language conce ning wine ma ke places.
In he lexicon o ea ly mode n B i ain, ma ke s ex end globally, while
economics e e s solely o household budge s. A « ee ma ke in London»
mean ha me chan s could sell impo ed wine wi hou paying ex ao dina y
su cha ges (G een, 1872: 661). App o ed me chan s sold wine in «o e
ma ke s», implying ha uno icial global exchanges lou ished in he shadows
(G een, 1872: 656). Renaissance ma ke s endu ed c ises like hose a lic ing
oday’s global economy due o le e age and a bi age. Pa liamen a ian Ralphe
Maddison (1641: 1) c i iqued ade imbalances ha seemed «mys icall» o his
pee s. Bu wine ma ke s s abilized in e na ional ela ions be ween England
and F ance long a e B i ain los possession o Aqui aine in 1453. Ma ke s
om Bo deaux o Bu gundy sus ained F ench inicul u e and sa is ied English
pale es due in pa o he symbolic discou se o wine connoisseu ship spoken
by hose ying o powe in Renaissance Eu ope. Indeed, Shakespea e in en s
ou ep esen a ion o global economic ailu es by showing he exp op ia ion o
heal hy wine na a i es by powe b oke s su e ing om iden i y c ises.
Renaissance wine ma ke s had a global each wi hou being globalized.
Locali ies and egional expe s main ained he quali y and con ol o in ages.
Da id Hancock (2009: 405) is among he excellen schola s o wine his o y who
see a eleological de elopmen in he in eg a ion o old ma ke places in o he
global economic egime: «The globaliza ion o [wine] ade in he nine een h
cen u y also buil upon ne wo ked app oaches and sel -o ganized sys ems
inhe i ed om he eigh een h cen u y». Ye na a i es abou he inexo able
iumph o he global economy igno e c ucial language on ma ke place
e hics in ea ly mode n B i ish diplomacy and d ama. Renaissance diploma s
encou aged B i ish policymake s o ade wi h peace ul wine ma ke s a he
w i l l i a m m. h aw l e y In Vino Ve i as: Old Wine Ma ke s in New Global Economic Ba les 29
han igh o e hos ile comme cial e i o y. Shakespea e’s Hen y V and wo
pa s o Hen y IV s age wine ma ke s as a enas o s i e be ween mode n and
classical na a i es shaping Hal’s iden i y as king. Hal’s s unning ic o y in he
ci il wa is eclipsed by he symbolism o his ejec ion o Fals a , whom he
denounces as a degene a ed Bacchus. I onically, bo h Hal and Fals a discoun
he ue alue o wine ma ke places. Fals a ’s o e indulgence in spi i s is
déclassé, while Hal’s display o newly-min ed pie y in shunning a e ns
seems hypoc i ical. Bu Fals a ’s de ense o wine based on classical medical
heo y helps o c ea e he na a i e o mode ni y, as Ha old Bloom (1987: 2)
sugges s: «Rep esen a ion i sel changed pe manen ly because o Hamle and
Fals a ». Wine pe sis s in ou ep esen a ion o he global economy because
i s adi ional symbolic alue is equaled only by jewels and gold. C ucially,
ea ly mode n B i ain p e e ed excellen F ench and Rhenish wines o cheape
in ages a ailable globally.
1. Economic e sus Diploma ic Na a i es abou Wine Ma ke s
B i ain’s inancial decline unde Cha les I caused policymake s o
seek e o ms in in e na ional ma ke s. Maddison p esen ed his indings o
Pa liamen in 1640 by «se ing o h “ he dep h o he mys e y o ade”»
(B uce, 1858: 204). He blamed o eign usu y and debasemen o coins o
England’s economic woes. He p oposed ese ing exchange a es weekly in
o de o de end B i ain om in e na ional aud and cu ency specula ion.
Maddison (1641: 1) accused «Banke s o lende s o monies beyond Seas»
o manipula ing o eign ma ke s a B i ain’s expense. His mone a y solu ion
o pe cei ed ade inequali ies equi ed closing F ench ma ke s o B i ish
ade, al hough England’s demand o F ench wine ose s eadily h oughou
he Renaissance. Elizabe h I had asked ambassado F ancis Walsingham o
ensu e « he sa e y o he English Me chan s now epai ing o he Vin age […]
o he own o Bu deaux» a e he S . Ba holomew’s Day massac e o 1572,
when F ench eligious s i e endange ed isi ing P o es an ade s (Digges,
1655: 249). James I’s ade policy was e en mo e expansi e han Elizabe h’s.
James dec eed ha new F ench in ages could be discha ged on English sho es
annually a e Decembe 1s , a limi a ion designed o ensu e he quali y o
he impo ed p oduc . English Renaissance diploma ic na a i es o e came
Maddison’s a gumen o p o ec ionism, a ia ions o which a e ex an oday.
To his c edi , Maddison belie ed ha sound policies could co ec abuses
in in e na ional comme ce: «The ise in exchange in King James’s ime was
30
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he esul o an ac o s a e» (B uce, 1858: 204). Ye his p e-me can ilis heo y
sligh ed James’s peace ea ies wi h Eu opean compe i o s ha spu ed impo s
o quali y commodi ies like F ench wine. In e ec , James ul illed he hope
exp essed by F ancis Walsingham in 1571 ha B i ain migh cease igh ing o e
hos ile no he n Eu opean ma ke s in o de o cul i a e peace ul comme cial
ies wi h wine p oduce s in Bo deaux and Bu gundy: «And hough F ance
canno yield p o i ha Flande s do h, ye may i yield some p o i wi h less
haza d, and mo e sa e y» (Digges, 1655: 121). B i ish comme ce wi h benign
Eu opean and Fa Eas e n ma ke s p oduced gains ha ou s ipped by a any
losses esul ing om debased F ench coins o un ai cu ency alua ions.
Maddison’s wo s ea s abou Cha les’s mone a y policy we e ealized wo
yea s a e he publica ion o his ea ise wi h he s a o he English Ci il Wa .
His long-held iew ha inancial «Leakes in his Ship o house» would esul
in popula up isings p o ed p escien (1641: 1). Bu Walsingham’s diploma ic
app oach o global comme ce was e e y bi as ealis ic as Maddison’s. Bo h
men knew ha en enched cons i uencies in go e nmen could ne e allow
England o o sake en i ely he in e es s in wa - o n no he n Eu ope; howe e ,
hei heo ies abou he ma ke place we e based upon di e en ounda ions
al oge he . Maddison p oposed blocking in e na ional ade in o de o sa egua d
England’s ese es o p ecious me als. Walsingham a gued p agma ically ha
inc easing he quan i y and quali y o ade be ween peace ul o eign ma ke s
would yield a solid e u n on in es men . Walsingham’s diploma ic a ionale
p e ailed because England depended upon impo s o he su i al. B i ain’s
consump ion o wine was disc e iona y, bu he populace would ha e lou ed
Maddison’s laws hal ing he impo a ion o F ench in ages.
Maddison (1641: ) c i iques as u ely B i ain’s «home-b ed monopolian
[monopolis ic] p ac ices» ha s i led ma ke place g ow h. Monopolies
con ac ed he money supply, causing domes ic ecessions while de aluing
B i ish cu ency ab oad. Bu Maddison’s analysis is o n be ween explaining
he logic o de alua ion and accusing F ench banke s o aud. Like hei
Eu opean coun e pa s, F ench banks held o eign cu ency ese es o
allow some isi ing ade s o buy wine on con ac , elimina ing he need o
me chan s o anspo hei own bullion o e seas. A weak English cu ency
allowed F ench banks o de alue B i ish coins by 10% e en hough F ance
debased he coins wi h alloys like coppe , a p ac ice esul ing om u moil on
he Con inen da ing om he 1590s. Maddison (1641: 27) asked his pee s o
no e ca e ully o eign go e nmen s’ «new exp essions» in denomina ing hei
cu ency. He saw p o ec ing B i ish cu ency as he key o «main aine he p ice
o ou kingdoms commodi ies, en s, and a izens» (1641: 24). Bu he would
w i l l i a m m. h aw l e y In Vino Ve i as: Old Wine Ma ke s in New Global Economic Ba les 31
ha e plunged England in o a dep ession i he had succeeded in es ic ing
B i ish impo s o he ba es essen ials in a ain a emp o hoa d domes ic gold
and sil e ese es.
Diploma s like Walsingham p oposed esol ing mone a y inequali ies
by expanding poli ical and cul u al ela ions wi h high-quali y F ench wine
ma ke places. They iewed as equi able he exchange o B i ish wool, ex iles,
lead, and in o F ench wine. They knew ha he mili a y expendi u es
equi ed o paci y hos ile Eu opean ma ke s could ne e be ecouped. As well,
Elizabe h’s closes ad iso , Lo d Bu leigh, saw an ad an age in de eloping
ade ela ions wi h his o ical allies ins ead o c ossing swo ds wi h powe ul
oes: «The ami ie ha we made mos accoun o , was ha which his c own
had wi h he house o Bu gundy, and no wi h Spain» (Digges, 1655: 370). No
B i ish o icial p oposed elimina ing all ade ba ie s, bu he c own’s mos
highly placed ad iso s held ha obus ma ke place ac i i y aised domes ic
li ing s anda ds pa ly h ough he impo a ion o supe io wines whose quali y
was assu ed by local connoisseu s and cul u al ins i u ions.
Wine ma ke s con ibu ed o he demise o Maddison’s ision o an insula ed
B i ish ma ke place. The old adage ha B i ish wine could be consumed only
h ough clenched ee h and closed eyes sugges ed ha F ench wine would en e
England’s ma ke s h ough no mal o illici channels. The B i ish c own was
loa he o elinquish i s p isage o wo uns ou o e e y wen y uns o impo ed
wine as well as i s bu le age o wo shillings pe un o o eign in ages. As
well, James g an ed wine monopolies o his pe sonal gain. He app o ed he
Ea l o Sou hamp on’s monopoly on «swee wines coming in o he ealm, a
he en o 6,000£» (G een, 1872: 427-428). The c own was said o « a m»
he «impos » o he monopolis s’ ade (G een, 1872: 427). Specialized wines
om small Eu opean ma ke s like C e e we e s ong candida es o leasing by
monopolis s, whe eas F ench wines we e di icul o monopolize because o
hei shee olume. Fu he mo e, James wai ed cus oms ees on he p odigious
quan i ies o wine impo ed by o eign ambassado s. The allu e o F ench wine
umped all a gumen s a o ing ha sh es ic ions on in e na ional comme ce.
Despi e bad ha es s and awkwa d anspo a ion sys ems, F ench wine
ma ke s emained islands o ela i e p ospe i y. The Chu ch’s possession o
as ac s o low- ax a able land helped o sus ain F ench inicul u e. Fa me s
p oducing g ain a a subsis ence le el ound ha plan ing hei ields wi h ines
inc eased hei incomes. Thus, in e na ional wine ade s and p oduce s we e
ex emely well posi ioned in F ance’s economy. The po s o La Rochelle,
Nan es, and Bo deaux p o i ed by shipping wine ab oad. Ma cel Lachi e
(1988: 123) es ima es ha by 1510 wine in excess o «80 000 onneaux dans
32
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les années excep ionelles» eached London, which egained i s s a us as a
«bon clien ». F ance’s Hen i IV depended upon wine expo du ies o und his
s a e, a b u e ac ha was igno ed occasionally by Pa isian poli icians. Bu he
quali y o F ench wine ma ke s d ew English ade s despi e expo a i s and
eligious di e ences. S ong comme cial ies encou aged F ance and England
o o m alliances in de using h ea s om Spain and No he n Eu ope. On he
pe sonal le el o in e na ional ela ions, Hen i admi ed Elizabe h’s cha ac e ,
which showed in «un b a e langage e un plaisan s yle» o he co espondence
(Xi ey, 1843: 227).
Wine had a co osi e e ec on bo de es ic ions be ween F ance and
England. Pe ishable wines needed o p oceed expedi iously h ough English
cus oms gi en ha oul wea he and con a y winds cons an ly delayed Channel
depa u es. Ad e se wea he condi ions could uin he p oduc in ansi e en
hough connoisseu s s a ioned a po s like Bo deaux added a laye o quali y
con ol o in ages expo ed in e na ionally. Mos impo an ly, wine c ossed
bo de s because i was celeb a ed wo ldwide on he symbolic le el. An hony
Reid (1989: 39) epo s ha Du ch explo e F ede ick de Hou man a ended
a wa e eas p esen ed by Sul an ala’ud-din Ri’aya Syah o Aceh (Suma a)
ha included « e y s ong b andywine», p obably Spanish eau a den e shipped
o he Fa Eas aboa d Po uguese essels. The ade in spi i s exe ed an
especially s ong in luence on B i ish ule s, whose enu e in o ice depended
in pa on hei espec o wine ma ke na a i es.
2. Heal hy Na a i es o Renaissance Wine Ma ke s
Classical medical philosophy cas s an au a o u h and espec abili y
upon Renaissance na a i es ex olling he bene i s o wine consump ion.
Consequen ly, impedimen s o he ee anspo a ion o wine we e iewed
in a nega i e ligh . Exo bi an expenses became a sou ce o in ense i i a ion
o wine me chan s o ced o a y a po s o call. Diploma s endu ed p ice
gouging while languishing a bo de checkpoin s, whe e « on ie news a e
ne e o any g ea alue», making o eign pos ings an added ha dship (Digges,
1655: 21). Walsingham’s o eign policy expe ise was was ed du ing s ops a
« on ie s», which we e «commonly be e u nished wi h ables hen ma e s
o u h» (Digges, 1655: 21). Thus, classical ep esen a ions o he medicinal
alue o wine aken in mode a ion placed i icul u e in a ca ego y a i ming he
ecei ed wisdom o he ancien s.
w i l l i a m m. h aw l e y In Vino Ve i as: Old Wine Ma ke s in New Global Economic Ba les 33
The gus a o y pleasu es and medicinal bene i s o wine had long made
i a s aple in B i ain. William Tu ne ’s 1562 publica ion, A New Boke o he
Na u es and P ope ies o all Wines ha a e commonly used he e in England,
d aws hea ily upon he classical medical philosophy o Galen and Hippoc a es.
Tu ne ea ed ha Elizabe han England lacked he in ellec ual d i e o g asp
ime-hono ed na a i es abou he connoisseu ship and medical applica ions
o wine. Galen amously used wine o a a ie y o he apeu ic p ocedu es.
He selec ed wine o disin ec wounds because i was s onge han wa e
wi hou being o e ly as ingen . He assigned each a ie y a speci ic emedial
unc ion o in e nal medical ailmen s. Galen’s knowledge o Medi e anean
and no he n Eu opean wines made him a connoisseu , bu his philosophical
aining and medical p owess len his commen a y a special au ho i y in he
Renaissance. Tu ne wished o ele a e B i ain’s wine connoisseu ship based
on ancien heo ies o wellness h ough inicul u e. The English we e mo e
amilia wi h Rhenish han F ench in ages un il he accession o James I, who
opened many wine-p oducing ma ke s o English ade s. B i ain’s close ies
o no he n Eu ope accoun o he popula i y o Rhenish wines, bu F ench
in ages egained a o as a esul o s abilized ma ke s in La Rochelle and
Bo deaux ollowing Hen i IV’s se lemen o domes ic eligious di isions.
Tu ne was jus i ied in belie ing ha B i ain had no bene i ed comple ely
om knowledge abou wine con ained in classical ea ises. English physicians
lacked many wines p esc ibed by Galen o ea wounds a a ious s ages in
he healing p ocess, pa icula ly du ing su u ing p ocedu es. Galen used d y
whi e wines om he Middle Eas and Eu ope o clean esh wounds because
o hei s yp ic and cooling p ope ies. Bu he ound ha «wines ha a e bo h
swee and awny o ange like he Fale nian a e unsui able» o esh wounds
because hey hea he in lamed issue, al hough hey could be used o educe
sca ing as he inju y healed (Johnson, 2011: 149). E en i Galen’s humou
heo y p o ed o be un ounded, his su gical echniques we e supe io o hose
o mos Renaissance p ac i ione s as a esul o his i e yea s o expe ience
healing auma ic inju ies a Alexand ia’s Coliseum. As well, Galen anked
wines acco ding o quali y anging om inega o in ages o «good quali y»,
such as «Sabine, Ad ian, and Alban, and like he A syine and he Ti acazene»
(Johnson, 2011: 279). Few Renaissance winemake s could a o d o mee
Galen’s en-yea s anda d o aging spi i s p ope ly, bu his eade s lea ned
o in ages om dis an egions as a esul o his encyclopaedic knowledge o
wine.
Fals a ’s sel -se ing p onouncemen s on classical G eek and Roman
medical heo y ela ing o wine connoisseu ship exceeded he common
34
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unde s anding in B i ain. E en connoisseu s in ea ly mode n Bo deaux sca cely
a ained Galen’s le el o sophis ica ion ega ding able wines. Ye he medical
heo ies o Hippoc a es, Galen, and Dioscu ides coun ed hea ily o a eling
B i ish diploma s whose ad anced age, emo e pos ings, and a duous jou neys
equi ed hem o ely upon es ablished medical ad ice. Illness was he p ima y
eason diploma s sough elie om hei assignmen s ab oad. Thus, English
connoisseu ship canno be discoun ed en i ely. In 1366, wine deemed by
Edwa d III’s bu le , William de S e e, o be «unsaleable in London on accoun
o i s hinness» was shipped p omp ly o Sco land o esale (Bain, 1888: 27).
De S e e consigned «20 casks o Gascon wine o poo colou » o he same
a e (Bain, 1888: 47). Howe e , Sco land became a iable des ina ion o ine
wines. James VI (la e James I o England) pu chased wines om F ance,
I aly, and he Middle Eas ia London, including « wo bu es o Romaneye,
ou bu es o Malueseye, [and] a ba el o Ty e» (Bain, 1888: 197-198). Hen y
VIII and Ca dinal Wolsey may ha e enjoyed he ines wine du ing sump uous
en e ainmen s a cou , bu James I ollowed sui wi h equal aplomb in ea ly
17 h cen u y Sco land and England.
A obus wine in as uc u e would ha e amelio a ed bu no esol ed
all inequali ies in he B i ish ma ke place. England could ne e hope o
equal F ance as a wine p oduce , bu he ule s ne e o mula ed policies o
de elop wine and wine- ela ed p oduc s in o second- ie indus ies bene i ing
B i ish coope s, me alwo ke s, bo le make s, ho icul u alis s, enologis s, and
consume s. B i ain’s Channel Islands we e capable o p oducing ai wines and
excellen apple b andy. Venice uled he ma ke in ine wine s emwa e un il
B i ain s umbled upon a me hod o in eg a e lead and glass, enabling domes ic
a isans o p oduce aluable d inking essels by he end o he 17 h cen u y.
The i ali y o he English wine ma ke was sapped by ailed policies, no low
wages and cheap p oduc s ab oad. Bu England pa onized ine F ench wine
p oduce s based upon na a i es o heal h and connoisseu ship da ing om
classical imes.
3. P agma ic Rep esen a ions o Renaissance Wine Ma ke s
Renaissance wine ma ke s lou ished globally because he quali y o
in ages could be de e mined wi hin he bounds o eason. P agma ic
philosophy is well sui ed o assess he u h in wine na a i es gi en ha he
success o in ages depends upon as e a he han Pla onic ideals. P agma is s
like Richa d Ro y ha e con ended ha u h is solely a cul u al ag eemen
w i l l i a m m. h aw l e y In Vino Ve i as: Old Wine Ma ke s in New Global Economic Ba les 35
aimed a p omo ing social p og ess h ough eason and mo ali y. O he
p agma is s like Hila y Pu nam (1985: 79) belie e ha «[…] he e eally is
such a hing as ge ing some hing igh » e en hough he u h is impossible
o sepa a e om ou cul u al ep esen a ions. Ro y (1982: xxx ii) has since
modi ied his posi ion o allow ha objec i e u h ma e s o he ex en ha
e ised philosophical inqui ies «[…] come o seem clea ly be e han hei
p edecesso s». The di icul ies encoun e ed by philosophe s in e alua ing
he u h in na a i es should come as a elie o connoisseu s, who ely upon
pe sonal expe ience o assess he excellence o in ages. Ra ing he quali y o
wine by egion and his o y is u he complica ed by he shipmen o g a s
o e seas. F ench ine clippings expo ed o he New Wo ld we e epa ia ed
success ully o es o e ineya ds decima ed by Phylloxe a insec s in he la e
19 h cen u y. Renewed F ench ha es s we e deemed supe io o hose ab oad
using g apes wi h iden ical gene ic ma ke s. So p agma ic philosophy can help
us de la e Hal’s idealis ic opposi ion o wine and place a ig lea on Fals a ’s
wine-soaked claims o embody classical i ues.
Renaissance diplomacy had no p edominan in e na ional language, bu
wine was he p incipal be e age ueling global ela ions. Once peace ea ies
wi h Eu opean compe i o s like Spain and Holland es o ed England’s access
o es ablished wine ma ke s, a ema kably s ong bond o med be ween James
I and Spanish ambassado de Acuña, known o Londone s as Gondoma ,
a con o e sial igu e owing o his ex a agan li es yle. Despi e his as
iendship, England and Spain wo ked assiduously o unco e s a e sec e s.
A o ney Gene al Coke accused he Ea l o Some se o eason o sha ing
wi h Gondoma « he con en s o o he Ambassado s’ le e s, o he g ea
dange o he King and kingdom» (G een, 1858 a: 348). James’s agen s b ibed
Spanish innkeepe s o gain access o le e s des ined o he King o Spain
be o e hey eached his hands. James was in o med o Gondoma ’s un la e ing
po ayal o his ea ing and d inking «so ecklessly ha i is hough he will
no be long li ed» (G een, 1858 a: 199). No wi hs anding ha sh diploma ic
c i iques, James and Gondoma oas ed one ano he wa mly du ing equen
s a e and p i a e ga he ings.
P agma ism also go e ned he ea men o F ench me chan s in B i ish
cou s. René Gi aul ’s 120 uns o F ench wine we e seized by B i ish cus oms
because he hi ed a Flemish ship o haul his ca go ac oss he Channel. Bu
Gi aul won his 1622 sui by explaining ha , despi e his bes e o s o ind
app op ia e anspo a ion o his wine ba els, «[…] he e was no English no
Sco ish essel o Nan es in which hey could be ca ied o e » (G een, 1858
b: 467). The B i ish Admi al y elaxed i s exac ing s anda ds o accommoda e
