Copy igh © 2017 by he au ho (s). Published he e unde license by he Resilience Alliance.
Fab i ius, H., A. Jokinen, and M. Cabeza. 2017. Me apopula ion pe spec i e o ins i u ional i : main enance o dynamic habi a
ne wo ks. Ecology and Socie y 22(2):30. h ps://doi.o g/10.5751/ES-09203-220230
Resea ch
Me apopula ion pe spec i e o ins i u ional i : main enance o dynamic
habi a ne wo ks
Henna Fab i ius 1,2, A i Jokinen 3 and Ma Cabeza 1
ABSTRACT. Species li ing in me apopula ions depend on connec ed habi a ne wo ks o hei su i al. I habi a ne wo ks expe ience
as empo al dynamics, species conse a ion equi es p e en ing habi a discon inui ies ha could lead o me apopula ion ex inc ions.
Howe e , ew ins i u ional solu ions exis o he main enance o spa io empo ally dynamic habi a ne wo ks ou side o p o ec ed
a eas. To explo e his o en neglec ed p oblem, we s udied he ins i u ional i o alse hea h i illa y (Meli aea diamina) conse a ion
in Finland om he pe spec i e o conse a ion ins i u ions’ abili y o manage ea ly successional habi a a ailabili y o his endange ed
species. We iden i ied ou ins i u ional a angemen s ha enable e ec i e conse a ion managemen o dynamic habi a ne wo ks: (1)
acknowledgmen o habi a dynamics, (2) moni o ing o and esponding o changes in he habi a ne wo k, (3) managemen o esou ces
o luc ua ing esou ce needs, and (4) scaling o ac i i ies h ough lexible collabo a ions. These a angemen s p o ide he ins i u ional
lexibili y needed o esponding o empo al changes in habi a a ailabili y.
Key Wo ds: conse a ion; dynamic habi a ne wo ks; alse hea h i illa y; unc ional i ; habi a o e g ow h; ins i u ional i ; Meli aea
diamina; me apopula ion dynamics; spa ial i ; empo al i
INTRODUCTION
Conse a ion o dynamic habi a ne wo ks
Species li ing in me apopula ions depend on he con inuous
a ailabili y o connec ed habi a pa ch ne wo ks o hei su i al
(Hanski 1994, Hanski and O askainen 2000, Cabeza 2003).
Habi a pa ch ne wo ks may unde go g adual deg ada ion
(Mo elli i e al. 2010) o loss (Bulman e al. 2007) o habi a
pa ches because o human land use ac i i ies. Addi ionally,
clima e change may cause habi a pa ch ne wo ks o shi
g adually owa d he poles (Radchuck e al. 2014). In pa icula ,
habi a pa ch ne wo ks can be dynamic o species ha occupy
ea ly successional habi a s, in which case indi idual habi a s may
eme ge and disappea depending on local dis u bance pa e ns
and he p ocess o succession (Johs e al. 2011). As he
in ensi ica ion o human land use has caused changes o
dis u bance egimes ac oss ecosys ems (Ly le and LeRoy Po
2004, Enck and Oda o 2008, Lou i al e al. 2011), he a ailabili y
o ea ly successional habi a s has dec eased in many ecosys ems
(Thompson and DeG aa 2001, Halada e al. 2011), and his has
caused he endange men o ea ly successional species (Askins
2001, De me s 2003, Long 2009). These de elopmen s ha e
esul ed in spa ially explici conse a ion planning needs o
species ha li e in spa io empo ally changing habi a ne wo ks
(Van Tee elen e al. 2012).
When conse a ion plans ha e o be designed o dynamic habi a
ne wo ks, speci ic complexi ies eme ge because o hei
ansi ional na u e. I habi a pa ches a e sho li ed, empo al
a ia ions in habi a egene a ion a es may cause empo al
luc ua ions in habi a a ailabili y (Moilanen e al. 2014). Such
luc ua ions ha e been shown o inc ease ex inc ion isks o
species ha li e in dynamic habi a ne wo ks because hey can
cause synch onized collapses o local popula ions (Bough on and
Mal adka 2002, Johs e al. 2011, Van Tee elen e al. 2012).
Conse a ion o dynamic habi a ne wo ks may he e o e equi e
managemen o cons an spa io empo al habi a a ailabili y o
he species o in e es , which may equi e acili a ing main enance
ac i i ies a imes and loca ions ha bes minimize habi a
discon inui ies, i.e., empo al gaps in habi a a ailabili y (Hanski
1999). These main enance ac i i ies can include me hods ha
delay o es a succession o inc ease he a ailabili y o he
successional s age o in e es , e.g., mowing o g azing. Howe e ,
ew ins i u ional solu ions ha e been de eloped o he pu pose
o such spa io empo al planning. Ag i-en i onmen al schemes
(Eu opean Commission 2005, Kleijn e al. 2006, A ponen e al.
2013) a e used o main ain habi a ne wo ks o demanding ea ly
successional species, bu hese ins i u ions a e es ic ed in hei
abili y o p io i ize spa ial connec i i y o habi a s (Schou en e
al. 2013). Fi e managemen ins i u ions (Richa ds e al. 1999,
Keeley and Fo he ingam 2001, S ewa e al. 2005) p o ide
examples o ins i u ions ha aim a p o iding con inuums o ea ly
successional habi a s. Thei design and pe o mance ha e been
s udied om a spa ially implici pe spec i e (Hansen 2014).
Ins i u ional i o habi a ne wo k main enance o ganiza ions
Ins i u ional i has been used as a concep ual amewo k o s udy
how well ins i u ions a e aligned wi h he eali ies hey manage
o go e n (Young 2003, Folke e al. 2007, Cox 2012). Fi depends
on he go e nance o managemen a ge s o ins i u ions and on
he poli ical and cul u al se ing (Halle e al. 2013) and may en ail
mul iple di e en measu es o i simul aneously (Lebel e al.
2013). In he case o na u al esou ce managemen , an
ins i u ion’s pe o mance may be measu ed in e ms o i s abili y
o inc ease he spa ial esilience o he sys em agains
pe u ba ions (Beng sson e al. 2003, Allen e al. 2016), which
educes empo al a iabili y in he low o he esou ce in o he
economy (Walke e al. 2004, Folke e al. 2007, Os om 2007). Fi
1Depa men o Biosciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki, 2Swedish Species In o ma ion Cen e, Swedish Uni e si y o Ag icul u al Sciences, 3Facul y o
Managemen (En i onmen al Policy), Uni e si y o Tampe e
Ecology and Socie y 22(2): 30
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has been es ima ed quali a i ely based on in e iews and policy
documen s (Munck a Rosenchöld e al. 2014), by calcula ing
simila i y me ics be ween ecological sys ems and policy
desc ip ions (Eks om and Young 2009), o by coun ing i
measu es om expe ques ionnai e eplies (Lebel e al. 2013).
Ins i u ional i has been measu ed om spa ial (Folke e al. 2007,
Moss 2012, Lebel e al. 2013), empo al (Pé ez-No d ed e al.
2008, Munck a Rosenschöld e al. 2014), and unc ional
(Eks om and Young 2009) pe spec i es. Func ional i measu es
whe he he key unc ions o he managed sys em a e add essed
by he managing ins i u ion (Eks om and Young 2009), whe eas
spa ial i e e s o misma ches in he spa ial ex en o
adminis a ion e sus ha o managed ecological sys ems (Folke
e al. 2007). Tempo al i e e s o he iming o ins i u ional
ac i i ies in ela ion o he empo al pa e ns in he biophysical
en i onmen hey manage o espond o (Munck a Rosenschöld
e al. 2014). Pé ez-No d ed e al. (2008) sugges he use o
concep s o empo and phase o cha ac e ize he leng h and iming
o o ganiza ional and en i onmen al cycles, such as cycles o
echnological imp o emen o go e nmen al egula o y ac i i ies,
o assess hei empo al i . Munck a Rosenschöld e al. (2014)
use a wide concep o imescapes om Adam (2000), which
includes he s udy o spa io empo al pa e n, sequence, and ime
ame o o ganiza ional ac i i ies. Spa ial and empo al i ha e
also been analyzed simul aneously (Cash e al. 2006).
Pas wo ks ha e p oposed ha in social-ecological sys ems p one
o pe u ba ions and dynamic changes, high ins i u ional i
equi es adap i e go e nance (Folke 2006). This equi es an
unde s anding o ecosys em dynamics, o ins ance o he
eedback mechanisms ha a e c i ical in he main enance o he
spa ial esilience o he sys em (Allen e al. 2016), managemen
p ac ices ha espond o eedback, adap i e capaci y o espond
o su p ise, and ins i u ional lexibili y (Folke 2006, Folke e al.
2007). In mul iscale ins i u ions, adap i e capaci y may equi e
in e play o ac o s o di e en scales, amewo ks, and egimes
(Paa ola e al. 2009) and he exis ence o nes ed ins i u ions (Folke
2006, Folke e al. 2007) ha can b idge he unc ions o di e en
ac o s a he igh ime o c ea e social-ecological esilience (Lebel
e al. 2006, Olsson e al. 2007, G een e al. 2015). High i also
equi es accep abili y o he ins i u ions in he eyes o esou ce
use s and landowne s (Hukkinen 2012, Fa ell and Thiel 2013,
Hiedanpää 2013), he a ainmen o which may equi e c ea ing
mechanisms ha u ilize hei knowledge in he unc ioning o he
ins i u ions (Olsson e al. 2007). Powe s uc u es wi hin
mul ile el go e nance ins i u ions can main ain ins i u ional
mis i (Folke e al. 2007). Pé ez-No d ed e al. (2008) sugges
ha empo al i o ins i u ions depends on whe he in e nal
empo al cycles o he ins i u ions can be easonably
synch onized wi h, o en ained o (Jokinen 2006), hei ex e nal
en i onmen o whe he dominan cycles wi hin go e nance
o ganiza ions ac as pace s, also called zei gebe s (Pé ez-
No d ed e al. 2008), ha main ain mis i .
We se ou o iden i y ins i u ional a angemen s ha enable
e ec i e conse a ion managemen o dynamic habi a ne wo ks.
We assessed he pe o mance o conse a ion ins i u ions om
he pe spec i e o hei abili y o p o ide habi a s ha suppo
s able, esilien popula ion sizes o he species being conse ed.
This, based on he me apopula ion heo y, equi es habi a
ne wo ks o adequa e connec i i y (Cabeza 2003) and capaci y
(Hanski and O askainen 2000) o e ime. We ca ied ou a case
s udy o he conse a ion o a Finnish endange ed bu e ly, he
alse hea h i illa y Meli aea diamina (Lang, 1789), o which he
p ima y documen ed cause o endange men in Finland is he
successional dynamics o i s habi a s, i.e., “o e g owing o
meadows and o he open habi a s” (Rassi e al. 2010:40). We used
hema ic in e iews and conse a ion epo s o iden i y ypes and
imings o ac i i ies in he Finnish na ional-le el and egional-
le el go e nmen al conse a ion o ganiza ions wi h ega d o
alse hea h i illa y conse a ion. Finally, we collec ed expe
es ima es on he po en ial need o habi a main enance o
endange ed Finnish species o es ima e he gene alizabili y o ou
indings. Based on he case s udy, we iden i ied key ins i u ional
a angemen s ha enable e ec i e conse a ion managemen o
dynamic habi a ne wo ks.
METHODS
Case s udy: alse hea h i illa y conse a ion in Finland
The alse hea h i illa y is a mois meadow specialis ha has,
like many bu e ly species, su e ed om ag icul u al
mode niza ion and d ainage o mois soils wi hin he ecen
decades (Liinalaakso 2000, an Swaay e al. 2006). The alse hea h
i illa y is lis ed as an endange ed species (Rassi e al. 2010), a
p o ec ed species, and a species unde s ic p o ec ion (Minis y
o he En i onmen 1997) in Finland, he majo cause o i s
endange men being he as successional dynamics o i s habi a s,
i.e., “o e g owing o meadows and o he open habi a s” (ca ego y
N), in he absence o adi ional land uses. Conse a ion planning
o he alse hea h i illa y is complica ed by he species’
dependence on dis u bed habi a s, ei he human-main ained
mois meadows o a dynamically changing ne wo k o sui able
ea ly successional allows. Mos alse hea h i illa y habi a s
appea on p i a e ag icul u al land. Because alse hea h i illa y
habi a s a e seldom occupied by o he endange ed species o
egional in e es , hey a e no he ocus o habi a - ocused
conse a ion p og ams. The expec ed li e ime o an unp o ec ed
alse hea h i illa y habi a has been es ima ed o be 13.1 yea s,
he quali y o he habi a si e s a ing o dec ease 2-3 yea s a e
si e main enance because o he successional dynamics o he
habi a s (Fab i ius and McB ide 2017) and habi a s equi ing
main enance, e.g., mowing o g azing, a leas e e y 5 yea s (In ke
2003).
False hea h i illa y conse a ion in Finland ocuses on he
egional-le el Cen es o he Economic De elopmen , T anspo
and he En i onmen (ELY cen e s), which hold he go e nmen al
au ho i y o s ee and moni o local and egional land use
planning, o es ablish conse a ion a eas on p i a e land, and o
en o ce habi a dema ca ions and pe mi s o excep ion ela ed o
he habi a s o endange ed species (Minis y o he En i onmen
2015, Cen e o Economic De elopmen , T anspo and he
En i onmen 2016). Based on he alse hea h i illa y dis ibu ion
in Finland (Wahlbe g 1998), ma e s ela ed o he species a e
deal wi h in he ELY cen e s o Pi kanmaa (Pi kanmaa egion),
Sou h Os obo hnia (Os obo hnia and Sou h Os obo hnia
egions), and sou hwes Finland (Sa akun a egion). A he
cen al le el o adminis a ion, he Minis y o he En i onmen
o mula es he en i onmen al policies o he Finnish go e nmen ,
s ee s and esou ces he ELY cen e s in na u e conse a ion, and
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guides he wo k ca ied ou in he Finnish En i onmen Ins i u e
(SYKE), which conduc s esea ch and compiles en i onmen al
da a. The Na u al He i age Se ices uni o Me sähalli us
(Finnish Fo es y Se ice) is esponsible o na u e conse a ion
on s a e-owned land (Minis y o he En i onmen 2015).
Thema ic in e iews and conse a ion epo s
We ca ied ou hema ic in e iews be ween No embe 2014 and
Feb ua y 2015 o de ail he goals, p io i ies, decision-making
p ocesses, collabo a ions, and p ac ices o alse hea h i illa y
conse a ion in Finland. The esponden s included h ee senio
ad ise s o he egional ELY cen e s ha we e in cha ge o he
alse hea h i illa y conse a ion in hei espec i e egions
(Pi kanmaa, Sou h Os obo hnia, and sou hwes Finland), wo
ci il se an s in he Minis y o he En i onmen esponsible o
he unding decisions ega ding go e nmen al conse a ion
unds, and a biologis a he Na u al En i onmen Cen e o
SYKE who was esponsible o egional p io i iza ion mee ings
o endange ed species. The in e iewees co e ed key ac o s, and
hey we e well awa e o he basic ecology and conse a ion
challenges o he alse hea h i illa y because o collabo a ion
be ween he species-speci ic esea che s and adminis a ion since
Wahlbe g (1997, 1998). We conduc ed he in e iews by ollowing
a eady-made hema ic in e iew ame (Appendix 1) ha was
di e en o he h ee g oups o in e iewees, i.e., he ELY cen e s,
he Minis y o he En i onmen , and SYKE, bu allowed he
discussion o ollow opics b ough up by he esponden s. Besides
hema ic in e iews, we s udied 14 epo s o he egional
en i onmen al adminis a ion ega ding he moni o ing and
es o a ion o alse hea h i illa y habi a s.
We used con en analysis o examine he in e iew da a and
conse a ion epo s wi h ega d o he decision-making
p ocesses, goals, p ac ices, collabo a ion s uc u es, and
dependencies ela ed o alse hea h i illa y conse a ion. Fi s ,
we iden i ied wha in o ma ion was a ailable o conse a ion
manage s wi h ega d o changes in he numbe s, sizes, quali ies,
and loca ions o habi a pa ches in he alse hea h i illa y habi a
ne wo k o hei espec i e adminis a i e a eas. Nex , we
iden i ied cyclical ac i i ies aking place in he conse a ion
o ganiza ions ega ding he iden i ied habi a ne wo k dynamics
and asked wha se he empo and phase o hese ac i i ies. We
also examined how hese o ganiza ions applied o mal legal
amewo k e sus adap i e go e nance in conse a ion
(Ga mes ani e al. 2013). Finally, we asked he ollowing ques ions
o e alua e he ins i u ional i o conse a ion: A e conse a ion
ins i u ions able o iden i y and espond o dec easing habi a
quali y and a ailabili y wi hin such ime ames ha can p e en
habi a discon inui ies o alse hea h i illa y me apopula ions?
A e conse a ion ins i u ions able o p io i ize, execu e, o
acili a e habi a main enance, es o a ion, o gene a ion a
loca ions ha a e impo an o he spa io empo al connec i i y
o he habi a ne wo k? Based on ou indings, we iden i ied key
ins i u ional a angemen s ha enable e ec i e conse a ion
managemen o dynamic habi a ne wo ks.
Expe es ima es on he gene alizabili y o he s udy case
To assess how common he conse a ion challenges iden i ied in
ou case s udy a e in he ield o endange ed species conse a ion
in Finland, we es ima ed how many o he endange ed species in
Finland, also h ea ened by he successional dynamics o hei
habi a s, would be conse ed using he same p ocesses as he alse
hea h i illa y because o a simila legal and conse a ion s a us.
Fo his pu pose, we ex ac ed he numbe s o endange ed species,
belonging o he ca ego ies ulne able (VU), endange ed (EN),
and c i ically endange ed (CR), om he Finnish Red Lis o
Endange ed Species 2010 (Rassi e al. 2010) ha a e also
h ea ened by successional habi a dynamics (p ima y cause o
endange men N) and ha a e ca ego ized as species unde s ic
p o ec ion. We hen asked wo axon-speci ic expe s o iden i y
species in he esul ing lis ha end o occupy habi a s ha all
ou o common habi a -speci ic conse a ion p og ams and
would he e o e need species-speci ic conse a ion measu es o
e icien conse a ion.
RESULTS
We ound unc ional, spa ial, and empo al mis i s in he
ins i u ions ha manage habi a a ailabili y o he alse hea h
i illa y. Based on hese indings, we iden i ied ou key
ins i u ional a angemen s ha enable e ec i e main enance o
dynamic habi a ne wo ks: (1) acknowledgmen o habi a
dynamics, (2) moni o ing o and esponding o changes in he
habi a ne wo k, (3) managemen o esou ces o luc ua ing
esou ce needs, and (4) scaling o ac i i ies h ough lexible
collabo a ions. Fo each a angemen , we sugges key ques ions
ha can be used by conse a ion manage s, public o icials, and
esea che s o assess he ex en o i and causes o po en ial
mis i s in ins i u ions ha main ain dynamic habi a ne wo ks.
The ques ions ha e been o mula ed so ha , in each ca ego y, an
inc easing numbe o posi i e eplies sugges s inc easing i .
Following he ques ions, we sugges guidelines o imp o ing he
ins i u ional i wi h ega d o he ques ions p esen ed.
Acknowledgemen o habi a dynamics
Fo alse hea h i illa y conse a ion, a key sou ce o ins i u ional
mis i a ose om he limi ed acknowledgmen o empo al habi a
dynamics by o mal conse a ion ins i u ions. The legisla i e
basis o alse hea h i illa y conse a ion, i.e., he species’ s a us
as a species o s ic p o ec ion, was linked o a policy ool ha
enabled egional ELY cen e s o use a p ocedu e o o icial habi a
dema ca ions o es ic des uc i e ac i i ies a alse hea h
i illa y habi a s (Minis y o he En i onmen 1996). Howe e ,
he esponden s conside ed habi a dema ca ions a con o e sial
ool o conse ing si es p one o successional habi a dynamics
because imposing limi a ions o p i a e landowne s’ land use
igh s was expec ed o de e io a e p i a e landowne s’ a i udes
owa d habi a main enance. The s a us as a species o s ic
p o ec ion also enabled he Minis y o he En i onmen (1996)
o p epa e a p og am o e i ing he species’ popula ions, bu
such a p og am had no been p epa ed. None o he s a uses o
he alse hea h i illa y in oked such o mal conse a ion policies
ha would ha e p o ided access o esou ces o ools o ackling
habi a dynamics o o gene a ing new habi a s o compensa e
habi a loss.
I was no un il he shi om legal amewo k o mo e in o mal
adap i e go e nance a he na ional-le el and egional-le el
policies ha successional dynamics a alse hea h i illa y habi a s
was acknowledged as he main conse a ion challenge o he
species, and i was add essed by he egional-le el au ho i ies in
he o m o habi a quali y assessmen s and habi a es o a ion
plans o deg aded si es. These ac i i ies we e suppo ed by
Ecology and Socie y 22(2): 30
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egional p io i iza ion mee ings o endange ed species, an
ou come o a Na ional Species Conse a ion Ac ion Plan
p epa ed in 2010-2011 (Minis y o he En i onmen 2016, SYKE
2017). The mee ings p o ided guidance and commi men om
na ional-le el ac o s, such as SYKE, Minis y o he
En i onmen , Finnish Fo es y Se ice, and axon-speci ic
expe s o he na ional endange ed species wo king g oups, in o
egional-le el conse a ion planning. Fo alse hea h i illa y
conse a ion, he mee ings p o ided suppo o he p io i iza ion
o ELY cen e s’ conse a ion asks and commi ed key na ional-
le el ac o s o he egional execu ion o alse hea h i illa y
conse a ion ac i i ies on s a e-owned land. Howe e , he
ag eemen s as such did no p o ide esou ces o he ELY cen e s
o ca ying ou he p io i ized asks.
The case o he alse hea h i illa y demons a es ha
conse a ion p og ams may lack ools, p ocesses, and o mal
policies o ackling habi a dynamics e en i hey ha e been
designed o conse e species ha li e in dynamic landscapes. This
can lead o a unc ional mis i , i conse a ion ins i u ions a e
op imized o ackling di e en h ea s han wha a e he p ima y
causes o endange men o he species in ques ion. We sugges
he ollowing ques ions o assessing he le el o acknowledgmen
o habi a dynamics in conse a ion ins i u ions:
1. A e habi a dynamics acknowledged as a key conse a ion
challenge o he managed sys em bo h in he o mal and
in o mal conse a ion policies?
2. Does such acknowledgmen ex end o all ele an spa ial
scales o policy making, e.g., go e nmen al le el, egional
le el, and local le el?
3. Has such acknowledgmen led o de ined a ge s and ask
p io i iza ion ha help wi h esponding o habi a
dynamics?
4. Has such acknowledgmen led o he p o ision o
ope a ional ools and esou ce alloca ion ha help wi h
esponding o habi a dynamics?
I o mal conse a ion policies o in o mal policies a he
go e nmen al le el do no acknowledge habi a dynamics as a
conse a ion challenge, egional- o local-le el ac o s may ha e
es ic ed oppo uni ies o ackle habi a dynamics because o he
ask p io i iza ions and esou ce alloca ions de ined in he
go e nmen al-le el decision making. The e o e, a aining high
ins i u ional i may equi e ha acknowledgmen o habi a
dynamics is ex ended o hose le els and o ms o go e nance ha
con ol local-le el ask p io i iza ion and esou ces (Folke e al.
2005, Va n and Vedeld 2012). Ope a ional ools and esou ces o
ackling habi a dynamics could be in oked i he challenge o
habi a dynamics was acknowledged in he documen ed causes o
h ea , h ea ac o s (Rassi e al. 2010), h ea ening p ocesses
(Ho mann e al. 2008), o ecommended conse a ion ac ions
(Rod igues e al. 2006) in he espec i e Red Lis documen a ion
o in he objec i es o eco e y o a species-speci ic eco e y plan
(McDonald e al. 2015). Al e na i ely, in o mal go e nmen al-
le el policies, such as in o ma ion sha ing and decision-making
p ac ices ha a e no de ined in he legisla ion, could be e ised
so ha such a ge s, p io i ies, ope a ional ools, and esou ces
a e ensu ed ha enable he managemen o habi a dynamics. A
mo e ho ough solu ion could equi e a e o m o conse a ion
policies o allow adap i e managemen o complex sys ems
(G een e al. 2015).
Moni o ing o and esponding o changes in he habi a ne wo k
The esponden s did no ha e clea and uni ied iews on how
p oac i ely ELY cen e s should collec in o ma ion on he alse
hea h i illa y and on changes in he numbe s, sizes, quali ies,
and loca ions o i s habi a pa ches o assess he adequacy o i s
habi a ne wo k, because he legisla ion did no explici ly pose
esponsibili ies on his ma e o any o ganiza ion. Regional
au ho i ies esponsible o hea h i illa y conse a ion, howe e ,
collec ed in o ma ion o alse hea h i illa y sigh ings and he
loca ions o alse hea h i illa y habi a s wi h he help o
con ac o s and olun ee s, such as ci izen expe s om he local
En omological Socie y. In Pi kanmaa, whe e he conse a ion
his o y o he species was decades long, egional au ho i ies
su eyed he meadow ne wo k wi h he help o con ac o s once
a decade. The su eys included a quali a i e classi ica ion o
habi a si es acco ding o he u gency o hei es o a ion. Su eys
we e ollowed by habi a es o a ion p og ams ha included
con ac s o habi a landowne s and making habi a es o a ion
plans wi h coope a i e landowne s. Res o a ion p og ams mo ed
annually om one sub egion o ano he o gain syne gies om
coope a ing wi h mul iple landowne s a he same ime pe
sub egion; his enabled in o ma ion-sha ing mee ings and he
change o expe ise be ween in ol ed landowne s.
The decadal hy hm o habi a ne wo k su eys in Pi kanmaa was
d i en by esou ce a ailabili y in ela ion o he ex en o he
habi a ne wo k o be main ained. Based on exis ing knowledge
o habi a succession a alse hea h i illa y meadows (In ke 2003,
Fab i ius and McB ide 2017), he empo o habi a dynamics a
alse hea h i illa y habi a s was, howe e , o en as e han his.
Consequen ly, epo s o habi a ne wo k su eys indica ed ha
la ge p opo ions o habi a s had al eady been des oyed in he
p ocess o habi a succession by he imes o he su eys
(Kekkonen and Rönkä 2009). This gene a ed a empo al mis i
o alse hea h i illa y conse a ion because in o ma ion lags
p e en ed he iming o habi a main enance ac i i ies wi hin such
empo al windows o oppo uni y (Folke e al. 2007) ha would
ha e p e en ed local ex inc ions o alse hea h i illa y
popula ions a deg aded habi a s. The spa io empo al
agg ega ion o he esul ing habi a es o a ion p og ams (Fig. 1)
was ano he po en ial sou ce o spa io empo al mis i .
Synch onized es o a ion o nea by habi a s was likely o gene a e
a spa io empo al pa e n in which habi a s loca ed close o each
o he had synch onized successional dynamics. Acco ding o pas
s udies o dynamic habi a s, such spa ial agg ega ion o habi a
dynamics can ei he inc ease o dec ease species’ me apopula ion
sizes in dynamic landscapes, depending on hei li e his o y ai s
(Johs and D echsle 2003, Hinsch and Poe hke 2007, Elkin and
Possingham 2008). I was no known which one was he case o
he alse hea h i illa y.
E ec i e managemen o habi a ne wo k dynamics bene i s om
he collec ion o spa ial and empo al esilience assessmen da a
(Allen e al. 2016) ha can be used o build knowledge on he
sys em’s dynamics and c i ical h esholds. This knowledge can
hen be used o de e mine he igh igge s and scales o ac ion
o conse a ion managemen in he case o pe u ba ions and
Ecology and Socie y 22(2): 30
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g adual sys em changes. We sugges he ollowing ques ions o
assessing he i o moni o ing and esponding o changes in
dynamic habi a ne wo ks:
Fig. 1. Annual unding by he Minis y o he En i onmen o
he Pi kanmaa ELY cen e o alse hea h i illa y conse a ion
in 2005-2014. Dashed lines depic he lowe and uppe bounds
o es ima ed annual unds o he yea s 2005-2010, o which
exac eco ds pe species we e no a ailable. The inc eased
unding in 2011-2014 e lec s a la ge-scale habi a es o a ion
p og am ha ollowed he 2009 habi a ne wo k su ey and
consis ed o si e main enance, landowne con ac s, and he
de elopmen o new, expe imen al habi a main enance
me hods. ELY cen e , Cen e o he Economic De elopmen ,
T anspo and he En i onmen .
1. Do conse a ion manage s collec in o ma ion on habi a
ne wo k dynamics?
2. Is he a e age ime in e al o ecei ing o collec ing such
da a sho e han he expec ed li e ime o mos empo a y
habi a s?
3. Is in o ma ion o empo al habi a dynamics collec ed using
such s anda dized measu es ha ensu e he compa abili y
o da a ac oss yea s and su eyo s?
4. Do conse a ion manage s ecei e in o ma ion om
landowne s o olun ee s on changes in landowne ship, land
use ype, o des uc ion o habi a s?
5. Is he e a sys ema ic me hod o sea ching o eme ging
habi a s?
6. A e conse a ion manage s able o an icipa e changes in he
habi a ne wo k based on si e main enance his o ies and/o
modeled empo al dynamics o habi a s?
E ec i e managemen o habi a ne wo k dynamics equi es
imely in o ma ion on changes in he habi a pa ch ne wo k so
ha conse a ion managemen plans can be i e a ed based on up-
o-da e da a on he sys em s a e (G een e al. 2015). Such
in o ma ion may be collec ed ia egula pa ch ne wo k su eys
ha a e o ganized wi hin ime in e als ha lea e a window o
oppo uni y o ca y ou main enance ac i i ies be o e local
popula ion ex inc ions ake place a deg ading habi a pa ches.
The imeliness o a ailable in o ma ion could be u he inc eased
by se ing up mechanisms ha enable landowne s o epo
changes conce ning habi a pa ches loca ed a hei p ope ies,
such as habi a main enance ac i i ies, habi a des uc ion,
changes in landowne ship, and changes in land use plans a he
p ope y (Pocewicz e al. 2008, Daye e al. 2016). Addi ionally,
depending on he habi a ype in ques ion, he sea ch o new,
eme ged habi a pa ches could be ca ied ou ei he by conduc ing
egula ield su eys o by s udying land use eco ds ha may
e eal p obable loca ions o habi a eme gence.
The use o s anda dized measu es enables he accumula ion o
such da a on pa ch and pa ch ne wo k dynamics ha is
compa able ac oss yea s and su eyo s and ha can hus be used
o p edic ing sys em dynamics, h esholds, and u u e
de elopmen . Fo ins ance, i epea ed s anda dized measu emen s
o habi a sizes and quali ies can be complemen ed wi h
sys ema ic eco ds o habi a main enance and land use his o ies,
p edic i e models can be de eloped o es ima ing how
managemen in e en ions impac habi a quali ies and
succession (Pöy y e al. 2006, Taylo and Mo ec o 2009). Such
p edic i e models could be used o es ima e he annual need o
main enance esou ces o he sys em and o de ine sui able ime
in e als o u u e habi a ne wo k su eys.
Managemen o esou ces o luc ua ing esou ce needs
In alse hea h i illa y conse a ion, bo h esou ce needs and
esou ce a ailabili y luc ua ed in ime. Annual esou ce needs a
he h ee ELY cen e s depended on which ac i i ies ela ed o he
alse hea h i illa y, i.e., species moni o ing, habi a ne wo k
su eys, o es o a ion p og ams, we e planned o he gi en yea
and how many habi a si es we e planned o be main ained o
es o ed using he esou ces o he ELY cen e s. Al hough no
ea ma ked unding exis ed o hese ac i i ies, he budge o he
Minis y o he En i onmen con ained wo clauses ha could be
used o co e cos s o ac i i ies ela ed o he alse hea h i illa y.
Resou ces a ailable in he Minis y o he En i onmen o he
wo clauses luc ua ed annually depending on he s a e budge
and on empo ally luc ua ing p io i ies, such as he execu ion o
la ge-scale conse a ion p og ams o upda ing he Finnish Red
Lis o Endange ed Species, which usually ook place o 3 yea s
e e y 10 yea s. The annual unding ecei ed by he ELY cen e s
was he e o e o en su p isingly small, some imes e en less han
hal o he sum applied o alse hea h i illa y conse a ion.
Consequen ly, ELY cen e s had o p io i ize di e en species in
di e en yea s o ge adequa e unding o execu ing species-
speci ic p ojec s.
Access o main enance unding o alse hea h i illa y habi a s
also a ied acco ding o he ype o habi a owne ship, a me
s a us, landowne ’s abili y o ca y ou habi a main enance
independen ly, and dema ca ion s a us o he habi a (Fig. 2). The
5-yea o 10-yea ag i-en i onmen al suppo con ac s p o ided
an impo an sou ce o unding o he main enance o alse hea h
i illa y habi a s by landowne s, gi en he p opo ionally la ge
amoun s o unding a ailable in he ag i-en i onmen al suppo
and he long e m o he suppo con ac s. Howe e , his
Eu opean Union–based sou ce o unding was only a ailable o

Ecology and Socie y 22(2): 30
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a me s en i led o a ming suppo . The u iliza ion o ag i-
en i onmen al schemes o he main enance o alse hea h
i illa y habi a s also depended on whe he habi a s o be
main ained we e loca ed on a p ope y ha me he condi ions o
he suppo and whe he habi a s we e la ge enough so ha he
a ea-based ag i-en i onmen al suppo co e ed habi a
main enance cos s. The applica ion p ocess also equi ed high
landowne mo i a ion and ime in es men om he pe sonnel o
he ELY cen e , which limi ed he usage o his sou ce o unding.
The unp edic abili y and in lexibili y o a ailable main enance
unding he e o e caused a spa io empo al mis i in he
managemen o habi a ne wo k dynamics o alse hea h i illa y
conse a ion because i limi ed conse a ion manage s’
possibili ies o plan and s ee esou ce alloca ion.
Fig. 2. Sou ces o habi a main enance unding o a alse
hea h i illa y habi a depending on he ype o landowne ,
dema ca ion s a us and a me s a us o he habi a , and he
landowne ’s abili y o ca y ou habi a main enance
independen ly. ELY cen e , Cen e o he Economic
De elopmen , T anspo and he En i onmen .
E ec i e managemen o habi a ne wo k dynamics would
equi e ha he esou ces a ailable o habi a main enance can
be alloca ed ac oss ime and space acco ding o wha minimizes
habi a discon inui ies o he species o in e es . We sugges he
ollowing ques ions o assessing he i o managing esou ces
o luc ua ing esou ce needs:
1. Do conse a ion manage s ha e da a on how spa ial o
empo al luc ua ions o he habi a ne wo k a ec he
species o in e es ?
2. Do conse a ion manage s alloca e main enance esou ces
acco ding o long- e m spa ial conse a ion plans?
3. Can conse a ion manage s bu e and dis ibu e
managemen esou ces ac oss yea s o maximize he
e ec i eness o esou ce use?
4. Can conse a ion manage s alloca e main enance esou ces
lexibly in e ms o loca ion o maximize he e ec i eness
o esou ce use?
Being able o alloca e main enance esou ces ac oss ime and
space o he species o in e es equi es an unde s anding o how
he species’ me apopula ion dynamics a e a ec ed by di e en
spa io empo al pa e ns o habi a a ailabili y. Wi hou de ailed
s udies o he managed sys em, such pa e ns a e no sel -e iden .
Fo ins ance, spa ial agg ega ion o dis u bances may o may no
alle ia e he de imen al e ec s o local habi a des uc ion o
dis u bance-dependen species depending on species-speci ic
ai s (Johs and D echsle 2003, Hinsch and Poe hke 2007, Elkin
and Possingham 2008), and in ensi e main enance o a smalle
habi a ne wo k may o may no be bene icial in compa ison o
c ea ing new habi a s (Ross e al. 2008). Ideally, mul iple ealis ic
scena ios o habi a ne wo k dynamics could be de eloped o he
landscapes being managed, and he me apopula ion dynamics o
he species o in e es could be modeled using hese al e na i e
scena ios. As in many cases, esou ce limi a ion may p e en he
de elopmen o applica ion o such p edic i e ools, bu exis ing
models ha ha e been de eloped o species o simila li e his o y
ai s could be used as guidance o de e mining e ec i e
spa io empo al managemen s a egies. In he absence o any
es ima es o a species’ me apopula ion esponses o landscape
dynamics, managemen could aim a maximizing pa ch li e imes
while minimizing changes in habi a numbe s and loca ions
whene e possible because hese s a egies ha e gene ally been
shown o main ain highe popula ion sizes han apidly changing
habi a ne wo ks (Johs e al. 2011, Van Tee elen e al. 2012).
A he same ime, conse a ion managemen on p i a e land akes
place in he eali y o mul iple cons ain s, such as esou ce
sho ages and he eliance on landowne coope a ion (Opdam e
al. 2008), which may p e en ollowing he mos e ec i e
managemen s a egies. Fo such cases, he e is a need o p ac ical
decision-making ules o ools ha enable planning o he iming
and placemen o habi a main enance ac i i ies gi en such
cons ain s o unde unce ain y.
Conse a ion manage s’ abili y o alloca e esou ces ac oss ime
and space could be imp o ed i main enance budge s we e lexible
in ime, and manage s could decide whe he o sa e o ollowing
yea s o spend he ull budge (see, e.g., D echsle e al. 2007).
This would enable manage s o u ilize mo e esou ces du ing yea s
o need o la ge amoun s o main enance unding o o la en
he luc ua ions o a ailable conse a ion unds ac oss yea s.
Imp o ing conse a ion manage s’ abili y o alloca e
main enance esou ces lexibly in e ms o loca ion would equi e
ei he a gene al-le el alloca ion o unds o he main enance o
he habi a ne wo k, which would educe manage s’ dependency
on applying o al e na i e sou ces o unding, o , in he case o
ea ly successional habi a s, mo e lexible ules o he use o ag i-
en i onmen al suppo . Annual unding alloca ions should also
be handled a such scale o go e nance ha allows lexible
de e mina ion o he igh scale o ac ion (G een e al. 2015), o
ins ance ealloca ion o esou ces be ween managemen egions
in he case o la ge pe u ba ions a pa icula egions.
Scaling o ac i i ies h ough lexible collabo a ions
In he h ee ELY cen e s, esou ce sho ages es ic ed pe sonnel
esou ces ha could be spen on alse hea h i illa y conse a ion,
and mos esou ces wen in o handling bu eauc a ic ma e s o
being in con ac wi h landowne s. The e o e, alse hea h i illa y
dis ibu ion and habi a ne wo k su eys, as well as habi a
Ecology and Socie y 22(2): 30
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Table 1. Numbe s o endange ed species in he Finnish Red Lis o Endange ed Species 2010 (Rassi e al. 2010) in all axa (le ), in
Lepidop e a (middle), and in ascula plan s ( igh ) o which he majo cause o endange men is habi a su oca ion ( h ea code N),
g ouped acco ding o hei endange men s a us: c i ically endange ed (CR), endange ed (EN), and ulne able (VU). The able lis s
he numbe s o species h ea ened by habi a o e g ow h in he espec i e axa ha a e classi ied as species unde s ic p o ec ion and
would, based on he opinions o wo axon-speci ic expe s, also equi e species-speci ic conse a ion plans like he alse hea h i illa y.
All axa Lepidop e a Vascula plan s
CR EN VU To al CR EN VU To al CR EN VU To al
To al numbe o endange ed species
h ea ened by habi a o e g ow h
107 388 389 884 30 151 92 273 9 47 37 93
O which, species unde s ic p o ec ion 54 192 25 271 17 74 1 92 5 29 2 36
O which, species in need o species-
speci ic conse a ion plans (es ima ed by
expe 1)
6 21 1 28
O which, species in need o species-
speci ic conse a ion plans (es ima ed by
expe 2)
2 16 1 19
main enance planning and in o ma ion sha ing o landowne s,
we e handed o ex e nal con ac o s o olun ee s. The amoun
o con ac ed wo k a ied annually depending on he amoun o
unding a ailable, bu also acco ding o he landowne ship o
habi a s o be main ained: Landowne s a ied om ac i e a me s
o e i ed a me s and o people li ing o wo king in u ban a eas,
and habi a s we e ei he main ained by landowne s hemsel es o
needed o be main ained by con ac o s.
Collabo a ion, when i was needed, had o be scaled up as :
In o ma ion on unding alloca ions by he Minis y o he
En i onmen was usually a ailable in Feb ua y, and sp ing
ac i i ies a main ained si es had o be ca ied ou be o e he s a
o he g ow h season in Ap il o May. Addi ionally, ELY cen e s
needed expe ienced con ac o s ha could ca y ou he needed
asks independen ly. This did no cause majo p oblems in
Pi kanmaa, whe e he e was no sho age o expe ienced
con ac o s and whe e plans and con ac s could be scaled as
acco ding o he amoun o a ailable unding based on known
bes p ac ices om pas collabo a ions. In he o he wo
adminis a i e egions, which had ewe ac o s in he ci il socie y,
expe ienced con ac o s did no exis , and he sho - e m na u e
o annually con ac ed wo k complica ed he de elopmen o
expe ise among he ew po en ial collabo a o s.
The sho - e m alloca ion o main enance esou ces caused a isk
o empo al mis i in he execu ion o main enance ac i i ies
because he sho ime ames in which p ojec s had o be
es ablished could ha e ou paced he empo o inding con ac o s.
This, in u n, could ha e led o de iciencies in he execu ion o
planned main enance ac i i ies. Such mis i could be alle ia ed
ia he buildup o collabo a ion ne wo ks ha enable as scaling
o ac i i ies o by widening he ime ames o esou ce a ailabili y
o conse a ion manage s. We sugges he ollowing ques ions o
assessing he i o scaling ac i i ies h ough lexible
collabo a ions:
1. Do conse a ion manage s ha e access o an adequa e
supply o expe ienced in-house pe sonnel o ex e nal
con ac o s ha can be in ol ed in habi a main enance
ac i i ies when needed?
2. Is he ime ame a ailable om unding alloca ions o he
p e e ed ime o execu ion o main enance ac i i ies
adequa e o ac i a ing a scalable wo k o ce?
Ha ing he possibili y o dis ibu e main enance esou ces lexibly
o e mul iple yea s would enable longe e m planning o esou ce
use and longe planning ho izons o scaling up ope a ions. Thus,
i would also enable he c ea ion o long- e m managemen
con ac s, commi men , and capaci y building wi h local
con ac o s.
The case o he alse hea h i illa y in ela ion o o he species
Acco ding o he es ima es o wo axon-speci ic expe s, Finland
has a leas 19 and 28 endange ed species in he s udied axa o
ascula plan s and Lepidop e a, espec i ely, ha a e simila o
he alse hea h i illa y wi h espec o hei s a us as endange ed
species (CR, EN, o VU), s a us as species o s ic p o ec ion,
main cause o endange men , and es ima ed need o species-
speci ic conse a ion plans (Table 1). These es ima es co espond
o 10.2% and 20.4% o all endange ed species in he espec i e
axa ha a e h ea ened by successional habi a dynamics. As
hese numbe s es ima e he numbe s and ac ions o species o
which conse a ion is likely o aise simila challenges and
po en ial ins i u ional mis i s as hose iden i ied o he alse hea h
i illa y, he implica ions and ecommenda ions we iden i ied a e
o gene al applica ion and impo ance.
CONCLUSION
The ou ins i u ional a angemen s iden i ied in ou case s udy,
i.e., acknowledgmen o habi a dynamics, moni o ing o and
esponding o changes in he habi a ne wo k, managing esou ces
o luc ua ing esou ce needs, and scaling o ac i i ies h ough
lexible collabo a ions, s ess he impo ance o ins i u ional
lexibili y and adap i e go e nance in he conse a ion o
dynamic habi a ne wo ks. High pe o mance in he conse a ion
o dynamic sys ems equi es he abili y o espond as o
po en ially eme ging habi a discon inui ies ha could be
de imen al o species being conse ed. Ou indings hus ag ee
wi h many p e ious indings on he e ec i e managemen o
social-ecological sys ems, which highligh he impo ance o
en i onmen al moni o ing (Cox 2012), adap i e capaci y (Folke
e al. 2007, Ga mes ani e al. 2013, Allen e al. 2016), c oss-scale
Ecology and Socie y 22(2): 30
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in e ac ions (Hansen 2014), and he u iliza ion o landowne s’
knowledge (Olsson e al. 2007, G een e al. 2015) in he a ainmen
o high ins i u ional i in hese con ex s.
As demons a ed by he expe es ima es on he gene alizabili y
o ou case s udy, habi a dynamics may be an o e looked
conse a ion challenge ha calls o new kinds o ins i u ional
a angemen s ha can main ain habi a a ailabili y o species
li ing in dynamic landscapes. In he e a o clima e change, such
lexibili y may p o e bene icial o a la ge ex en o species han
hose li ing in ea ly successional habi a s. In he ace o po en ially
la ge-scale pe u ba ions, such as possible ex eme clima e e en s,
conse a ion manage s could aim a inc easing, no only
main aining, sys em esilience by inc easing he he e ogenei y and
connec i i y o habi a pa ch ne wo ks and acili a ing hei
spa ial ex ension owa d he di ec ion o p edic ed sui able
clima es o he u u e. T ans o ma ion om adi ional
conse a ion managemen , which is based on igid ules and
managemen o sys em pieces as independen uni s (Allen e al.
2016), is, howe e , likely o equi e legal e o m be o e he adap i e
managemen o complex sys ems would be ully enabled in
conse a ion ins i u ions (G een e al. 2015).
Responses o his a icle can be ead online a :
h p://www.ecologyandsocie y.o g/issues/ esponses.
php/9203
Acknowledgmen s:
We hank Be ina Somma s öm o collec ing da a and expe
es ima es on he gene alizabili y o ou case s udy, he in e iewees
o hei ime and pa icipa ion, he expe s who es ima ed he
gene alizabili y o ou s udy case, and Jenny Hodgson and Mikko
Kuussaa i o hei commen s on a p e ious e sion o he
manusc ip .
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3. Is he a ge o p io i iza ion mee ings o imp o e he conse a ion s a us o he p io i ized species
so much ha e en ually hey would no longe need u gen conse a ion measu es?
The ou come
1. A e you sa is ied wi h he ealiza ion o he conse a ion measu es ag eed in he p io i iza ion
mee ings, he amoun o a ailable conse a ion unding and he p ocess o unding alloca ion?
2. Should he alloca ion o habi a main enance unding o endange ed species be based on
some hing else han he ou comes o he p io i iza ion mee ings? I yes, wha ?
Species o s ic conse a ion
1. Wha does he conse a ion esponsibili y o he species o s ic conse a ion conce n mean o
you, wha is he conc e e goal o he conse a ion ac i i ies and on who’s esponsibili y is i o
plan (a) he mee ing o he a o able conse a ion s a us, (b) main enance ac i i ies needed, (c)
o e all conse a ion planning?
2. Which unding ins umen should be used o co e he habi a main enance cos s o endange ed
species ha a e h ea ened by habi a o e g ow h? Fo (a) p i a e ag icul u al land, (b) p i a e
conse a ion a eas, (c) publicly owned land?
3. Wha ools o esou ces should be enables o he ELY cen e s, so ha he a o able conse a ion
s a us o he alse hea h i illa y could be me in a socially meaning ul way?
4. Fo how many o he species is habi a o e g ow h he p ima y h ea ?