Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
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I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal
Will we e e e adica e animal ube culosis?
Ch is ian Go áza 1*, José de la Fuen e1,2, Albe o Pe elló1,3 and Lucas Domínguez4
F om Se en h In e na ional Con e ence on Mycobac e ium bo is
Galway, I eland. 7-10 June 2022. h ps://www.mbo is2022.com
Abs ac
Two cha ac e is ics o he Mycobac e ium ube culosis complex (MTC) a e pa icula ly ele an o ube culo-
sis (TB) epidemiology and con ol, namely he abili y o his g oup o pa hogens o su i e in he en i onmen
and he eby acili a e indi ec ansmission ia wa e o eed, and he capaci y o in ec mul iple hos species includ-
ing human beings, ca le, wildli e, and domes ic animals o he han ca le. As a consequence, a he han keeping
he ocus on ce ain animal species ega ded as main enance hos s, we pos ula e ha i is ime o hink o complex
and dynamic mul i-hos MTC main enance communi ies whe e se e al wild and domes ic species and he en i on-
men con ibu e o pa hogen main enance. Rega ding he global si ua ion o animal TB, many indus ialized coun ies
ha e eached he O icially Tube culosis F ee s a us. Howe e , in ec ion o ca le wi h M. bo is s ill occu s in mos coun-
ies a ound he wo ld. In low- and middle-income coun ies, human and animal TB in ec ion is endemic and bo ine
TB con ol p og ams a e o en no implemen ed because s anda d TB con ol h ough es ing and culling, mo emen
con ol and slaugh e house inspec ion is oo expensi e o e hically unaccep able. In acing inc easingly complex epi-
demiological scena ios, mode n in eg a ed disease con ol should ely on h ee main pilla s: (1) a close in ol emen
o a me s including collabo a i e decision making, (2) expanding he su eillance and con ol a ge s o all h ee hos
ca ego ies, he en i onmen , and hei in e ac ions, and (3) se ing up new con ol schemes o upg ading es ablished
ones swi ching om single ool es and cull app oaches o in eg a ed ones including a m biosa e y and accina ion.
Keywo ds Accep abili y o con ol op ions, Fa m biosa e y, In eg a ed disease con ol, Main enance hos communi y,
Tes and cull, Vaccina ion
In oduc ion
Animal ube culosis (animal TB) is he disease caused
by in ec ion o wild and domes ic animals wi h Myco-
bac e ium bo is and closely ela ed membe s o he
Mycobac e ium ube culosis complex (MTC). The in ec-
ion o human beings wi h MTC membe s o he han M.
ube culosis is known as zoono ic TB. Despi e eno mous
e o s and cos s, comple e e adica ion o he causa i e
agen s o animal TB has so a only been achie ed in Aus-
alia, a coun y wi h no ele an non-bo ine MTC main-
enance hos s [1, 2].
This o e iew p oposes a c i ical look in o he u u e
o animal TB con ol. The i s sec ion add esses he
epidemiology o animal TB wi h a ocus on se e al
impo an bu s ill neglec ed aspec s such as he mul i-
hos na u e o he pa hogen, pa hogen gene ic di e si y,
and i s equen indi ec ansmission. The second one
add esses eme ging ools wi h a signi ican impac on
*Co espondence:
Ch is ian Go áza
Ch is ian.Go [email p o ec ed]
1 SaBio Ins i u o de In es igación en Recu sos Cinegé icos IREC (UCLM &
CSIC), Ciudad Real, Spain
2 Depa men o Ve e ina y Pa hobiology, Cen e o Ve e ina y Heal h
Sciences, Oklahoma S a e Uni e si y, S illwa e , OK, USA
3 Sabio ec, Camino de Moledo es s/n. 13003, Ciudad Real 13071, Spain
4 VISAVET and Depa men o Animal Heal h-Facul y o Ve e ina y
Medicine, Uni e sidad Complu ense Mad id, Mad id, Spain
Page 2 o 10
Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
unde s anding TB epidemiology. The hi d sec ion b ie ly
desc ibes he global si ua ion o animal TB om a one
heal h pe spec i e, i.e., no only in ca le, bu also in wild-
li e and in domes ic animals di e en om ca le which
a e o en neglec ed ega ding TB con ol. The ou h and
inal sec ion deals wi h he ools a ailable o TB con-
ol in ca le and in o he hos s and he oppo uni ies o
upg ade he cu en TB con ol s a egies based on be e
s akeholde in ol emen and he concep o in eg a ed
disease con ol.
Di e si y in hehos species, genome
and ansmission inanimal ube culosis
Two cha ac e is ics o he MTC a e ex emely ele an
o animal TB epidemiology and con ol, namely hei
abili y o su i e in he en i onmen and hei capaci y
o in ec mul iple hos species. Rega ding he o me ,
mycobac e ia e ol ed om, and many species a e, en i-
onmen al o ganisms. E en he species which e ol ed o
adap o mammalian hos s, such as he membe s o he
MTC, a e s ill able o su i e in he en i onmen [3–6].
This means ha one cha ac e is ic o M. bo is is he abil-
i y o indi ec ansmission media ed by subs a es such
as wa e o eed.
This has ob ious implica ions o a m biosa e y and
p e en i e medicine, o ins ance, by conside ing eed-
o wa e -media ed c oss species ansmission [4, 7], bu
also o he slaugh e house inspec ion o ca le, since
gas oin es inal ansmission has been shown o p oduce
di e en lesion se e i y and dis ibu ion bo h a e expe -
imen al in ec ions [8] and in na u al se ings [9].
Rega ding he la e , some mycobac e ia became spe-
cialized in pa asi izing mammals, and so he MTC
e ol ed, including M. bo is, possibly he MTC membe
wi h he b oades hos ange [10, 11]. Mycobac e ium
bo is can in ec se e al di e en wild and domes ic hos
species, and he mo e hos s a e pa o a gi en sys em,
he mo e likely i is ha TB is main ained h ough ime in
his sys em [12]. Fu he mo e, in ec ions wi h membe s
o he MTC a e gene ally ch onic and debili a ing, lead-
ing o p olonged oppo uni ies o ansmission and o
con amina ing he en i onmen [13].
In ac , i is ime o o ge he classical single o wo-
hos sys em iews, whe e only ce ain species we e
ega ded as main enance hos s [14] and hink o complex
and dynamic mul i-hos MTC main enance communi-
ies whe e se e al di e en wild and domes ic species
and he en i onmen con ibu e o build a ne wo k ha
acili a es pa hogen su i al (Fig.1). The success ul New
Zealand example o p og essi e M. bo is e adica ion a -
ge s an almos comple e hos communi y including ca -
le, wildli e (b ush ail possums, T ichosu us ulpecula)
and domes ic animals o he han ca le ( a med dee ) and
is now aiming a TB eedom in ca le and a med dee
by 2026, TB eedom in possums by 2040, and biological
e adica ion o Mycobac e ium bo is by 2055.
Ano he aspec ele an o pa hogen ansmission
is associa ed wi h i s gene ic di e si y and he di e se
species-speci ic hos esponses o in ec ion. Rega ding
he human pa hogen M. ube culosis, gene ic he e oge-
nei y includes egion- and hos -speci ic a ia ions ha
may a ec pa hogen ansmission, p e alence, suscep-
ibili y o d ug ea men s and accine de elopmen
[15–18]. Some species o clones o he MTC demons a e
ex ao dina ily li le i ulence o ce ain hos s, such as
Eu opean badge s (Meles meles) o ins ance. In some
popula ions, mos o he in ec ed badge s ha e no isible
lesions and appea appa en ly heal hy indi iduals [19].
By con as , in ec ed Eu asian wild boa (Sus sco a) a e
mo e likely o de elop gene alized TB in Medi e anean
Ibe ia han in A lan ic habi a s [20]. Among he possible
explana ions, i could be ha he se e e d ough pe iods
cha ac e is ic o he Medi e anean summe con ib-
u e o igge clinical TB h ough an e ec on hos con-
di ion and immuni y, h ough inc eased exposu e and
ein ec ion a wa e holes, o h ough a combina ion o
bo h mechanisms [21–23]. In ec ions wi h no signi ican
lesion de elopmen (non- isible lesions, NVL) can las
o long pe iods o ime (yea s) bu may e en ually e e
o clinical disease leading o pa hogen shedding as soon
as he e is a change in he immune s a us o he in ec ed
indi idual [13, 19]. Wha e e he cause, a iabili y in
bo h pa hogens and hos s ep esen s an addi ional chal-
lenge o TB con ol [24].
Eme ging echnologies and hei impac onTB
epidemiology andcon ol
Two new echnologies al eady con ibu e signi ican ly o
ou unde s anding o indi ec MTC ansmission, pa ho-
gen gene ic di e si y, and complex hos and pa hogen
ne wo ks: whole genome sequencing (WGS) and en i-
onmen al DNA. The i s one, WGS, is inc easingly used
o es ablish he sou ce o ou b eaks and unde s and how
in ec ion sp eads, i.e., he di ec ionali y o ansmission
[25]. I also allows deep insigh s in o he phylogene ics
and e olu ion o MTC membe s and he possible mecha-
nisms o local adap a ion, pa hogenici y, and p o ec i e
immuni y [26]. Al e na i ely, acking di e en species
wi h GPS de ices o came a apping can be help ul in
iden i ying isk ho spo s and quan i ying c oss-species
in e ac ions in complex hos communi ies [27–30].
Fu he mo e, he p esence o MTC in he en i onmen
opens he possibili y o non-in asi e MTC moni o -
ing and e-DNA-based isk analyses [31]. En i onmen-
al DNA has been ins umen al o unde s anding MTC
shedding pa e ns [6] and iden i ying en i onmen al
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Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
isk ho spo s [4, 32]. Simple e-DNA echnology such as
sponge sampling has he po en ial o signi ican ly con-
ibu e o on- a m isk iden i ica ion and isk-mi iga ion
[31, 33]. This echnology shows ea ly p omise and migh
soon become deployable as a ield ool.
O he new echnologies anging om selec i e b eed-
ing [34] o a i icial in elligence (AI) and machine lea n-
ing (ML) also ha e he po en ial o con ibu e o he
u u e animal TB con ol [35, 36]. Howe e , much
needed b eak h oughs in TB diagnosis a e s ill pending,
meaning ha in- i o TB diagnosis in all hos species s ill
elies on me hods wi h a ela i ely poo sensi i i y and
a iable speci ici y [24].
A global pe spec i e onanimal ube culosis
Animal TB ep esen s a global challenge o heal h and
economy [37]. Success ul animal TB con ol, up o he
le el o being decla ed O icially Tube culosis F ee
(OTF), has been achie ed in many indus ialized coun-
ies including he USA and Canada in No h Ame ica,
mos membe s o he Eu opean Union, and Aus alia,
among o he s. Howe e , in ec ion o ca le wi h M. bo is
is epo ed in 44% o 188 WOAH e i o ies om Janua y
Fig. 1 The main enance communi y concep . The uppe panel ep esen s 7 Mycobac e ium ube culosis complex (MTC) hos species
including ca le, domes ic animals o he han ca le (sheep, goa ), and wildli e ( ed and allow dee , wild boa , badge ) and hei space- ime
coincidence ( ep esen ed by he line hickness) in he Ibe ian Peninsula, as assessed h ough came a ap ne wo ks. The lowe panel shows
how he compe ence o a hos communi y o main ain MTC ci cula ion o e ime is la ge in mul i-hos sys ems (a highe hos species ichness)
han in single- o wo-hos ones. (modi ied om e e ences [6] and [9])
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Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
2017 o June 2018 [38] and is likely o occu in mos
coun ies a ound he wo ld, including mos OTF ones.
In many o hese, ca le TB occu s a e y low p e alence
due o he implemen a ion o con ol o e adica ion p o-
g ams o e long pe iods o ime [39]. In he UK, cu en
bo ine TB (bTB) he d p e alence le els o 6–14% a e
below he es ima ed 20–40% p e alence p e-compulso y
con ols in he 1940s-50s bu s ill a away om e adica-
ion [39]. In he EU, he Membe S a es a e esponsible
o he e adica ion o bTB and may ecei e communi y
inancial suppo o he e adica ion p og am. Howe e ,
unding o bTB con ol schemes is being phased ou in
EU. To mee he unding c i e ia, Membe S a es mus
s a e e adica ion o bo ine TB as he inal a ge o hei
p og am [40]. Howe e , comple e e adica ion o bTB is
no only di icul o achie e in high p e alence coun ies,
bu also in coun ies wi h low p opo ions o TB-in ec ed
he ds including some OTF coun ies whe e TB p e a-
lence is cu en ly ising [41]. Figu e2 compa es he ime
ends in ca le TB he d p e alence in he EU and in New
Zealand.
In con as wi h indus ialized coun ies, in de elop-
ing low- and middle-income coun ies (LMIC) whe e
human and animal TB in ec ion is endemic and bo ine
TB con ol p og ams a e no implemen ed, he si ua ion
is like ha desc ibed a he beginning o he 20 h cen u y
when one ou o nine human dea hs we e due o TB and
10–20% o hem had an animal o igin [42, 43]. In Uganda,
7.5% o he annual 559/100,000 pop o al TB cases a e
due o zoono ic TB [44] and he ca le he d p e alence
is as high as 28% [45]. In Nepal, young women who a e
mo e in ol ed in handling wi h li es ock o milking a e
mo e likely o su e ex apulmona y TB [46], and 18% o
ca le and 32% o wa e bu alo es TB posi i e [41]. In
LMICs, s anda d TB con ol h ough es ing and culling,
mo emen con ol and slaugh e house inspec ion a e
o en oo expensi e o jus unaccep able due o economic
o eligious easons, and he TB si ua ion in domes ic
animals o he han ca le emains la gely unexplo ed
(Fig. 3). Conside ing ha o many LMICs he e a e
bigge challenges ega ding animal heal h, accina ion
eme ges as he only po en ially accep able in e en ion.
One majo complica ing ac o p e en ing animal
TB e adica ion is i s occu ence in wild mammal spe-
cies [39]. This is he case o whi e- ailed dee (Odocoi-
leus i ginianus) in Michigan, he b ush ail possum in
New Zealand, o di e en wildli e hos s in se e al pa s
o Eu ope. In many o he egions wo ldwide, he ole o
wildli e MTC main enance hos s, o e en hei e y exis -
ence, emains unexplo ed [47]. E en wo se, while i is
well es ablished ha se e al domes ic animals o he han
ca le such as sheep, goa s, pigs, o camelids can con ib-
u e o MTC main enance, he si ua ion o TB in domes ic
hos s o he han ca le emains la gely unknown in mos
egions o he wo ld. The Wo ld Bank (2011; h ps://
docum en s1. wo ld bank . o g/ cu a ed/ en/ 32367 14681
79364 909/ pd / 66859 0WP00 PUBL0 0Li e s ock 0A la
s0web. pd ) lis ed TB among he op en mos impo an
animal diseases no only in ca le bu also in wa e bu -
alo, pigs, and camelids – a clea hin o he global el-
e ance o domes ic animals o he han ca le o MTC
main enance. This is c i ical because in ce ain egions i
has been es ima ed ha domes ic animals o he han ca -
le ep esen abou 50% o he o al in ec ed animals, and
ha he sum o in ec ed wildli e and in ec ed domes ic
hos s o he han ca le comple ely ou numbe s in ec ed
ca le [48].
The way o wa d: omsingle ool oin eg a ed
disease con ol
As s a ed abo e, MTC is likely o pe sis in complex
mul i-hos communi ies a he han in ela i ely sim-
ple one- o wo-hos sys ems. Howe e , knowing which
hos s a e mos ele an in a speci ic sys em as well as
hei abundance, dis ibu ion and in e ac ion is no easy.
In I eland o ins ance, es ima ing he badge popula ion
size was highly challenging [49] and e ealed a a he
small numbe (63,188; 5–95 h pe cen ile 48,037–79,315)
as compa ed o 7.3 million ca le, 5.5 million sheep,
and 1.6 million pigs. The I ish TB hos sys em migh be
locally mo e complex and include sika dee (Ce us nip-
pon), oo [25, 50]. In A gen ina, open-ai domes ic pigs
and in asi e e al pigs (wild suids) con ibu e o MTC
main enance along wi h ca le [51] and he hos commu-
ni y migh also include o he wildli e [52]. Thus, he i s
equi emen when aced an endemic animal TB si ua ion
is unning an epidemiological diagnosis, i.e., desc ib-
ing which species, bo h domes ic and wild, a e locally
Fig. 2 Mean annual ca le ube culosis he d p e alence
in he Eu opean Union (EU, blue) and in New Zealand
(yellow) om 2004 o 2021. The dashed line indica es EU da a
excluding he UK a e B exi . Con ol a ge s all h ee hos ca ego ies
in New Zealand bu almos only ca le in he EU
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Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
in ol ed in MTC main enance, hei numbe s, and how
hey a e connec ed o each o he [31].
O e ime, ce ain egions epea edly show high ca le
TB incidences and alloca ion o mo e esou ces o hese
a eas may be needed o comba he disease [53]. Al e na-
i ely, p oblem egions migh hypo he ically be excluded
om he gene al con ol p og am o g an ed ce ain
excep ions o cope wi h pa icula ly challenging isk ac-
o s. Bo h op ions would imply a geog aphical zoning o
disease con ol.
Beyond zoning, he classic con ol measu es o ca -
le TB con ol a e diagnos ic es ing and slaugh e o
es -posi i e animals, combined wi h mo emen con ol
o in ec ed he ds and pos -mo em inspec ion o ca le
a he aba oi o p esence o ypical issue lesions [39,
54]. Age culling was epo edly one o he ing edien s o
he success ul e adica ion in Aus alia [1] bu is no com-
monly lis ed among he TB con ol ools in ca le.
In wildli e, he op ions o dealing wi h TB a e gene ally
limi ed o seg ega ion o domes ic animals om wildli e,
which is a ge ing ca le TB con ol a he han wildli e
TB ( a m biosa e y; [33]), wildli e-o ien ed biosa e y and
hygiene (e.g., sa e ca cass disposal; [55]), andom o a -
ge ed culling o he wildli e hos s [56, 57], o accina ion
[58]. Inno a i e and p omising combined app oaches
include a badge es and accina e o emo e ial in
No he n I eland [57]. The hi d ele an hos g oup
howe e , namely he TB-suscep ible domes ic animals
o he han ca le, is o en neglec ed ega ding TB con ol.
Se e al o he abo e-men ioned ools can possibly be
applied o mo e han one hos ca ego y (Fig.4).
The ca le TB con ol oolbox includes he well-es ab-
lished es and cull, bu also he equally aluable a m
Fig. 3 Challenges o global animal ube culosis e adica ion. A In many low- and middle-income coun ies (LMIC), culling as a means o disease
con ol is unaccep able o economic o eligious easons. B The ole o domes ic animals o he han ca le in in ec ion main enance is unknown
and o en neglec ed, bo h in LMIC and in indus ialized coun ies. C Many coun ies lack su icien knowledge on he Mycobac e ium ube culosis
complex main enance communi y. This gap hinde s imp o emen s in ube culosis con ol by a ge ing he whole hos communi y. D Close
in e ac ions be ween hos ca ego ies e idence he need o add ess all ele an hos s a he same ime o success ul ube culosis con ol

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Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
biosa e y and accina ion. These eme ging ools dese e
sho commen s as hey a e expec ed o g ow in ele-
ance o e his decade.
Fa m biosa e y consis s o he managemen and physi-
cal measu es designed o educe he isk o in oduc-
ion, es ablishmen and sp ead o in ec ions (biosecu i y
measu es, BSMs). I is a key disease con ol ool, espe-
cially whe e no accine is a ailable no au ho ized and
when mul i-hos communi ies inc ease he isks, like
o animal TB [59]. Biosecu i y challenges a y g ea ly
among p oduc ion sys ems, and hei managemen is
in luenced by nume ous geog aphic, en i onmen al, eco-
nomic, socio-cul u al, and poli ical ac o s. In Medi e a-
nean bee ca le a ms, BSMs such as seg ega ing wildli e
and ca le a wa e holes had an e ec in e ms o educ-
ing ca le TB incidence [60]. O he po en ial isk poin s,
wa e e s, sp ings, and wa e holes we e he mos com-
mon ones, and BSMs ela ed o wa e managemen we e
iden i ied as essen ial on mos a ms, along wi h BSMs
ega ding wildli e managemen . Fa me s p io i ized
low-cos BSMs bu 75% o he a me s adop ed he p o-
posed plans o some ex en indica ing ha on- a m isk
mi iga ion p o ocols a e p ac ical and easible [33]. Spain,
whe e wildli e is egionally ega ded as an impo an ba -
ie o TB con ol in ca le, has egula ed wildli e man-
agemen and biosa e y in game species in an a emp o
lessen his isk (h ps:// www. boe. es/ busca / doc. php? id=
BOE-A- 2020- 2109).
Rega ding accina ion, he las 10 yea s ha e wi nessed
eno mous p og ess in wildli e, ca le, and li es ock o he
han ca le. Badge accina ion wi h BCG has been
p o en o con ibu e o TB con ol unde ield condi-
ions and hus badge accina ion is now in eg a ed in o
na ional con ol p og ams in he EU Membe S a e I e-
land and in he UK [61–64]. The e ec i eness o ca le
accina ion wi h BCG was ecen ly e iewed and se e al
new ield ials we e published, indica ing a 28–85% e i-
cacy unde ield condi ions [65–67] and es ima ing ha ,
insi ua ions o low o mode a e p e alence (< 15%), using
BCG could lead o an OTF si ua ion in 10 yea s [67].
In he UK, ca le accina ion wi h BCG is expec ed o
become in eg a ed in o he na ional TB con ol p og am
a e de eloping a DIVA es and gaining WOAH accep -
ance o suppo he UK’s ade ag eemen s [68].
Hea -inac i a ed mycobac e ia a e sa e, ha e less logis-
ic cons ain s han li e accines, and a e al eady used in
comme cial pa a ube culosis (Johne’s disease) accines
such as Sili um™ (CZ Vaccines, Po iño, Spain). Hea
inac i a ed M. bo is is based on he same p inciple and
has been shown o p oduce immuni y agains MTC in
wild boa and domes ic pigs [69–71], badge s [72], goa s
[73], ed dee [74], ca le [75], zeb a ish [76, 77], and A i-
can bu alo (Synce us ca i ) (P o . Ani a Michel, pe sonal
communica ion). Fu he mo e, hea inac i a ed myco-
bac e ia con e c oss-p o ec ion agains a b oad ange
o pa hogens including Salmonella in pigs [78]. Two suc-
cess ul ield ials ha e been un in wild boa [70, 79], bu
no licensing has aken place so a . P o ec i e mecha-
nisms ha e been associa ed wi h ac i a ion o inna e
immune esponse h ough he complemen C3 pa hway
in esponse o biomolecules such as mycobac e ial p o-
eins and glycans such as Galα1-3Galβ1-(3)4GlcNAc-R
(α-Gal) p esen in glycop o eins and glycolipids [80]. Fu -
he mo e, he immune esponse o hea -inac i a ed M.
bo is has ansla ed in o adju an applica ions o boos
immune esponse o he con ol o ca le ick in es a-
ions [81, 82].
The challenge o animal TB con ol policies is no
only he unce ain y associa ed wi h epidemiological
mechanisms d i ing he disease p ocess, bu also he
geog aphical and empo al a ia ion in public and s ake-
holde pe cep ion abou he accep abili y and e ec i e-
ness o he a ailable con ol op ions [83, 84]. Wo ldwide,
changes in he human demog aphic cha ac e is ics and
social a i udes a e unde way, which a e likely o o ce
a c i ical ee alua ion o he TB con ol s a egies [85].
The success o any in e en ion is p edica ed on he abil-
i y and willingness o ele an human ac o s o ou inely
implemen hem. This migh be shaped by he pe cep-
ions and subjec i e expe iences o a me s and o he
ac o s. S anda d es and cull disease con ol s a egies,
o ins ance, ha e signi ican impac s on he sus ainabil-
i y o a ming, especially in small holdings [86] and his
can a ec a me a i udes owa ds disease con ol. In he
Fig. 4 Animal ube culosis con ol ools. In eg a ed schemes should
conside all h ee hos ca ego ies, ca le, domes ic animals o he
han ca le, and wildli e (le ). In e en ion op ions ( igh ) should
ideally be combined and a ge mo e han one hos ca ego y
whene e possible. Solid lines indica e egula use (in some
coun ies), dashed lines indica e possible o occasional use
Page 7 o 10
Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
wo s -case scena io, he dis us can pe mea e poli ics
and hinde he con inua ion o success ul schemes. Social
science insigh s a e needed o unde s and how indi id-
ual, sys emic, and mo e- han-human ac o s in e sec
and in luence one ano he and a e c ucial o e ec i ely
engage all ele an s akeholde s [39, 87]. In his ega d,
New Zealand is a showcase whe e li es ock a me s a e
e ec i ely in ol ed in he na ional animal TB con ol
s a egy h ough he Animal Heal h Boa d. This kind o
public-p i a e pa ne ship app oach could be u he
explo ed o s eng hen animal disease con ol.
In mos pa s o he globe, a comple e e adica ion o M.
bo is is unlikely o be achie ed in he sho o medium
e m. E en wo se, a his global scale, animal TB p e a-
lence igu es a e no imp o ing ecen ly o any o he
h ee hos ca ego ies excep o e y speci ic se ings.
This causes signi ican and p olonged cos s and c ea es
inc easing dis us among he a me s and he ield e -
e ina ians abou he p ac icali y o ongoing TB con ol
schemes. Hence, i he scien i ic communi y and he ani-
mal heal h manage s wan o make signi ican p og ess,
we need o go beyond he pa ed oads.
In on o inc easingly complex epidemiological sce-
na ios, success ul animal TB con ol equi es i s and
o emos a clea ision and objec i es and he willing-
ness o hold i m [2]. Once he ision is clea , he s a -
ing poin is a comp ehensi e assessmen o he in ol ed
hos species, en i onmen al ac o s, and social con ex :
he epidemiological diagnosis [31]. One example (in
Spanish) is he Plan de Ac uación sob e TUBe culosis en
Especies Sil es es (PATUBES, h ps:// www. mapa. gob.
es/ es/ g anad e ia/ emas/ sanid ad- animal- higie ne- g anad
e a/ pa ub es2017_ 3_ cm30- 378321. pd ). Exis ing p o-
g ammes in I eland and New Zealand ep esen ongoing
examples o mul iple hos managemen when a emp ing
o con ol animal TB. A e his comp ehensi e assess-
men o he epidemiological si ua ion, an in eg a ed dis-
ease con ol scheme can be se up based on h ee pilla s:
(1) a close in ol emen o he a me s including collabo-
a i e decision making, (2) expanding he con ol a ge
o he en i onmen and all h ee hos ca ego ies and
hei in e ac ions, and (3) upg ading es ablished con ol
schemes om single- ool o in eg a ed ones including
a m biosa e y and he s a egic use o accina ion along
wi h bols e ing he exis ing es and cull schemes (Fig.5).
Abb e ia ions
AI A i icial in elligence
BCG Bacille Calme e Gue in
BSM Biosecu i y measu e
bTB Bo ine ube culosis
DIVA Di e en ia ing in ec ed om accina ed animals
e-DNA En i onmen al DNA
LMIC Low- and middle-income coun ies
M. bo is Mycobac e ium bo is
ML Machine lea ning
MTC Mycobac e ium ube culosis complex
OTF O icially Tube culosis F ee
PATUBES Plan de Ac uación sob e TUBe culosis en Especies Sil es es
TB Tube culosis
WGS Whole genome sequencing
WOAH Wo ld O ganiza ion o Animal Heal h
Acknowledgemen s
The co esponding au ho acknowledges he kind in i a ion o a end and
p esen a plena y alk a he Mbo is 2022 con e ence in Galway, I eland.
Abou his supplemen
This a icle has been published as pa o I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal Volume 76
Supplemen 1, 2023: Se en h In e na ional Con e ence on Mycobac e ium
bo is. The ull con en s o he supplemen a e a ailable online a h ps://
i ish e jo u nal. biome dcen al. com/ a ic les/ suppl emen s/ olume- 76- suppl
emen -1.
Au ho s’ con ibu ions
CG planned he e iew and w o e he i s manusc ip d a . JdF, AP and LD
we e majo con ibu o s o he planning and edi ing o he manusc ip . All
au ho s ead and app o ed he inal manusc ip .
Funding
This e iew is a con ibu ion o p ojec MYCOTRAINING
(SBPLY/19/180501/000174) unded by Jun a de Comunidades de Cas illa-La
Mancha, Spain and EU-FEDER.
A ailabili y o da a and ma e ials
No applicable.
Decla a ions
E hics app o al and consen o pa icipa e
No applicable.
Consen o publica ion
No applicable.
Compe ing in e es s
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no compe ing in e es s.
Fig. 5 A schema ic ision o in eg a ed animal ube culosis con ol.
A e de ining he in ol ed hos species and hei (en i onmen
media ed) in e ac ions, an in eg a ed scheme should a ge
all ele an hos s and make use o all a ailable con ol ools
while in ol ing he a me s and o he ele an ac o s in decision
making
Page 8 o 10
Go áza e al. I ish Ve e ina y Jou nal (2023) 76:24
Recei ed: 26 Sep embe 2022 Accep ed: 13 Sep embe 2023
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