Status and prospects of cubic silicon carbide power electronics device technology

ma e ials Re iew S a us and P ospec s o Cubic Silicon Ca bide Powe Elec onics De ice Technology Fan Li 1, Fab izio Rocca o e 2, Giuseppe G eco 2, Pa ick Fio enza 2, F ancesco La Via 2, Amado Pé ez-Tomas 3, Jona han Edwa d E ans 4, C aig A hu Fishe 4, Finn Alec Monaghan 4, Philip And ew Mawby 5and Mike Jennings 4,*   Ci a ion: Li, F.; Rocca o e, F.; G eco, G.; Fio enza, P.; La Via, F.; Pé ez-Tomas, A.; E ans, J.E.; Fishe , C.A.; Monaghan, F.A.; Mawby, P.A.; e al. S a us and P ospec s o Cubic Silicon Ca bide Powe Elec onics De ice Technology. Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ ma14195831 Academic Edi o : Alexande A. Lebede Recei ed: 20 July 2021 Accep ed: 25 Sep embe 2021 Published: 5 Oc obe 2021 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a il- ia ions. Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1Newpo Wa e Fab, Ca di Rd, Du yn, Newpo NP10 8YJ, UK; [email p o ec ed] 2Consiglio Nazionale delle Rice che—Is i u o pe la Mic oele onica e Mic osis emi (CNR-IMM), S ada VIII n. 5-Zona Indus iale, 95121 Ca ania, I aly; [email p o ec ed].i (F.R.); [email p o ec ed].i (G.G.); [email p o ec ed].i (P.F.); [email p o ec ed].i (F.L.V.) 3Ins i u Ca alàde Nanociència i Nano ecnologia (ICN2), Uni e si a Au ònoma de Ba celona, 08193 Ba celona, Spain; amado [email p o ec ed] 4 Facul y o Science, Bay Campus, College o Enginee ing, Swansea Uni e si y, Fabian Way, C ymlyn Bu ows, Skewen, Swansea SA1 8EN, UK; [email p o ec ed] (J.E.E.); [email p o ec ed] (C.A.F.); [email p o ec ed] (F.A.M.) 5School o Enginee ing, The Uni e si y o Wa wick, Gibbe Hill Rd, Co en y CV4 7AL, UK; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: m. [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : Wide bandgap (WBG) semiconduc o s a e becoming mo e widely accep ed o use in powe elec onics due o hei supe io elec ical ene gy e iciencies and imp o ed powe densi ies. Al hough WBG cubic silicon ca bide (3C-SiC) displays a modes bandgap compa ed o i s comme cial coun e pa s (4H-silicon ca bide and gallium ni ide), his ma e ial has excellen a ibu es as he WBG semiconduc o o choice o low- esis ance, eliable diode and MOS de ices. A p esen he ma e ial emains i mly in he esea ch domain due o nume ous echnological impedimen s ha hampe i s widesp ead adop ion. The mos ob ious obs acle is de ec - ee 3C-SiC; p esen ly, 3C- SiC bulk and he e oepi axial (on-silicon) display high de ec densi ies such as s acking aul s and an iphase bounda ies. Mo eo e , he e oepi axy 3C-SiC-on-silicon means low empe a u e p ocessing budge s a e imposed upon he sys em (max. empe a u e limi ed o ~1400 ◦ C) limi ing selec i e doping ealisa ion. This pape will gi e a b ie o e iew o some o he scien i ic aspec s associa ed wi h 3C-SiC p ocessing echnology in addi ion o ocussing on he la es s a e o he a esul s. A pa icula ocus will be placed upon key p ocess s eps such as Scho ky and ohmic con ac s, ion implan a ion and MOS p ocessing including eliabili y. Finally, he pape will discuss some de ice p o o ypes (diodes and MOSFET) and d aw conclusions a ound he p ospec s o 3C-SiC de ices based upon he p ocessing echnology p esen ed. Keywo ds: 3C-SiC; cubic silicon ca bide; powe elec onics 1. In oduc ion Powe elec onics is a key enabling echnology o ene gy gene a ion, ansmission, dis ibu ion and mo ion. The impo ance o his echnology is emphasised by he ac ha a 40% inc ease in ene gy consump ion wi hin 20 yea s is expec ed [ 1 ]. Mo eo e , 80% o elec ical ene gy will be p ocessed by a powe elec onic con e e by 2030 [ 2 ]. Recen ly, powe elec onic con e e and de ice echnology has been d i en by he huge demand seen wi hin he elec ic ehicle (EV) sec o . EV sales a e se o each 18 million by 2023, ep esen ing 16.2% o o al global ehicle sales [ 3 ]. Toge he , hese ci cums ances p ojec he e e -inc easing demand o powe elec onics on a global scale. In o de o mee his equi ed capaci y and while s ill sa egua ding ou en i onmen , powe con e e s wi h nea -100% ene gy-e iciency ha a e ligh weigh and compac need o be deli e ed. Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ma14195831 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/ma e ials Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 2 o 22 Fu he mo e, a en ion mus be paid o he li e ime (o longe i y) o hese sys ems, meaning inc eased eliabili y wi hin he ield. Such a s ep-change in e en ion wi hin he wo ld o powe elec onics equi es ad- ancemen s wi hin he undamen al semiconduc o ma e ials ha se e o unde pin ou ene gy landscape. The unde pinning echnologies wi h espec o powe elec onics a e i s cons i uen high- ol age semiconduc o de ices. Consequen ly, hese de ices ep esen he la ges cos associa ed wi h he o e all powe con e e (40% o he o al bill o ma e ials o a ypical 50 kW EV in e e ). T adi ionally o he las 50 yea s, silicon (Si) has domina ed he powe elec onics indus y as he semiconduc o ma e ial o choice. Howe e , he demand o inc eased ene gy-e iciency and powe densi y oge he wi h highe ol age and cu en ope a ion mean ha a new e a in semiconduc o ma e ials has dawned. Wide bandgap (WBG) semiconduc o ma e ials come wi h he p omise o o e come he inhe en ma e ial limi s imposed by Si. 4H-silicon ca bide (4H-SiC) and gallium ni ide (2H-GaN o GaN) ha e eme ged as he WBG ma e ials o choice ha ha e eplaced Si in many powe elec onic applica ions. Fo he momen , GaN de ices ha a e based mainly on he high elec on mobili y ansis o (HEMT) a chi ec u e a e limi ed comme cially o a maximum o 650 V. F om he eliabili y pe spec i e, GaN HEMTs ha e adi ionally su e ed om a poo he mal conduc i i y and he “cu en collapse” phenomenon, deg ading hei abili y o unc ion wi hin ha sh en i onmen s and high eliabili y elec onics [ 4 ]. 4H-SiC, on he o he hand, su e s om nume ous eliabili y issues ha a e hampe ing i s widesp ead up ake wi hin he au omo i e sec o . In pa icula , al hough SiC T ench MOSFETs exhibi supe io on- s a e esis ance compa ed o bo h GaN and silicon, he uggedness o he ga e oxide is he limi ing ac o . Gonzalez e al. [ 5 ] no e ha he compe ing WBG ma e ial echnologies cen e a ound he 650 V ma k. Ea ly s age esea ch de ices a e based on so-called ul awide bandgap oxide ma e ials such as gallium oxide (Ga 2 O 3 , wi h β -Ga 2 O 3 being he mos s able). Thus a , β -Ga 2 O 3 su e s om a poo he mal conduc i i y, a modes bulk mobili y and lack o p- ype conduc i i y. O he ul awide bandgap ma e ials, including diamond and aluminium ni ide (AlN), su e om a lack o n- ype conduc i i y and a poo bulk elec on mobili y, espec i ely. I should be no ed ha GaN, β -Ga 2 O 3 , and AlN a e di ec bandgap ma e ials, which se e ely limi s bipola ope a ion, which is equi ed o highe ol ages [6]. This e iew will place he cubic SiC (3C-SiC) ma e ial in o he con ex o powe elec- onic de ices; howe e , i should be no ed ha o he applica ion a eas such as biomedical senso s and mic o-elec omechanical sys ems (MEMS) a e also app op ia e and mo e pop- ula o his SiC poly ype. The au ho s will endea ou o p o ide a b ie insigh in o some o he ad an ages o 3C-SiC om he scien i ic ma e ials pe spec i e in addi ion o some o he echnological issues ha mus be o e come o ealise compe i i e powe MOSFETs and diodes. In pa icula , he ocus will be placed on undamen al semiconduc o ab- ica ion echnologies; he 3C-SiC/SiO 2 me al-oxide-semiconduc o (MOS) in e ace, ion implan a ion, ohmic and Scho ky con ac s. 2. Cubic Silicon Ca bide (3C-SiC): S uc u e and Ma e ial P ope ies o Powe Elec onic Applica ion The cubic o m o SiC, coined ‘3C-SiC’, is one o many s able poly ypes cha ac e ised by i s wide bandgap and bilaye s acking sequence o ABCABC . . . [ 7 ]. The esul ing s uc u e is a pu e zinc-blende exhibi ing an ene gy band gap o 2.3–2.4 eV [ 8 ], lowe compa ed o o he majo SiC poly ypes, bu wi h a highe elec on mobili y and sa u a ion eloci y owing o i s highe deg ee o symme y. Al hough 3C-SiC has a smalle ene gy bandgap compa ed o i s wide bandgap coun e pa s such as 4H-SiC and GaN, his ma e ial displays iso opy o many o he desi ed powe de ice ma e ial cha ac e is ics such as a alanche coe icien s and high elec on mobili y [ 9 , 10 ]. Ano he ad an age o 3C-SiC is i s ela i ely la ge he modynamic s abili y meaning ha bulk ma e ial can be g own a educed he mal budge s (below 1500 ◦ C). Table 1shows he impo an physical and elec ical p ope ies o 3C-SiC compa ed o o he comme cial powe de ice ma e ials such Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 3 o 22 as Si, GaN and 4H-SiC. Likewise included a e p omising oxide and ni ide ul a-WBG ma e ials. The 3C-SiC in insic ca ie concen a ion (~10 −1 cm −3 ) is se e al o de s o magni ude lowe han in Si, bu no as low as 4H-SiC o GaN. Mo eo e , 3C-SiC has a he mal conduc i i y h ee imes ha o Si. Consequen ly, 3C-SiC de ices should ha e lowe leakage cu en s wi h he abili y o ope a e a mode a ely highe empe a u es when compa ed o Si and GaN. O he key aspec s a e he easonable c i ical elec ic ield alue esul ing in a highe b eakdown o he ma e ial. On analysis o hese ma e ial p ope ies, 3C-SiC is a p omising semiconduc o o powe semiconduc o de ices in he egion o 600–1000 V. On e lec ion, he e exis s he possibili y o ob ain a a ge ed b eakdown ol age (V B ) wi h hinne , mo e highly doped d i laye s, which esul s in a signi ican educ ion o he speci ic on- esis ance (R ON ) compa ed o Si de ices. The e o e, de ices ha a e smalle and mo e e icien can be ab ica ed, minimizing bo h he s a ic and dynamic losses. Table 1. App op ia e physical and elec ical p ope ies o cubic silicon ca bide (3C-SiC) compa ed o o he wide bandgap ma e ials (da a aken a 300 K). Ma e ial Band Gap, (eV) In insic Ca ie Conc., (cm−3) Dielec ic Cons an Elec on Mobili y (cm2/Vs) C i ical Elec ic Field (MV/cm) Sa u a ion Veloci y (107cm/s) The mal Conduc i i y (W/cmK) Baliga Figu e o Me i Si 1.12 1.5 ×1010 11.8 1350 0.2 1.0 1.5 1 GaAs 1.42 1.8 ×10613.1 8500 0.4 1.2 0.55 29 3C-SiC 2.36 1.5 ×10−19.7 800 1.4 2.5 3.2 86 4H-SiC 3.26 8.2 ×10−910 720 a 650 c2.8 2.0 4.5 556 2H-GaN 3.39 1.9 ×10−10 9.9 1000 a 2000 ** 3.75 a 3.3 * 2.5 1.3 3175 Ga2O34.85 2.6 ×10−9 −1.0 × 10−22 10 300 8 1.8–2.0 0.1–0.3 6171 Diamond 5.45 1.6 ×10−27 5.5 3800 10 2.7 22 8.4 ×104 2H-AlN 6.2 10−34 8.5 300 12 * 1.7 2.85 1.8 ×104 No e: ais mobili y along a-axis, cis mobili y along c-axis, * e e s o an es ima ed alue and ** e e s o he 2DEG mobili y. The 3C-SiC Baliga igu e o me i (BFOM) and BFOM o high- equency, high-powe unipola swi ches (BHFFOM) [ 11 ] a e 140 and 25, espec i ely. These alues seem e y modes compa ed o he equi alen alues o mo e ad anced WBG powe semiconduc o s such as 4H-SiC and GaN. These key pe o mance indica o s o powe semiconduc o s quan i y he minimum conduc ion loss du ing DC ope a ion (BFOM) and he minimum conduc ion loss a high equencies (BHFFOM). Indeed, examina ion o hese alues sug- ges s ha lowe esis ance de ices a e possible based on 4H-SiC and GaN when compa ed o 3C-SiC. Howe e , his ad an age mus be weighed agains powe de ice eliabili y and ield li e ime wi hin a con e e applica ion. In his ega d, 3C-SiC is he clea winne , bene i ing om a a ou able me al-oxide-semiconduc o (MOS) in e ace when compa ed o i s 4H-SiC coun e pa . The bandgap alue (E g ) o 3C-SiC was epo ed by Bimbe g e al. [ 12 ] and la e by Goldbe g e al. [ 8 ] (see Table 1). Figu e 1shows he conduc ion band o se s o he majo powe semiconduc o s wi h silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ). F om he igu e i is seen ha he band o se ( ΦB ) be ween 3C-SiC and SiO 2 is 3.7 eV. This is signi ican ly la ge when compa ed o he o he powe semiconduc o s wi h hei alues anging be ween 2.7 eV–3.2 eV. The ami ica ions o his impo an p ope y a e ealised in e ms o educed ga e leakage cu en o a gi en oxide elec ic ield. The impo an cu en anspo mecha- Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 4 o 22 nism which ela es o his physical pa ame e is he Fowle -No dheim (F-N) unnelling mechanism. The F-N unnelling cu en is gi en by: JFN = A ΦB Eox2exp −BΦB3/2 Eox !(1) whe e E ox is he oxide elec ic ield, ΦB is he ba ie heigh and A, B a e cons an alues. I can be seen ha due o F-N unnelling he oxide elec ic ield alue mus be educed by 2–3 imes in 4H-SiC compa ed o he 3C-SiC sys em. Figu e 1. Majo powe semiconduc o s’ band s uc u e o 3C-SiC, 4H-SiC, 6H-SiC and silicon, illus a ing band o se s wi h silicon dioxide (SiO2). Fa di and Van Zeghb oeck [ 13 ] de eloped an empi ical b eakdown ield model based on he b eakdown ol age and ield alues ha we e ob ained om published expe imen al da a [ 14 , 15 ]. This p o ed o be mo e han adequa e o 3C-SiC de ice design, ha ing ma ched elec ical b eakdown cha ac e is ics o many published epo s. Mo eo e , he model has been u ilised in comme cial 2-dimensional de ice design sui es [ 16 – 18 ]. Fi ing hese impac ionisa ion coe icien s o he elec ic ield and subs i u ing in o he impac ionisa ion in eg al leads o closed- o m solu ions o he b eakdown ol age and deple ion laye wid h. These ma e ial pa ame e s allow o he ini ial s ages o powe de ice design. The closed- o m solu ions o he b eakdown ol age and pa allel-plane deple ion egion wid h a e gi en as: BVPP =7.88 ×1014ND −3/4 (2) WPP =9.12 ×1010ND −7/8 (3) whe e BV PP is he b eakdown ol age, N D is he doping concen a ion and W PP is he pa allel-plane deple ion egion wid h. The b eakdown ol age and deple ion egion wid hs p edic ed by Equa ions (2) and (3), espec i ely, a e shown in Figu e 2. Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 5 o 22 Figu e 2. ( a ) Pa allel plane b eakdown ol age (BV PP ) and ( b ) deple ion wid h (W PP ) as a unc ion o doping (ND) o 3C-SiC. 3. P ocessing Technology o 3C-SiC 3.1. Scho ky Con ac One o he main challenges in he p ocessing o elec onic de ices based on 3C-SiC is he achie emen o good quali y ec i ying con ac s, i.e., wi h almos ideal cha ac e is ics and easonably low leakage cu en . Se e al wo ks in es iga ed he p ope ies o Scho ky con ac s on n- ype 3C-SiC o e he las h ee decades. In pa icula , as summa ized in Table 2 , mos o hese wo ks ha e been pe o med on 3C-SiC laye s g own on Si subs a es, using high wo k- unc ion Scho ky con ac me als (e.g., Au o P ). Howe e , he expe imen- al alues o he Scho ky Ba ie Heigh (SBH), as de e mined by I-V o C-V measu emen s, ypically lie below 1 eV, i.e., which a e much lowe han he heo e ical p edic ions o he Scho ky–Mo heo y. E iksson e al. [ 19 ] demons a ed he key ole o he ma e ial quali y on he p ope ies o he me al/3C-SiC con ac s, showing ha double posi ion bounda ies (DPB) in 3C- SiC laye s g own on o on-axis 4H-SiC can be “kille de ec s” in la ge a ea de ices ha comp omise he unc ionali y o he ec i ying ba ie [ 20 ]. In his wo k, a no el app oach based on Conduc i e A omic Fo ce Mic oscopy (C-AFM) was p oposed o cha ac e ize Scho ky ba ie s on 3C-SiC in small a ea de ices, es ablishing a di ec ela ion be ween he elec ical p ope ies o he ba ie and he con ac a ea. In pa icula , educing he size o he con ac esul ed in a d as ic inc ease in he measu ed Au/3C-SiC ba ie heigh , un il eaching a alue o 1.39 eV o a diode adius o 5 µ m, hus demons a ing ha he poo ec i ying beha iou was due o he high de ec s densi y in he ma e ial [19]. Mo e ecen ly, using a simila nanoscale app oach on 3C-SiC laye s g own on Si, Giannazzo e al. [ 21 ] con i med ha he de ice yield, de ined as he ac ion o diodes wi h a leakage cu en lowe han 10 µ A/cm 2 (see Figu e 3a,b) inc eases wi h dec easing he de ice a ea. Mo eo e , his wo k be e cla i ied he ole o speci ic de ec s by di ec p obing o he 3C-SiC su ace by C-AFM (see Figu e 3c–e). In pa icula , hese measu emen s showed ha an iphase bounda ies (APBs) a e he main de ec s esponsible o e e se leakage cu en , while bo h APBs and s acking aul s (SFs) wo ked as p e e en ial cu en pa hs unde o wa d bias o he con ac . Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 6 o 22 Figu e 3. ( a ) Schema ic o he C-AFM se -up o p obe P /3C-SiC Scho ky diodes o di e en a eas. ( b ) Pe cen age o he diodes (yield) wi h a e e se leakage lowe han 10 µ A cm −2 , as a unc ion o diode a ea. ( c ) Schema ic o he C-AFM se -up o p obe he 3C-SiC su ace and cu en maps acqui ed unde o wa d bias ( d ) and e e se bias ( e ). Adap ed wi h pe mission om Re . [ 21 ]. Copy igh © 2021 Wiley VCH. Table 2. Collec ion o li e a u e esul s on Scho ky con ac s on 3C-SiC ma e ials. Me al 3C-SiC O ien a ion G owing Subs a e Scho ky Ba ie Heigh (eV) Ideali y Fac o Ex ac ion Me hod Re . Au 100 Si 1.15 N.A. C-V [22] Au 100 Si 1.2 1.5 C-V [23] Au 111, 100 Si 1.0–1.6 N.A. C-V [24] P 1.3–1.8 P 100 Si 0.95 (as dep) −1.35 (800 ◦C) N.A. C-V [25] Pd 100 Si 0.92, 0.95 N.A. C-V, XPS [26] Au 0.87, 0.78 Co 0.73, 0.69 Au 100 Si 0.47–0.69 1.58–2.30 I-V [27] Pd 100 Si 0.42–0.60 3.02–5.28 I-V [28] Ti 100 3C-SiC 0.4, N.A. N.A. I-V, C-V [29] Au 0.67, 0.65 Ni 0.56, 0.54 Au 111 4H-SiC 0.7, 1.39 >2 I-V, I-V by C-AFM [19] P 100 3C-SiC 0.77 (as dep) −1.12 (500 ◦C) N.A. [30] Au 111 4H-SiC 0.73–0.76 N.A. I-V by C-AFM [31] Clea ly, all hese esul s indica e ha a signi ican imp o emen o he ma e ial quali y (namely, a educ ion o speci ic de ec s’ densi y) emains he only possible ou e o he achie emen o ope a ional Scho ky con ac s on 3C-SiC ma e ials sui able o powe elec onics applica ions. Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 7 o 22 3.2. Ion Implan a ion and Ac i a ion High impu i y doping is necessa y o low ohmic con ac and shee esis ance in 3C-SiC powe de ices. The mos commonly used dopan s o 3C-SiC a e ni ogen o phospho us o n- ype, and mainly aluminium o p- ype. The low di usi i y o ypical dopan s in SiC below 1800 ◦ C [ 32 ] means ha highly doped selec i e egions o SiC powe de ices a e o en achie ed by ion implan a ion. As implan ed dopan species a e nea ly always in e s i ial (no chemically bonded), hey a e he e o e elec ically ine . The e o e, an ex a pos implan annealing (PIA) s ep is ypically deployed o epai he la ice damage and place he implan ed dopan s in o hei co ec subs i u ional posi ions. This is e e ed o as ‘ac i a ion’. Ex emely high empe a u es a e equi ed o he SiC PIA; abo e 1400 ◦ C [ 33 , 34 ] is common o n- ype SiC and highe s ill (>1600 ◦ C) o p- ype [ 35 – 37 ]. The highe p- ype PIA empe a u e is equi ed because accep o s si deepe in he band gap han dono s, and a e consequen ly mo e challenging o ac i a e. Rega ding 3C-SiC, he mos common o m is g own he e oepi axially on Si. As a consequence, hese ac i a ion annealing empe a u es a e o en limi ed o 1412 ◦ C (Si mel ing poin ). Pe o ming he ion implan a ion a a highe empe a u e helps o educe he induced la ice damage; hus, i is o en applied o high dose implan a ions. Since he ion implan a ion induced la ice damage inc eases wi h he numbe o dopan s pe uni olume (namely he dose), ho implan s a e almos manda o y when he implan concen a ion goes abo e 1019 cm−3[38]. High empe a u e PIA also causes a ough semiconduc o su ace, which is enhanced wi hin implan ed egions and can deg ade he pe o mance o c i ical in e aces such as Scho ky con ac s and MOSFET channels [ 39 – 41 ]. A g aphi e capping laye , demons a ed o be e ec i e up o 1800 ◦ C [ 35 ], is o en u ilised o p o ec he SiC su ace du ing he PIA and educe he esul ing oughness. Compa ing he ew examples in he li e a u e, n- ype implan ed 3C-SiC ha e been ex ensi ely s udied o a ying annealing condi ions (1150 ◦ C o 1400 ◦ C) bo h wi h a g aphi e capping laye [ 42 ] and wi hou [ 43 , 44 ]. I was shown ha he e was li le ad an age demons a ed when using a g aphi e cap, likely due o he annealing empe a u e (below 1400 ◦ C due o he Si subs a e) no being high enough o oughen he su ace. In [ 45 ], i was shown ha by combing he use o ho implan and pulsed excime lase p ocessing, which only anneals he su ace egion, 3C-SiC c ys al damage due o implan a ion can be e ec i ely epai ed wi hou deg ading he su ace mo phology (ene gy densi y 0.2444 J/cm 2 a 10 Hz), hus p o iding an al e na i e solu ion ha allows high empe a u e PIA o be conduc ed on Si subs a es. Despi e esul ing in a oughe su ace, a highe empe a u e is p e e ed in a ou o a highe dopan ac i a ion a e. A ibu ed o a smalle band gap, hus a shallowe dono le el (55 meV), he ac i a ion o n- ype dopan s in 3C-SiC is easie han in 4H- SiC ( 80–130 meV ) [ 46 ]. S udies on n- ype 3C-SiC sugges ha ni ogen has ad an ages o e phospho ous o use as an n- ype dopan , wi h bo h ewe de ec s and lowe e- sis i i y achie ed [ 42 ]. Compa ed wi h he N sa u a ion densi y in 4H-SiC (a ound 5×1019 cm−3 ) [ 47 ], he le el in 3C-SiC u ns ou o be simila a a ound 7 × 10 19 cm −3 [ 48 ]. Wi h he alence band aligned o o he poly ypes, he deep accep o le el issue s ill exis s o 3C-SiC. Adding o he limi ed p ocessing empe a u e, p- ype implan and ac i a ion has long been an issue o 3C-SiC-on-Si [ 38 , 49 ]. In ecen yea s, he de elopmen s on ee s anding 3C-SiC ma e ials [ 50 , 51 ] make PIA empe a u es abo e 1400 ◦ C possible, hus acili a ing a signi ican s ep o wa d in 3C-SiC powe de ice ab ica ion. Howe e , he knowledge o p- ype 3C-SiC ion implan a ion and ac i a ion is e y limi ed and e- qui es u he in es iga ion. Table 3summa ises some pas esul s published on he ion implan a ion and ac i a ion o dopan s in 3C-SiC. Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 8 o 22 Table 3. A summa y o li e a u e da a on he ion implan a ion and ac i a ion o 3C-SiC. Ma e ial Implan a ion PIA Ac i a ion Ra e Re . N-Type 2×1017 cm−3p- ype 3C-SiC(100)/Si RT 1 , N, peak 5 × 10 19 /5 × 10 20 cm −3 None 0.44%/0.55% [52] 400 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−31.35% 800 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019/5 × 1020cm−315%/50.8% 1×1018 cm−3p- ype 3C-SiC(100)/Si 800 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−3 None 12.4% [53] 900 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−314.8% 1000 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−318.4% 1100 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−336.0% 1200 ◦C, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−352.2% 1×1016 cm−3p- ype 3C-SiC(100) RT, N, peak 1 ×1020 cm−310 min in A a 1500 ◦C 68% [49] 1×1016 cm−3p- ype 3C-SiC(100) RT, N, peak 6 ×1019 cm−310 min in A a 1400 ◦C 80% [54] <1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype 3C-SiC(100)/Si RT, N, peak 5 ×1020 cm−31 h in A a 1150 ◦C 6.5% [46] 1 h in A a 1350 ◦C 13% <1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype 3C-SiC(100)/Si RT, N, peak 5 ×1019 cm−3 1 h in A a 1150 ◦C 40% [44] 1 h in A a 1350 ◦C 57% 1 h in A a 1400 ◦C 100% <1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype 3C-SiC(100/Si RT, N, peak 5 ×1019/5 ×1020 cm−31 h in A a 1350 ◦C 60%/17% [55] <1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype 3C-SiC(100/Si RT, N, peak 1.5 ×1019/6 ×1020 cm−31 h in A a 1375 ◦C 100%/12% [49] P- ype 2.8 ×1016 cm−3n- ype 3C-SiC(100)/Si RT and 850 ◦C, Al and B, peak 5 × 1019–1 ×1020 cm−3 10 min in N 2 a 1200 ◦ C Too low, n- ype beha iou [50] <1 ×1016 cm−3n- ype 3C-SiC(100)/Si 500 ◦C, Al, peak 1 ×1020 cm−3317–546 h in A a 1300 ◦C Weak p- ype beha iou [38] 1Room empe a u e. 3.3. Ohmic Con ac Due o he equi emen o an ex a PIA p ocess, achie ing ohmic con ac s on implan ed egions is mo e di icul han on epilaye s. As is he case in 4H-SiC [ 56 ], his is pa icula ly ue o p- ype 3C-SiC because he accep o le els a e deepe , as p e iously men ioned. A ibu ed o a lowe conduc ion band edge (3.8 eV om acuum le el), he heo e ical SBH be ween 3C-SiC and commonly used me als is 0.9 eV lowe han o 4H-SiC. This is con enien o n- ype ohmic con ac ab ica ion, while p- ype emains as challenging as in o he poly ypes. Mos wo k on SiC ohmic con ac s is di ided in o h ee opics, namely su ace p epa a ion, con ac me al, and pos me allisa ion annealing (PMA). The 3C-SiC epilaye su ace oughness can a y signi ican ly, om as low as 1 nm depending on he g ow h echnique [ 43 ] o high alues eaching ens o nm [ 57 ]. To achie e a ela i ely smoo h semiconduc o su ace o ohmic con ac ab ica ion, chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) is o en used p io o any u he p ocessing. Noh e al. [ 58 ] show ha he RMS su ace oughness educed om ≈ 20 nm o ≈ 7.5 nm. Consequen ly, he ohmic con ac esis i i y ρc was educed by an o de o magni ude, om 8.6 ×10−1Ωcm2 o 2.8 × 10 −2Ω cm 2 . As alluded o p e iously, p ac ical de ice ab ica ion equi es a high empe a u e (abo e 1400 ◦ C) PIA ea men , which has been shown o deg ade he Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 9 o 22 su ace ollowing ini ial CMP. In [ 43 ], a de ailed discussion was epo ed a ound he PIA e ec s on 3C-SiC su ace mo phology and i s co ela ion o he esul ing ρc alues. I was communica ed ha al hough se e e damage o he su ace can limi pe o mance, he ρc alue will no be se iously a ec ed gi en ha he su ace oughness alue emains below 10 nm. Many me als o me al s acks, including Al [54,59–61] , Ti [ 54 , 59 – 61 ], Ni [ 37 , 54 , 57 , 58 , 60 – 63 ], Ni/Ti [ 43 , 55 , 61 ], Au/Ti [ 61 ], P [ 63 ], W [ 37 ], and TiW [ 64 ], ha e been analysed o 3C-SiC n- ype ohmic con ac ab ica ion. I was obse ed ha Al con ac s ypically display he lowes ρc , which was explained by he nea -ze o SBH be ween Al and 3C-SiC ( ∼ 0 eV) compa ed o Ti (0.4 eV) and Ni (0.55 eV) [ 54 ]. None heless, bo h Ti and Al a e eadily oxidised in ai , wi h Al cha ac e ised by a mel ing poin below 600 ◦ C. Con e sely, Ni demons a es a slow a e o oxida ion a oom empe a u e combined wi h a e y high mel ing poin . Al hough Ni eac s wi h SiC a empe a u es highe han 500 ◦ C, he Ni silicide mic os uc u e helps o educe he SBH. This in u n leads o a lowe ρc . Consequen ly, Ni is he mos commonly u ilised me al con ac o n- ype SiC. The e ec s o PMA on ohmic con ac s ab ica ed on n- ype implan ed 3C-SiC ( Figu e 4a ) shows a con inuous educ ion o con ac esis i i y wi h inc easing annealing empe a u e up o 1000 ◦ C, abo e which he esis ance inc eases. De ails o he silicide o ma ion a e shown by XRD analysis in Figu e 4b. I can be in e ed ha be ween 500 ◦ C and 600 ◦ C, a coexis ence o Ni 2 Si (121) and Ni 31 Si 12 (300) is p esen . The Ni 31 Si 12 (300) peak g adually diminishes a highe empe a u e, while he Ni 2 Si (002) becomes p ominen and enhances con inuously o empe a u es eaching 1100 ◦ C. No ing ha Ni 2 Si (121) is eadily o med a 600 ◦ C, wi h no o he no iceable phases abo e ha empe a u e, he Ni 2 Si (002) enhanced phase could explain he con ac esis ance educ ion om 800 ◦ C o 1000 ◦ C. I is wo h men ioning ha , due o he e y low SBH o highly doped n- ype 3C-SiC/me al in e ace, as-deposi ed ohmic con ac s can be ob ained wi hou PMA p ocessing [ 59 , 65 ]. This makes i possible o in eg a e SiC ansis o echnologies wi h o he low empe a u e echnologies, such as a omic laye deposi ed high k dielec ics (e.g., H O 2 o Al 2 O 3 ) wi h ela i ely low g ow h empe a u es and classic wa e bonded o he e ojunc ion de ices. Figu e 4. ( a ) Speci ic con ac esis ance dependence on he PMA empe a u e and, ( b ) XRD measu e- men s o me al/3C-SiC (6 × 10 20 cm −3 ) in e ace a e a ious PMA empe a u es indica ing silicide o ma ion. Con ac was ab ica ed by deposi ing (Ti30 nm/Ni100 nm) on 5 × 10 20 cm −3 N implan ed 3C-SiC. Compa ed o n- ype 3C-SiC, e en less is known abou p- ype 3C-SiC ohmic con ac s. As wi h 4H-SiC, Al based alloys a e mos commonly used o p- ype ohmic con ac since e y o en Al is also he doping species. A Ti in e laye is o en applied no only o imp o e he adhesion, bu he TiC p oduc a e PMA also helps o educe he con ac esis ance [36,66]. Among he e y limi ed da a, he lowes speci ic con ac esis ances (10 −5 –10 −4Ω cm 2 ) a e ob ained om ials made on p- ype epilaye s [ 66 , 67 ], which elimina es he issue o accep o ac i a ion. Howe e , when ab ica ing powe de ices such as MOSFETs, i is Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 16 o 22 con ac s showed a blocking ol age o 85 V wi h a low o wa d ol age d op o ~0.85 V [ 86 ]. Gold con ac s o 3C-SiC o Scho ky diode applica ions displayed a a iance o he ba ie heigh wi h con ac a ea [ 19 ]. This can be explained by he de ec densi y inhe en wi hin he s a ing ma e ial. Mo e ecen Scho ky diode epo s sugges ha he leakage cu en is no domina ed by SF densi y, as he leakage cu en had a g ea e dependency on he ba ie heigh [ 87 ]. Ba ie heigh nonuni o mi ies o he Scho ky ba ie ha e been obse ed on la e al 3C-SiC-on-Si diodes, implica ing complex apping/de- apping phenomena obse ed wi hin he ma e ial [ 88 ]. The in o ma ion acqui ed has led o alida ed echnology compu e aided design (TCAD) models o accu a e 3C-SiC de ice simula ion [9]. 4.2. PiN Diode A ibu ed o i s smalle bandgap, 3C-SiC has a lowe p-n junc ion buil -in po en ial ( ≈ 1.75 V) han 4H-SiC ( ≈ 3 V). In [ 9 ] i is shown ha , up o 4.5 kV blocking ol age, he o wa d ol age d op a 250 A/cm 2 emains lowe o 3C-SiC han 4H-SiC in PiN diode applica ions. Un il ecen ly, howe e , ab ica ing 3C-SiC PiN diodes has been di icul , no only because o he high de ec densi y wi hin 3C-SiC epilaye s caused by he la ice misma ch wi h Si [ 21 ], bu also due o he la e al na u e o s uc u es necessa y o a oid he 3C-SiC/Si he e ojunc ion. While he e a e se e al epo s on achie ing n- ype conduc ion in 3C-SiC epi/implan ed laye s [ 42 , 48 , 66 ], and p- ype conduc ion in Al doped epilaye s [ 66 , 89 ], i emains an obs acle o p- ype implan ed laye s. This is mainly due o he pos implan a ion anneal empe a u e, which was limi ed o he Si mel ing poin , 1414 ◦ C, which is no su icien o ac i a e he deep le el Al dopan s, e en i ho implan a ion was applied. Low ol age la e al p-n junc ion diodes we e p e iously demons a ed ia he o - ma ion o implan ed n+ egions in p- ype doped 3C-SiC epilaye s g own on Si sub- s a es [ 90 , 91 ]. Howe e , o make he mos o i s bene i s in powe applica ions, a e ical s uc u e is necessa y. 3C-SiC g ow h me hods ha e imp o ed in ecen yea s [ 6 , 92 , 93 ], and bulk 3C-SiC a e now a ailable [ 51 ]; hus, a highe annealing empe a u e can now be applied. Ve ical PiN diodes we e ab ica ed on ee s anding 3C-SiC ma e ial by implan - ing Al in n- ype doped epilaye and he o wa d cu en densi y is shown in Figu e 11a. The buil -in po en ial o he ab ica ed PiN diode is a ound 2 V, sligh ly highe han he he- o e ical alue 1.75 V [ 9 ], bu i is s ill much lowe han he ypical >3 V o 4H-SiC [ 94 – 96 ]. The o wa d cu en densi y goes abo e 1000 A/cm 2 a 2.7 V, and he lowes di e en ial esis ance is es ima ed o be 0.5 m Ω cm 2 . The de ice on–o a io a ± 5 V is as high as 10 9 , as shown in Figu e 11b, and a blocking ol age abo e 100 V is achie ed (Figu e 11c). An obse a ion o no e wi h espec o bipola PiN diode I-V cha ac e isa ion is ha no bipola deg ada ion has been epo ed in he li e a u e wi h espec o 3C-SiC pn diodes. This is mos likely due o he ac ha a en ion is being placed upon mo e undamen al de ice limi ing issues such as SF-induced leakage cu en s. Figu e 11. ( a ) Fo wa d J-V cha ac e is ics, ( b ) on-o pe o mance a ± 5 V, and ( c ) e e se b eakdown o bulk 3C-SiC PiN diodes. Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 17 o 22 4.3. MOSFET Ea ly 3C-SiC powe de ices we e p edominan ly demons a ed ia he e oepi axial 3C-SiC g own by chemical apou deposi ion (CVD) abo e silicon subs a es in addi ion o ee-s anding wa e s, p o ided by HOYA Ad anced Semiconduc o Technologies Co L d. [ 50 , 74 , 97 , 98 ]. Powe de ices we e based on diode and MOSFET (la e al and e ical) a chi ec u es. De ices demons a ed by 3C-SiC CVD g own on undulan -silicon subs a es su e ed om p ema u e b eakdown ol age and high leakage cu en s due o APBs and SF inhe en wi hin he epi axial laye o he de ice [99,100]. Typical cha ac e is ics showed ha achie ing b eakdown ol ages in excess o 600 V was challenging since he leakage cu en emana ing om he o me ly men ioned p-n junc ion SFs deg aded pe o mance in a e minal manne [ 100 ]. High cu en cellula e ical 3C-SiC MOSFETs we e demons a ed by Abe e al. [ 74 ]. This de ice achie ed an imp essi e 1220 A/cm 2 cu en densi y based on a single cell. This co esponds o a cu en ca ying capabili y o 41–132 A o a 3 × 3 mm 2 , 600 V chip. SF-induced leakage cu en hampe ed he o -s a e pe o mance o his MOSFET. CVD deposi ed ga es p oduced 600 V-MOSFETs wi h a high channel mobili y o 200 cm 2 /Vs [ 101 ]. The high channel mobili y and low speci ic on-s a e esis ance o 5–7 m Ω cm 2 we e b ough abou by a speci ic ac i a ion anneal o 1600 ◦ C in a gon (A ), in o de o ealise a smoo h 3C-SiC su ace p io o deposi ion o he ga e oxide. They used 600 V DMOSFETs o show ha ma e ial quali y has a s ong in luence on he blocking beha iou . In con as , he on-s a e elec ical cha ac e is ics we e una ec ed [ 102 ]. A 200V educ ion in b eakdown ol age was obse ed o DMOSFETs wi h a high c ys al de ec densi y. Due o he lowe in e ace ap densi y a he 3C-SiC/SiO 2 in e ace compa ed wi h 4H-SiC, MOSFETs a e he mos s udied 3C-SiC de ices, a ge ing o lowe on- esis ance han 4H-SiC MOSFETs in medium ol age applica ions (600–1200V). High ield-e ec mobili y alues we e demons a ed by ab ica ing 3C-SiC MOSFETs wi h a high cu en densi y o 1220 A/cm 2 and encou aging scaling ea u es we e shown in 1 mm × 1 mm and 3 mm × 3 mm de ices [ 74 ]. In addi ion, i is shown in [ 65 , 68 ] ha by emo ing he apid he mal anneal o he ohmic con ac , he ield-e ec mobili y can be u he imp o ed. Despi e he achie emen s made in o wa d condi ions, eaching blocking abili y (BV) close o he heo e ical alues is s ill a challenge, mainly because o he high leakage cu en induced by c ys al de ec s such as SFs [ 97 ]. By educing s acking aul s o ~90 cm −1 , he de ice blocking abili y (5 × 10 15 cm −3 doped d i egion) can be signi ican ly imp o ed o 600 V [ 50 ], close o he unipola limi . Table 6is a summa y o he ecen li e a u e esul s o 3C-SiC MOSFET ab ica ion. Table 6. A summa y o li e a u e da a on he o wa d and e e se pe o mance o 3C-SiC MOSFETs. S uc u e Channel Oxida ion POA µFE (cm2/V.s) BV(V) Re . La e al 2×1017 cm−3 p- ype epi We O2, 1150 ◦C, 2.5 h A , 1150 ◦C, 0.5 h + We O2, 950 ◦C, 2 h ≈165 - [73] La e al 1×1016 cm−3 p- ype epi We O2, 1100 ◦CA , 1150 ◦C, 0.5 h + We O2, 800 ◦C, 0.5 h ≈229 - [103] La e al 1×1018 cm−3 Al implan ed D y O2, 1300 ◦C - ≈80 - [65] Ve ical 1×1018 cm−3 Al implan ed D y O2, 1100 ◦C, 1.5 h We O2, 950 ◦C, 3 h ≈28 ≈100 [68] Ve ical 1×1018 cm−3 Al implan ed D y O2, 1100 ◦C, 1.5 h We O2, 950 ◦C, 3 h ≈45 550–600 [50] Ve ical Al implan ed We O2, 1150 ◦C, - >100 [104] Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 18 o 22 5. Conclusions This pape ga e an o e iew o he p ocessing echnology associa ed wi h he e oepi- axial 3C-SiC-on-silicon, including he mo e ecen ly a ailable bulk 3C-SiC s udies. This opic is highly ele an oday since his ma e ial p esen s some clea ad an ages o e i s comme cial WBG compe i o s in e ms o MOS channel esis ance and eliabili y. These ac o s a e o he u mos impo ance when conside ing ha i is he au omo i e sec o ha is d i ing he widesp ead up ake o WBG echnologies. Scho ky con ac p ocessing on 3C-SiC has mainly been conduc ed on he e oepi axy (on-silicon) u ilising high wo k unc ion me als such as Au o P . These ec i ying con ac s a e ypically cha ac e ised by high leakage cu en s a ising om SFs and APBs and i is clea ha a s ep-change in ma e ial quali y is needed o powe de ice applica ions. To he bes o he au ho s’ knowledge, he e emains no semiconduc o de ice g ade wa e supplie o bulk 3C-SiC. Howe e , he e oepi axial 3C-SiC-on-silicon is a ailable up o a wa e diame e o 4 inch. The main obs acle o la ge diame e 3C-SiC comme cialisa ion emains he SF densi y ha anges om 200–5000 cm −1 . Hence, he u u e p ospec s o 3C-SiC a e incumben upon educing SFs and APBs, which emains key o ealising la ge diame e 3C-SiC bulk wa e p oduc ion. 3C-SiC-on-silicon demons a es se ious limi a ions when he ion implan a ion p ocess is aken in o conside a ion. The e o e, he majo i y o s udies o da e ha e used con en ional PIA annealing up o 1400 ◦ C (mel ing empe a u e o silicon subs a e) and pulsed lase annealing. Gene ally, dopan ac i a ion a es a e low in 3C-SiC he e oepi axy s uc u es, al hough ecen ly mo e p omising beha iou has been desc ibed on ee s and- ing (bulk) 3C-SiC. Mos ecen ly p- ype aluminium doped 3C-SiC has been demons a ed wi h weak p- ype beha iou . N- ype ohmic con ac s ha e been consis en ly achie ed using me als such as Ni, Al, Ti, Au and W demons a ing speci ic con ac esis i i ies as low as 5×10−7Ωcm2 . The success is ela ed o he high n- ype ion implan a ion ac i- a ion/ionisa ion a es accompanied by he low dono le els ela i e o 4H-SiC. P- ype ohmici y based on me als including Al, Ni, Ti and poly-silicon ha e p oduced esis ances in he egion o ~10−5Ωcm2 . Compa ed o n- ype dono le els in 3C-SiC, p- ype accep o ene gy le els a e close o he midgap, esul ing in a lowe deg ee o accep o ioniza ion. Diodes based on Scho ky and PiN designs ha e been demons a ed on 3C-SiC. The s a e o he a wi h espec o diodes a e bulk PiN s uc u es wi h a buil -in ol age o 2V and cu en densi y o 1000 Acm −2 obse ed. The 3C-SiC MOS in e ace is ela i ely un oubled by nea in e ace aps when compa ed o i s 4H-SiC coun e pa . This can be in e ed om expe imen al esul s based on ni ogen anneals whe e channel mobili ies app oaching 100 cm 2 /Vs ha e been obse ed. Again ni ogen-based he mal oxida ion p oduced in e ace ap densi ies in he egion o 10 11 cm −2 eV −1 . A eliabili y analysis o he 3C-SiC MOS in e ace e ealed high b eakdown ields in he egion o 8MV/cm including cumula i e de ice ailu e a ising p ima ily om 3C-SiC c ys al de ec s (TDDB). Ac ual MOSFET demons a o s a e plagued by high leakage cu en s esul ing om c ys al de ec s. Thus, 600V 3C-SiC MOSFETs ha app oach he heo e ical unipola limi ha e been demons a ed. Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, w i ing, e iew and edi ing, F.L., M.J., F.R.; expe imen al in es iga ion, F.L., M.J., F.R., G.G., P.F.; da a analysis and discussion, J.E.E., F.A.M., F.L., C.A.F., A.P.-T., P.A.M., P.F., M.J., F.R.; unding acquisi ion, F.L.V. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This esea ch was unded by he Eu opean Union wi hin he amewo k o he p ojec CHALLENGE, g an numbe 720827. Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable. In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a unde lying his a icle will be sha ed on easonable eques om he co esponding au ho . Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . Ma e ials 2021,14, 5831 19 o 22 Re e ences 1. 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