ma e ials
Re iew
S a us and P ospec s o Cubic Silicon Ca bide Powe
Elec onics De ice Technology
Fan Li 1, Fab izio Rocca o e 2, Giuseppe G eco 2, Pa ick Fio enza 2, F ancesco La Via 2,
Amado Pé ez-Tomas 3, Jona han Edwa d E ans 4, C aig A hu Fishe 4, Finn Alec Monaghan 4,
Philip And ew Mawby 5and Mike Jennings 4,*


Ci a ion: Li, F.; Rocca o e, F.; G eco,
G.; Fio enza, P.; La Via, F.;
Pé ez-Tomas, A.; E ans, J.E.; Fishe ,
C.A.; Monaghan, F.A.; Mawby,
P.A.; e al. S a us and P ospec s o
Cubic Silicon Ca bide Powe
Elec onics De ice Technology.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
ma14195831
Academic Edi o : Alexande A.
Lebede
Recei ed: 20 July 2021
Accep ed: 25 Sep embe 2021
Published: 5 Oc obe 2021
Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al
wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in
published maps and ins i u ional a il-
ia ions.
Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Newpo Wa e Fab, Ca di Rd, Du yn, Newpo NP10 8YJ, UK; [email p o ec ed]
2Consiglio Nazionale delle Rice che—Is i u o pe la Mic oele onica e Mic osis emi (CNR-IMM),
S ada VIII n. 5-Zona Indus iale, 95121 Ca ania, I aly; [email p o ec ed].i (F.R.);
[email p o ec ed].i (G.G.); [email p o ec ed].i (P.F.); [email p o ec ed].i (F.L.V.)
3Ins i u Ca alàde Nanociència i Nano ecnologia (ICN2), Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona,
08193 Ba celona, Spain; amado [email p o ec ed]
4
Facul y o Science, Bay Campus, College o Enginee ing, Swansea Uni e si y, Fabian Way, C ymlyn Bu ows,
Skewen, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK; [email p o ec ed] (J.E.E.); [email p o ec ed] (C.A.F.);
[email p o ec ed] (F.A.M.)
5School o Enginee ing, The Uni e si y o Wa wick, Gibbe Hill Rd, Co en y CV4 7AL, UK;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: m. [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Wide bandgap (WBG) semiconduc o s a e becoming mo e widely accep ed o use in
powe elec onics due o hei supe io elec ical ene gy e iciencies and imp o ed powe densi ies.
Al hough WBG cubic silicon ca bide (3C-SiC) displays a modes bandgap compa ed o i s comme cial
coun e pa s (4H-silicon ca bide and gallium ni ide), his ma e ial has excellen a ibu es as he
WBG semiconduc o o choice o low- esis ance, eliable diode and MOS de ices. A p esen he
ma e ial emains i mly in he esea ch domain due o nume ous echnological impedimen s ha
hampe i s widesp ead adop ion. The mos ob ious obs acle is de ec - ee 3C-SiC; p esen ly, 3C-
SiC bulk and he e oepi axial (on-silicon) display high de ec densi ies such as s acking aul s and
an iphase bounda ies. Mo eo e , he e oepi axy 3C-SiC-on-silicon means low empe a u e p ocessing
budge s a e imposed upon he sys em (max. empe a u e limi ed o ~1400
◦
C) limi ing selec i e
doping ealisa ion. This pape will gi e a b ie o e iew o some o he scien i ic aspec s associa ed
wi h 3C-SiC p ocessing echnology in addi ion o ocussing on he la es s a e o he a esul s. A
pa icula ocus will be placed upon key p ocess s eps such as Scho ky and ohmic con ac s, ion
implan a ion and MOS p ocessing including eliabili y. Finally, he pape will discuss some de ice
p o o ypes (diodes and MOSFET) and d aw conclusions a ound he p ospec s o 3C-SiC de ices
based upon he p ocessing echnology p esen ed.
Keywo ds: 3C-SiC; cubic silicon ca bide; powe elec onics
1. In oduc ion
Powe elec onics is a key enabling echnology o ene gy gene a ion, ansmission,
dis ibu ion and mo ion. The impo ance o his echnology is emphasised by he ac
ha a 40% inc ease in ene gy consump ion wi hin 20 yea s is expec ed [
1
]. Mo eo e ,
80% o elec ical ene gy will be p ocessed by a powe elec onic con e e by 2030 [
2
].
Recen ly, powe elec onic con e e and de ice echnology has been d i en by he huge
demand seen wi hin he elec ic ehicle (EV) sec o . EV sales a e se o each 18 million
by 2023, ep esen ing 16.2% o o al global ehicle sales [
3
]. Toge he , hese ci cums ances
p ojec he e e -inc easing demand o powe elec onics on a global scale. In o de o mee
his equi ed capaci y and while s ill sa egua ding ou en i onmen , powe con e e s
wi h nea -100% ene gy-e iciency ha a e ligh weigh and compac need o be deli e ed.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma14195831 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ma e ials
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 2 o 22
Fu he mo e, a en ion mus be paid o he li e ime (o longe i y) o hese sys ems, meaning
inc eased eliabili y wi hin he ield.
Such a s ep-change in e en ion wi hin he wo ld o powe elec onics equi es ad-
ancemen s wi hin he undamen al semiconduc o ma e ials ha se e o unde pin ou
ene gy landscape. The unde pinning echnologies wi h espec o powe elec onics a e i s
cons i uen high- ol age semiconduc o de ices. Consequen ly, hese de ices ep esen he
la ges cos associa ed wi h he o e all powe con e e (40% o he o al bill o ma e ials o
a ypical 50 kW EV in e e ). T adi ionally o he las 50 yea s, silicon (Si) has domina ed
he powe elec onics indus y as he semiconduc o ma e ial o choice. Howe e , he
demand o inc eased ene gy-e iciency and powe densi y oge he wi h highe ol age
and cu en ope a ion mean ha a new e a in semiconduc o ma e ials has dawned. Wide
bandgap (WBG) semiconduc o ma e ials come wi h he p omise o o e come he inhe en
ma e ial limi s imposed by Si. 4H-silicon ca bide (4H-SiC) and gallium ni ide (2H-GaN o
GaN) ha e eme ged as he WBG ma e ials o choice ha ha e eplaced Si in many powe
elec onic applica ions.
Fo he momen , GaN de ices ha a e based mainly on he high elec on mobili y
ansis o (HEMT) a chi ec u e a e limi ed comme cially o a maximum o 650 V. F om
he eliabili y pe spec i e, GaN HEMTs ha e adi ionally su e ed om a poo he mal
conduc i i y and he “cu en collapse” phenomenon, deg ading hei abili y o unc ion
wi hin ha sh en i onmen s and high eliabili y elec onics [
4
]. 4H-SiC, on he o he hand,
su e s om nume ous eliabili y issues ha a e hampe ing i s widesp ead up ake wi hin
he au omo i e sec o . In pa icula , al hough SiC T ench MOSFETs exhibi supe io on-
s a e esis ance compa ed o bo h GaN and silicon, he uggedness o he ga e oxide is
he limi ing ac o . Gonzalez e al. [
5
] no e ha he compe ing WBG ma e ial echnologies
cen e a ound he 650 V ma k.
Ea ly s age esea ch de ices a e based on so-called ul awide bandgap oxide ma e ials
such as gallium oxide (Ga
2
O
3
, wi h
β
-Ga
2
O
3
being he mos s able). Thus a ,
β
-Ga
2
O
3
su e s om a poo he mal conduc i i y, a modes bulk mobili y and lack o p- ype
conduc i i y. O he ul awide bandgap ma e ials, including diamond and aluminium
ni ide (AlN), su e om a lack o n- ype conduc i i y and a poo bulk elec on mobili y,
espec i ely. I should be no ed ha GaN,
β
-Ga
2
O
3
, and AlN a e di ec bandgap ma e ials,
which se e ely limi s bipola ope a ion, which is equi ed o highe ol ages [6].
This e iew will place he cubic SiC (3C-SiC) ma e ial in o he con ex o powe elec-
onic de ices; howe e , i should be no ed ha o he applica ion a eas such as biomedical
senso s and mic o-elec omechanical sys ems (MEMS) a e also app op ia e and mo e pop-
ula o his SiC poly ype. The au ho s will endea ou o p o ide a b ie insigh in o some
o he ad an ages o 3C-SiC om he scien i ic ma e ials pe spec i e in addi ion o some
o he echnological issues ha mus be o e come o ealise compe i i e powe MOSFETs
and diodes. In pa icula , he ocus will be placed on undamen al semiconduc o ab-
ica ion echnologies; he 3C-SiC/SiO
2
me al-oxide-semiconduc o (MOS) in e ace, ion
implan a ion, ohmic and Scho ky con ac s.
2. Cubic Silicon Ca bide (3C-SiC): S uc u e and Ma e ial P ope ies o Powe
Elec onic Applica ion
The cubic o m o SiC, coined ‘3C-SiC’, is one o many s able poly ypes cha ac e ised
by i s wide bandgap and bilaye s acking sequence o ABCABC
. . .
[
7
]. The esul ing
s uc u e is a pu e zinc-blende exhibi ing an ene gy band gap o 2.3–2.4 eV [
8
], lowe
compa ed o o he majo SiC poly ypes, bu wi h a highe elec on mobili y and sa u a ion
eloci y owing o i s highe deg ee o symme y. Al hough 3C-SiC has a smalle ene gy
bandgap compa ed o i s wide bandgap coun e pa s such as 4H-SiC and GaN, his ma e ial
displays iso opy o many o he desi ed powe de ice ma e ial cha ac e is ics such as
a alanche coe icien s and high elec on mobili y [
9
,
10
]. Ano he ad an age o 3C-SiC
is i s ela i ely la ge he modynamic s abili y meaning ha bulk ma e ial can be g own
a educed he mal budge s (below 1500
◦
C). Table 1shows he impo an physical and
elec ical p ope ies o 3C-SiC compa ed o o he comme cial powe de ice ma e ials such
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 3 o 22
as Si, GaN and 4H-SiC. Likewise included a e p omising oxide and ni ide ul a-WBG
ma e ials. The 3C-SiC in insic ca ie concen a ion (~10
−1
cm
−3
) is se e al o de s o
magni ude lowe han in Si, bu no as low as 4H-SiC o GaN. Mo eo e , 3C-SiC has a
he mal conduc i i y h ee imes ha o Si. Consequen ly, 3C-SiC de ices should ha e
lowe leakage cu en s wi h he abili y o ope a e a mode a ely highe empe a u es when
compa ed o Si and GaN. O he key aspec s a e he easonable c i ical elec ic ield alue
esul ing in a highe b eakdown o he ma e ial. On analysis o hese ma e ial p ope ies,
3C-SiC is a p omising semiconduc o o powe semiconduc o de ices in he egion o
600–1000 V. On e lec ion, he e exis s he possibili y o ob ain a a ge ed b eakdown ol age
(V
B
) wi h hinne , mo e highly doped d i laye s, which esul s in a signi ican educ ion o
he speci ic on- esis ance (R
ON
) compa ed o Si de ices. The e o e, de ices ha a e smalle
and mo e e icien can be ab ica ed, minimizing bo h he s a ic and dynamic losses.
Table 1.
App op ia e physical and elec ical p ope ies o cubic silicon ca bide (3C-SiC) compa ed o o he wide bandgap
ma e ials (da a aken a 300 K).
Ma e ial Band Gap,
(eV)
In insic
Ca ie
Conc.,
(cm−3)
Dielec ic
Cons an
Elec on
Mobili y
(cm2/Vs)
C i ical
Elec ic
Field
(MV/cm)
Sa u a ion
Veloci y
(107cm/s)
The mal
Conduc i i y
(W/cmK)
Baliga
Figu e o
Me i
Si 1.12 1.5 ×1010 11.8 1350 0.2 1.0 1.5 1
GaAs 1.42 1.8 ×10613.1 8500 0.4 1.2 0.55 29
3C-SiC 2.36 1.5 ×10−19.7 800 1.4 2.5 3.2 86
4H-SiC 3.26 8.2 ×10−910 720 a
650 c2.8 2.0 4.5 556
2H-GaN 3.39 1.9 ×10−10 9.9 1000 a
2000 **
3.75 a
3.3 * 2.5 1.3 3175
Ga2O34.85
2.6 ×10−9
−1.0 ×
10−22
10 300 8 1.8–2.0 0.1–0.3 6171
Diamond 5.45 1.6 ×10−27 5.5 3800 10 2.7 22 8.4 ×104
2H-AlN 6.2 10−34 8.5 300 12 * 1.7 2.85 1.8 ×104
No e: ais mobili y along a-axis, cis mobili y along c-axis, * e e s o an es ima ed alue and ** e e s o he 2DEG mobili y.
The 3C-SiC Baliga igu e o me i (BFOM) and BFOM o high- equency, high-powe
unipola swi ches (BHFFOM) [
11
] a e 140 and 25, espec i ely. These alues seem e y
modes compa ed o he equi alen alues o mo e ad anced WBG powe semiconduc o s
such as 4H-SiC and GaN. These key pe o mance indica o s o powe semiconduc o s
quan i y he minimum conduc ion loss du ing DC ope a ion (BFOM) and he minimum
conduc ion loss a high equencies (BHFFOM). Indeed, examina ion o hese alues sug-
ges s ha lowe esis ance de ices a e possible based on 4H-SiC and GaN when compa ed
o 3C-SiC. Howe e , his ad an age mus be weighed agains powe de ice eliabili y and
ield li e ime wi hin a con e e applica ion. In his ega d, 3C-SiC is he clea winne ,
bene i ing om a a ou able me al-oxide-semiconduc o (MOS) in e ace when compa ed
o i s 4H-SiC coun e pa . The bandgap alue (E
g
) o 3C-SiC was epo ed by Bimbe g
e al. [
12
] and la e by Goldbe g e al. [
8
] (see Table 1). Figu e 1shows he conduc ion band
o se s o he majo powe semiconduc o s wi h silicon dioxide (SiO
2
). F om he igu e i is
seen ha he band o se (
ΦB
) be ween 3C-SiC and SiO
2
is 3.7 eV. This is signi ican ly la ge
when compa ed o he o he powe semiconduc o s wi h hei alues anging be ween
2.7 eV–3.2 eV.
The ami ica ions o his impo an p ope y a e ealised in e ms o educed ga e
leakage cu en o a gi en oxide elec ic ield. The impo an cu en anspo mecha-
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 4 o 22
nism which ela es o his physical pa ame e is he Fowle -No dheim (F-N) unnelling
mechanism. The F-N unnelling cu en is gi en by:
JFN =
A
ΦB
Eox2exp −BΦB3/2
Eox !(1)
whe e E
ox
is he oxide elec ic ield,
ΦB
is he ba ie heigh and A, B a e cons an alues. I
can be seen ha due o F-N unnelling he oxide elec ic ield alue mus be educed by
2–3 imes in 4H-SiC compa ed o he 3C-SiC sys em.
Figu e 1.
Majo powe semiconduc o s’ band s uc u e o 3C-SiC, 4H-SiC, 6H-SiC and silicon,
illus a ing band o se s wi h silicon dioxide (SiO2).
Fa di and Van Zeghb oeck [
13
] de eloped an empi ical b eakdown ield model based
on he b eakdown ol age and ield alues ha we e ob ained om published expe imen al
da a [
14
,
15
]. This p o ed o be mo e han adequa e o 3C-SiC de ice design, ha ing
ma ched elec ical b eakdown cha ac e is ics o many published epo s. Mo eo e , he
model has been u ilised in comme cial 2-dimensional de ice design sui es [
16
–
18
]. Fi ing
hese impac ionisa ion coe icien s o he elec ic ield and subs i u ing in o he impac
ionisa ion in eg al leads o closed- o m solu ions o he b eakdown ol age and deple ion
laye wid h. These ma e ial pa ame e s allow o he ini ial s ages o powe de ice design.
The closed- o m solu ions o he b eakdown ol age and pa allel-plane deple ion egion
wid h a e gi en as:
BVPP =7.88 ×1014ND
−3/4 (2)
WPP =9.12 ×1010ND
−7/8 (3)
whe e BV
PP
is he b eakdown ol age, N
D
is he doping concen a ion and W
PP
is he
pa allel-plane deple ion egion wid h. The b eakdown ol age and deple ion egion wid hs
p edic ed by Equa ions (2) and (3), espec i ely, a e shown in Figu e 2.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 5 o 22
Figu e 2.
(
a
) Pa allel plane b eakdown ol age (BV
PP
) and (
b
) deple ion wid h (W
PP
) as a unc ion o
doping (ND) o 3C-SiC.
3. P ocessing Technology o 3C-SiC
3.1. Scho ky Con ac
One o he main challenges in he p ocessing o elec onic de ices based on 3C-SiC is
he achie emen o good quali y ec i ying con ac s, i.e., wi h almos ideal cha ac e is ics
and easonably low leakage cu en . Se e al wo ks in es iga ed he p ope ies o Scho ky
con ac s on n- ype 3C-SiC o e he las h ee decades. In pa icula , as summa ized in
Table 2
, mos o hese wo ks ha e been pe o med on 3C-SiC laye s g own on Si subs a es,
using high wo k- unc ion Scho ky con ac me als (e.g., Au o P ). Howe e , he expe imen-
al alues o he Scho ky Ba ie Heigh (SBH), as de e mined by I-V o C-V measu emen s,
ypically lie below 1 eV, i.e., which a e much lowe han he heo e ical p edic ions o he
Scho ky–Mo heo y.
E iksson e al. [
19
] demons a ed he key ole o he ma e ial quali y on he p ope ies
o he me al/3C-SiC con ac s, showing ha double posi ion bounda ies (DPB) in 3C-
SiC laye s g own on o on-axis 4H-SiC can be “kille de ec s” in la ge a ea de ices ha
comp omise he unc ionali y o he ec i ying ba ie [
20
]. In his wo k, a no el app oach
based on Conduc i e A omic Fo ce Mic oscopy (C-AFM) was p oposed o cha ac e ize
Scho ky ba ie s on 3C-SiC in small a ea de ices, es ablishing a di ec ela ion be ween he
elec ical p ope ies o he ba ie and he con ac a ea. In pa icula , educing he size o
he con ac esul ed in a d as ic inc ease in he measu ed Au/3C-SiC ba ie heigh , un il
eaching a alue o 1.39 eV o a diode adius o 5
µ
m, hus demons a ing ha he poo
ec i ying beha iou was due o he high de ec s densi y in he ma e ial [19].
Mo e ecen ly, using a simila nanoscale app oach on 3C-SiC laye s g own on Si,
Giannazzo e al. [
21
] con i med ha he de ice yield, de ined as he ac ion o diodes wi h
a leakage cu en lowe han 10
µ
A/cm
2
(see Figu e 3a,b) inc eases wi h dec easing he
de ice a ea. Mo eo e , his wo k be e cla i ied he ole o speci ic de ec s by di ec p obing
o he 3C-SiC su ace by C-AFM (see Figu e 3c–e). In pa icula , hese measu emen s
showed ha an iphase bounda ies (APBs) a e he main de ec s esponsible o e e se
leakage cu en , while bo h APBs and s acking aul s (SFs) wo ked as p e e en ial cu en
pa hs unde o wa d bias o he con ac .

Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 6 o 22
Figu e 3.
(
a
) Schema ic o he C-AFM se -up o p obe P /3C-SiC Scho ky diodes o di e en a eas.
(
b
) Pe cen age o he diodes (yield) wi h a e e se leakage lowe han 10
µ
A cm
−2
, as a unc ion o
diode a ea. (
c
) Schema ic o he C-AFM se -up o p obe he 3C-SiC su ace and cu en maps acqui ed
unde o wa d bias (
d
) and e e se bias (
e
). Adap ed wi h pe mission om Re . [
21
]. Copy igh
©
2021 Wiley VCH.
Table 2. Collec ion o li e a u e esul s on Scho ky con ac s on 3C-SiC ma e ials.
Me al 3C-SiC
O ien a ion
G owing
Subs a e
Scho ky Ba ie
Heigh (eV) Ideali y Fac o Ex ac ion Me hod Re .
Au 100 Si 1.15 N.A. C-V [22]
Au 100 Si 1.2 1.5 C-V [23]
Au 111, 100 Si 1.0–1.6 N.A. C-V [24]
P 1.3–1.8
P 100 Si 0.95 (as dep)
−1.35 (800 ◦C) N.A. C-V [25]
Pd
100 Si
0.92, 0.95
N.A. C-V, XPS [26]
Au 0.87, 0.78
Co 0.73, 0.69
Au 100 Si 0.47–0.69 1.58–2.30 I-V [27]
Pd 100 Si 0.42–0.60 3.02–5.28 I-V [28]
Ti
100 3C-SiC
0.4, N.A.
N.A. I-V, C-V [29]
Au 0.67, 0.65
Ni 0.56, 0.54
Au 111 4H-SiC 0.7, 1.39 >2 I-V, I-V by C-AFM [19]
P 100 3C-SiC 0.77 (as dep)
−1.12 (500 ◦C) N.A. [30]
Au 111 4H-SiC 0.73–0.76 N.A. I-V by C-AFM [31]
Clea ly, all hese esul s indica e ha a signi ican imp o emen o he ma e ial quali y
(namely, a educ ion o speci ic de ec s’ densi y) emains he only possible ou e o he
achie emen o ope a ional Scho ky con ac s on 3C-SiC ma e ials sui able o powe
elec onics applica ions.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 7 o 22
3.2. Ion Implan a ion and Ac i a ion
High impu i y doping is necessa y o low ohmic con ac and shee esis ance in
3C-SiC powe de ices. The mos commonly used dopan s o 3C-SiC a e ni ogen o
phospho us o n- ype, and mainly aluminium o p- ype.
The low di usi i y o ypical dopan s in SiC below 1800
◦
C [
32
] means ha highly
doped selec i e egions o SiC powe de ices a e o en achie ed by ion implan a ion. As
implan ed dopan species a e nea ly always in e s i ial (no chemically bonded), hey a e
he e o e elec ically ine . The e o e, an ex a pos implan annealing (PIA) s ep is ypically
deployed o epai he la ice damage and place he implan ed dopan s in o hei co ec
subs i u ional posi ions. This is e e ed o as ‘ac i a ion’. Ex emely high empe a u es
a e equi ed o he SiC PIA; abo e 1400
◦
C [
33
,
34
] is common o n- ype SiC and highe
s ill (>1600
◦
C) o p- ype [
35
–
37
]. The highe p- ype PIA empe a u e is equi ed because
accep o s si deepe in he band gap han dono s, and a e consequen ly mo e challenging
o ac i a e. Rega ding 3C-SiC, he mos common o m is g own he e oepi axially on Si. As
a consequence, hese ac i a ion annealing empe a u es a e o en limi ed o 1412
◦
C (Si
mel ing poin ). Pe o ming he ion implan a ion a a highe empe a u e helps o educe
he induced la ice damage; hus, i is o en applied o high dose implan a ions. Since
he ion implan a ion induced la ice damage inc eases wi h he numbe o dopan s pe
uni olume (namely he dose), ho implan s a e almos manda o y when he implan
concen a ion goes abo e 1019 cm−3[38].
High empe a u e PIA also causes a ough semiconduc o su ace, which is enhanced
wi hin implan ed egions and can deg ade he pe o mance o c i ical in e aces such as
Scho ky con ac s and MOSFET channels [
39
–
41
]. A g aphi e capping laye , demons a ed
o be e ec i e up o 1800
◦
C [
35
], is o en u ilised o p o ec he SiC su ace du ing he
PIA and educe he esul ing oughness. Compa ing he ew examples in he li e a u e,
n- ype implan ed 3C-SiC ha e been ex ensi ely s udied o a ying annealing condi ions
(1150
◦
C o 1400
◦
C) bo h wi h a g aphi e capping laye [
42
] and wi hou [
43
,
44
]. I was
shown ha he e was li le ad an age demons a ed when using a g aphi e cap, likely due
o he annealing empe a u e (below 1400
◦
C due o he Si subs a e) no being high enough
o oughen he su ace. In [
45
], i was shown ha by combing he use o ho implan and
pulsed excime lase p ocessing, which only anneals he su ace egion, 3C-SiC c ys al
damage due o implan a ion can be e ec i ely epai ed wi hou deg ading he su ace
mo phology (ene gy densi y 0.2444 J/cm
2
a 10 Hz), hus p o iding an al e na i e solu ion
ha allows high empe a u e PIA o be conduc ed on Si subs a es.
Despi e esul ing in a oughe su ace, a highe empe a u e is p e e ed in a ou
o a highe dopan ac i a ion a e. A ibu ed o a smalle band gap, hus a shallowe
dono le el (55 meV), he ac i a ion o n- ype dopan s in 3C-SiC is easie han in 4H-
SiC (
80–130 meV
) [
46
]. S udies on n- ype 3C-SiC sugges ha ni ogen has ad an ages
o e phospho ous o use as an n- ype dopan , wi h bo h ewe de ec s and lowe e-
sis i i y achie ed [
42
]. Compa ed wi h he N sa u a ion densi y in 4H-SiC (a ound
5×1019 cm−3
) [
47
], he le el in 3C-SiC u ns ou o be simila a a ound 7
×
10
19
cm
−3
[
48
].
Wi h he alence band aligned o o he poly ypes, he deep accep o le el issue s ill exis s
o 3C-SiC. Adding o he limi ed p ocessing empe a u e, p- ype implan and ac i a ion
has long been an issue o 3C-SiC-on-Si [
38
,
49
]. In ecen yea s, he de elopmen s on
ee s anding 3C-SiC ma e ials [
50
,
51
] make PIA empe a u es abo e 1400
◦
C possible,
hus acili a ing a signi ican s ep o wa d in 3C-SiC powe de ice ab ica ion. Howe e ,
he knowledge o p- ype 3C-SiC ion implan a ion and ac i a ion is e y limi ed and e-
qui es u he in es iga ion. Table 3summa ises some pas esul s published on he ion
implan a ion and ac i a ion o dopan s in 3C-SiC.
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 8 o 22
Table 3. A summa y o li e a u e da a on he ion implan a ion and ac i a ion o 3C-SiC.
Ma e ial Implan a ion PIA Ac i a ion Ra e Re .
N-Type
2×1017 cm−3p- ype
3C-SiC(100)/Si
RT
1
, N, peak 5
×
10
19
/5
×
10
20
cm
−3
None
0.44%/0.55%
[52]
400 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−31.35%
800 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019/5 ×
1020cm−315%/50.8%
1×1018 cm−3p- ype
3C-SiC(100)/Si
800 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−3
None
12.4%
[53]
900 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−314.8%
1000 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−318.4%
1100 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−336.0%
1200 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−352.2%
1×1016 cm−3p- ype
3C-SiC(100) RT, N, peak 1 ×1020 cm−310 min in A a 1500 ◦C 68% [49]
1×1016 cm−3p- ype
3C-SiC(100) RT, N, peak 6 ×1019 cm−310 min in A a 1400 ◦C 80% [54]
<1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype
3C-SiC(100)/Si RT, N, peak 5 ×1020 cm−31 h in A a 1150 ◦C 6.5% [46]
1 h in A a 1350 ◦C 13%
<1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype
3C-SiC(100)/Si RT, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−3
1 h in A a 1150 ◦C 40%
[44]
1 h in A a 1350 ◦C 57%
1 h in A a 1400 ◦C 100%
<1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype
3C-SiC(100/Si RT, N, peak 5 ×1019/5 ×1020 cm−31 h in A a 1350 ◦C 60%/17% [55]
<1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype
3C-SiC(100/Si RT, N, peak 1.5 ×1019/6 ×1020 cm−31 h in A a 1375 ◦C 100%/12% [49]
P- ype
2.8 ×1016 cm−3n- ype
3C-SiC(100)/Si
RT and 850 ◦C, Al and B, peak 5 ×
1019–1 ×1020 cm−3
10 min in N
2
a 1200
◦
C
Too low, n- ype
beha iou [50]
<1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype
3C-SiC(100)/Si 500 ◦C, Al, peak 1 ×1020 cm−3317–546 h in A a 1300
◦C
Weak p- ype beha iou
[38]
1Room empe a u e.
3.3. Ohmic Con ac
Due o he equi emen o an ex a PIA p ocess, achie ing ohmic con ac s on implan ed
egions is mo e di icul han on epilaye s. As is he case in 4H-SiC [
56
], his is pa icula ly
ue o p- ype 3C-SiC because he accep o le els a e deepe , as p e iously men ioned.
A ibu ed o a lowe conduc ion band edge (3.8 eV om acuum le el), he heo e ical
SBH be ween 3C-SiC and commonly used me als is 0.9 eV lowe han o 4H-SiC. This is
con enien o n- ype ohmic con ac ab ica ion, while p- ype emains as challenging as
in o he poly ypes. Mos wo k on SiC ohmic con ac s is di ided in o h ee opics, namely
su ace p epa a ion, con ac me al, and pos me allisa ion annealing (PMA).
The 3C-SiC epilaye su ace oughness can a y signi ican ly, om as low as 1 nm
depending on he g ow h echnique [
43
] o high alues eaching ens o nm [
57
]. To
achie e a ela i ely smoo h semiconduc o su ace o ohmic con ac ab ica ion, chemical
mechanical polishing (CMP) is o en used p io o any u he p ocessing. Noh e al. [
58
]
show ha he RMS su ace oughness educed om
≈
20 nm o
≈
7.5 nm. Consequen ly, he
ohmic con ac esis i i y
ρc
was educed by an o de o magni ude, om
8.6 ×10−1Ωcm2
o 2.8
×
10
−2Ω
cm
2
. As alluded o p e iously, p ac ical de ice ab ica ion equi es a
high empe a u e (abo e 1400
◦
C) PIA ea men , which has been shown o deg ade he
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 9 o 22
su ace ollowing ini ial CMP. In [
43
], a de ailed discussion was epo ed a ound he PIA
e ec s on 3C-SiC su ace mo phology and i s co ela ion o he esul ing ρc alues. I was
communica ed ha al hough se e e damage o he su ace can limi pe o mance, he
ρc
alue will no be se iously a ec ed gi en ha he su ace oughness alue emains below
10 nm.
Many me als o me al s acks, including Al
[54,59–61]
, Ti [
54
,
59
–
61
], Ni [
37
,
54
,
57
,
58
,
60
–
63
],
Ni/Ti [
43
,
55
,
61
], Au/Ti [
61
], P [
63
], W [
37
], and TiW [
64
], ha e been analysed o 3C-SiC
n- ype ohmic con ac ab ica ion. I was obse ed ha Al con ac s ypically display he lowes
ρc
, which was explained by he nea -ze o SBH be ween Al and 3C-SiC (
∼
0 eV) compa ed o
Ti (0.4 eV) and Ni (0.55 eV) [
54
]. None heless, bo h Ti and Al a e eadily oxidised in ai , wi h
Al cha ac e ised by a mel ing poin below 600
◦
C. Con e sely, Ni demons a es a slow a e o
oxida ion a oom empe a u e combined wi h a e y high mel ing poin . Al hough Ni eac s
wi h SiC a empe a u es highe han 500
◦
C, he Ni silicide mic os uc u e helps o educe he
SBH. This in u n leads o a lowe
ρc
. Consequen ly, Ni is he mos commonly u ilised me al
con ac o n- ype SiC.
The e ec s o PMA on ohmic con ac s ab ica ed on n- ype implan ed 3C-SiC (
Figu e 4a
)
shows a con inuous educ ion o con ac esis i i y wi h inc easing annealing empe a u e up
o 1000
◦
C, abo e which he esis ance inc eases. De ails o he silicide o ma ion a e shown by
XRD analysis in Figu e 4b. I can be in e ed ha be ween 500
◦
C and 600
◦
C, a coexis ence
o Ni
2
Si (121) and Ni
31
Si
12
(300) is p esen . The Ni
31
Si
12
(300) peak g adually diminishes a
highe empe a u e, while he Ni
2
Si (002) becomes p ominen and enhances con inuously o
empe a u es eaching 1100
◦
C. No ing ha Ni
2
Si (121) is eadily o med a 600
◦
C, wi h no
o he no iceable phases abo e ha empe a u e, he Ni
2
Si (002) enhanced phase could explain
he con ac esis ance educ ion om 800
◦
C o 1000
◦
C. I is wo h men ioning ha , due o he
e y low SBH o highly doped n- ype 3C-SiC/me al in e ace, as-deposi ed ohmic con ac s can
be ob ained wi hou PMA p ocessing [
59
,
65
]. This makes i possible o in eg a e SiC ansis o
echnologies wi h o he low empe a u e echnologies, such as a omic laye deposi ed high
k dielec ics (e.g., H O
2
o Al
2
O
3
) wi h ela i ely low g ow h empe a u es and classic wa e
bonded o he e ojunc ion de ices.
Figu e 4.
(
a
) Speci ic con ac esis ance dependence on he PMA empe a u e and, (
b
) XRD measu e-
men s o me al/3C-SiC (6
×
10
20
cm
−3
) in e ace a e a ious PMA empe a u es indica ing silicide
o ma ion. Con ac was ab ica ed by deposi ing (Ti30 nm/Ni100 nm) on 5
×
10
20
cm
−3
N implan ed
3C-SiC.
Compa ed o n- ype 3C-SiC, e en less is known abou p- ype 3C-SiC ohmic con ac s.
As wi h 4H-SiC, Al based alloys a e mos commonly used o p- ype ohmic con ac since
e y o en Al is also he doping species. A Ti in e laye is o en applied no only o
imp o e he adhesion, bu he TiC p oduc a e PMA also helps o educe he con ac
esis ance [36,66].
Among he e y limi ed da a, he lowes speci ic con ac esis ances (10
−5
–10
−4Ω
cm
2
)
a e ob ained om ials made on p- ype epilaye s [
66
,
67
], which elimina es he issue o
accep o ac i a ion. Howe e , when ab ica ing powe de ices such as MOSFETs, i is
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 16 o 22
con ac s showed a blocking ol age o 85 V wi h a low o wa d ol age d op o ~0.85 V [
86
].
Gold con ac s o 3C-SiC o Scho ky diode applica ions displayed a a iance o he ba ie
heigh wi h con ac a ea [
19
]. This can be explained by he de ec densi y inhe en wi hin
he s a ing ma e ial. Mo e ecen Scho ky diode epo s sugges ha he leakage cu en is
no domina ed by SF densi y, as he leakage cu en had a g ea e dependency on he ba ie
heigh [
87
]. Ba ie heigh nonuni o mi ies o he Scho ky ba ie ha e been obse ed
on la e al 3C-SiC-on-Si diodes, implica ing complex apping/de- apping phenomena
obse ed wi hin he ma e ial [
88
]. The in o ma ion acqui ed has led o alida ed echnology
compu e aided design (TCAD) models o accu a e 3C-SiC de ice simula ion [9].
4.2. PiN Diode
A ibu ed o i s smalle bandgap, 3C-SiC has a lowe p-n junc ion buil -in po en ial
(
≈
1.75 V) han 4H-SiC (
≈
3 V). In [
9
] i is shown ha , up o 4.5 kV blocking ol age,
he o wa d ol age d op a 250 A/cm
2
emains lowe o 3C-SiC han 4H-SiC in PiN
diode applica ions. Un il ecen ly, howe e , ab ica ing 3C-SiC PiN diodes has been
di icul , no only because o he high de ec densi y wi hin 3C-SiC epilaye s caused by
he la ice misma ch wi h Si [
21
], bu also due o he la e al na u e o s uc u es necessa y
o a oid he 3C-SiC/Si he e ojunc ion. While he e a e se e al epo s on achie ing n-
ype conduc ion in 3C-SiC epi/implan ed laye s [
42
,
48
,
66
], and p- ype conduc ion in Al
doped epilaye s [
66
,
89
], i emains an obs acle o p- ype implan ed laye s. This is mainly
due o he pos implan a ion anneal empe a u e, which was limi ed o he Si mel ing
poin , 1414
◦
C, which is no su icien o ac i a e he deep le el Al dopan s, e en i ho
implan a ion was applied.
Low ol age la e al p-n junc ion diodes we e p e iously demons a ed ia he o -
ma ion o implan ed n+ egions in p- ype doped 3C-SiC epilaye s g own on Si sub-
s a es [
90
,
91
]. Howe e , o make he mos o i s bene i s in powe applica ions, a e ical
s uc u e is necessa y. 3C-SiC g ow h me hods ha e imp o ed in ecen yea s [
6
,
92
,
93
],
and bulk 3C-SiC a e now a ailable [
51
]; hus, a highe annealing empe a u e can now be
applied. Ve ical PiN diodes we e ab ica ed on ee s anding 3C-SiC ma e ial by implan -
ing Al in n- ype doped epilaye and he o wa d cu en densi y is shown in Figu e 11a.
The buil -in po en ial o he ab ica ed PiN diode is a ound 2 V, sligh ly highe han he he-
o e ical alue 1.75 V [
9
], bu i is s ill much lowe han he ypical >3 V o 4H-SiC [
94
–
96
].
The o wa d cu en densi y goes abo e 1000 A/cm
2
a 2.7 V, and he lowes di e en ial
esis ance is es ima ed o be 0.5 m
Ω
cm
2
. The de ice on–o a io a
±
5 V is as high as 10
9
,
as shown in Figu e 11b, and a blocking ol age abo e 100 V is achie ed (Figu e 11c). An
obse a ion o no e wi h espec o bipola PiN diode I-V cha ac e isa ion is ha no bipola
deg ada ion has been epo ed in he li e a u e wi h espec o 3C-SiC pn diodes. This is
mos likely due o he ac ha a en ion is being placed upon mo e undamen al de ice
limi ing issues such as SF-induced leakage cu en s.
Figu e 11.
(
a
) Fo wa d J-V cha ac e is ics, (
b
) on-o pe o mance a
±
5 V, and (
c
) e e se b eakdown
o bulk 3C-SiC PiN diodes.

Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 17 o 22
4.3. MOSFET
Ea ly 3C-SiC powe de ices we e p edominan ly demons a ed ia he e oepi axial
3C-SiC g own by chemical apou deposi ion (CVD) abo e silicon subs a es in addi ion
o ee-s anding wa e s, p o ided by HOYA Ad anced Semiconduc o Technologies Co
L d. [
50
,
74
,
97
,
98
]. Powe de ices we e based on diode and MOSFET (la e al and e ical)
a chi ec u es. De ices demons a ed by 3C-SiC CVD g own on undulan -silicon subs a es
su e ed om p ema u e b eakdown ol age and high leakage cu en s due o APBs and
SF inhe en wi hin he epi axial laye o he de ice [99,100].
Typical cha ac e is ics showed ha achie ing b eakdown ol ages in excess o 600 V
was challenging since he leakage cu en emana ing om he o me ly men ioned p-n
junc ion SFs deg aded pe o mance in a e minal manne [
100
]. High cu en cellula
e ical 3C-SiC MOSFETs we e demons a ed by Abe e al. [
74
]. This de ice achie ed an
imp essi e 1220 A/cm
2
cu en densi y based on a single cell. This co esponds o a cu en
ca ying capabili y o 41–132 A o a 3
×
3 mm
2
, 600 V chip. SF-induced leakage cu en
hampe ed he o -s a e pe o mance o his MOSFET. CVD deposi ed ga es p oduced
600 V-MOSFETs wi h a high channel mobili y o 200 cm
2
/Vs [
101
]. The high channel
mobili y and low speci ic on-s a e esis ance o 5–7 m
Ω
cm
2
we e b ough abou by a
speci ic ac i a ion anneal o 1600
◦
C in a gon (A ), in o de o ealise a smoo h 3C-SiC
su ace p io o deposi ion o he ga e oxide. They used 600 V DMOSFETs o show ha
ma e ial quali y has a s ong in luence on he blocking beha iou . In con as , he on-s a e
elec ical cha ac e is ics we e una ec ed [
102
]. A 200V educ ion in b eakdown ol age
was obse ed o DMOSFETs wi h a high c ys al de ec densi y.
Due o he lowe in e ace ap densi y a he 3C-SiC/SiO
2
in e ace compa ed wi h
4H-SiC, MOSFETs a e he mos s udied 3C-SiC de ices, a ge ing o lowe on- esis ance
han 4H-SiC MOSFETs in medium ol age applica ions (600–1200V). High ield-e ec
mobili y alues we e demons a ed by ab ica ing 3C-SiC MOSFETs wi h a high cu en
densi y o 1220 A/cm
2
and encou aging scaling ea u es we e shown in 1 mm
×
1 mm and
3 mm
×
3 mm de ices [
74
]. In addi ion, i is shown in [
65
,
68
] ha by emo ing he apid
he mal anneal o he ohmic con ac , he ield-e ec mobili y can be u he imp o ed.
Despi e he achie emen s made in o wa d condi ions, eaching blocking abili y (BV) close
o he heo e ical alues is s ill a challenge, mainly because o he high leakage cu en
induced by c ys al de ec s such as SFs [
97
]. By educing s acking aul s o ~90 cm
−1
, he
de ice blocking abili y (5
×
10
15
cm
−3
doped d i egion) can be signi ican ly imp o ed o
600 V [
50
], close o he unipola limi . Table 6is a summa y o he ecen li e a u e esul s
o 3C-SiC MOSFET ab ica ion.
Table 6. A summa y o li e a u e da a on he o wa d and e e se pe o mance o 3C-SiC MOSFETs.
S uc u e Channel Oxida ion POA µFE (cm2/V.s) BV(V) Re .
La e al 2×1017 cm−3
p- ype epi
We O2, 1150 ◦C,
2.5 h
A , 1150 ◦C, 0.5 h +
We O2, 950 ◦C, 2 h ≈165 - [73]
La e al 1×1016 cm−3
p- ype epi We O2, 1100 ◦CA , 1150 ◦C, 0.5 h +
We O2, 800 ◦C, 0.5 h ≈229 - [103]
La e al 1×1018 cm−3
Al implan ed D y O2, 1300 ◦C - ≈80 - [65]
Ve ical 1×1018 cm−3
Al implan ed
D y O2, 1100 ◦C,
1.5 h We O2, 950 ◦C, 3 h ≈28 ≈100 [68]
Ve ical 1×1018 cm−3
Al implan ed
D y O2, 1100 ◦C,
1.5 h We O2, 950 ◦C, 3 h ≈45 550–600 [50]
Ve ical Al implan ed We O2, 1150 ◦C, - >100 [104]
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 18 o 22
5. Conclusions
This pape ga e an o e iew o he p ocessing echnology associa ed wi h he e oepi-
axial 3C-SiC-on-silicon, including he mo e ecen ly a ailable bulk 3C-SiC s udies. This
opic is highly ele an oday since his ma e ial p esen s some clea ad an ages o e i s
comme cial WBG compe i o s in e ms o MOS channel esis ance and eliabili y. These
ac o s a e o he u mos impo ance when conside ing ha i is he au omo i e sec o
ha is d i ing he widesp ead up ake o WBG echnologies. Scho ky con ac p ocessing
on 3C-SiC has mainly been conduc ed on he e oepi axy (on-silicon) u ilising high wo k
unc ion me als such as Au o P . These ec i ying con ac s a e ypically cha ac e ised
by high leakage cu en s a ising om SFs and APBs and i is clea ha a s ep-change
in ma e ial quali y is needed o powe de ice applica ions. To he bes o he au ho s’
knowledge, he e emains no semiconduc o de ice g ade wa e supplie o bulk 3C-SiC.
Howe e , he e oepi axial 3C-SiC-on-silicon is a ailable up o a wa e diame e o 4 inch.
The main obs acle o la ge diame e 3C-SiC comme cialisa ion emains he SF densi y ha
anges om 200–5000 cm
−1
. Hence, he u u e p ospec s o 3C-SiC a e incumben upon
educing SFs and APBs, which emains key o ealising la ge diame e 3C-SiC bulk wa e
p oduc ion. 3C-SiC-on-silicon demons a es se ious limi a ions when he ion implan a ion
p ocess is aken in o conside a ion. The e o e, he majo i y o s udies o da e ha e used
con en ional PIA annealing up o 1400
◦
C (mel ing empe a u e o silicon subs a e) and
pulsed lase annealing. Gene ally, dopan ac i a ion a es a e low in 3C-SiC he e oepi axy
s uc u es, al hough ecen ly mo e p omising beha iou has been desc ibed on ee s and-
ing (bulk) 3C-SiC. Mos ecen ly p- ype aluminium doped 3C-SiC has been demons a ed
wi h weak p- ype beha iou . N- ype ohmic con ac s ha e been consis en ly achie ed
using me als such as Ni, Al, Ti, Au and W demons a ing speci ic con ac esis i i ies as
low as
5×10−7Ωcm2
. The success is ela ed o he high n- ype ion implan a ion ac i-
a ion/ionisa ion a es accompanied by he low dono le els ela i e o 4H-SiC. P- ype
ohmici y based on me als including Al, Ni, Ti and poly-silicon ha e p oduced esis ances
in he egion o
~10−5Ωcm2
. Compa ed o n- ype dono le els in 3C-SiC, p- ype accep o
ene gy le els a e close o he midgap, esul ing in a lowe deg ee o accep o ioniza ion.
Diodes based on Scho ky and PiN designs ha e been demons a ed on 3C-SiC. The s a e
o he a wi h espec o diodes a e bulk PiN s uc u es wi h a buil -in ol age o 2V
and cu en densi y o 1000 Acm
−2
obse ed. The 3C-SiC MOS in e ace is ela i ely
un oubled by nea in e ace aps when compa ed o i s 4H-SiC coun e pa . This can be
in e ed om expe imen al esul s based on ni ogen anneals whe e channel mobili ies
app oaching 100 cm
2
/Vs ha e been obse ed. Again ni ogen-based he mal oxida ion
p oduced in e ace ap densi ies in he egion o 10
11
cm
−2
eV
−1
. A eliabili y analysis
o he 3C-SiC MOS in e ace e ealed high b eakdown ields in he egion o 8MV/cm
including cumula i e de ice ailu e a ising p ima ily om 3C-SiC c ys al de ec s (TDDB).
Ac ual MOSFET demons a o s a e plagued by high leakage cu en s esul ing om c ys al
de ec s. Thus, 600V 3C-SiC MOSFETs ha app oach he heo e ical unipola limi ha e
been demons a ed.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, w i ing, e iew and edi ing, F.L., M.J., F.R.; expe imen al
in es iga ion, F.L., M.J., F.R., G.G., P.F.; da a analysis and discussion, J.E.E., F.A.M., F.L., C.A.F., A.P.-T.,
P.A.M., P.F., M.J., F.R.; unding acquisi ion, F.L.V. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
This esea ch was unded by he Eu opean Union wi hin he amewo k o he p ojec
CHALLENGE, g an numbe 720827.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen :
The da a unde lying his a icle will be sha ed on easonable eques
om he co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 19 o 22
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