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Running head: PSYCHOLOGICAL TASKS ALONG FOREST TRAILS 2
Enhancing wellbeing wi h psychological asks along o es ails 3
1Kale i KORPELA, 2Ei a-Maija SAVONEN, 1Su i ANTTILA, 4
1Ty i PASANEN, 1Eleano RATCLIFFE 5
Ci a ion: 6
Ko pela, K. M., Sa onen, E.-M., An ila, S., Pasanen, T., & Ra cli e, E. (2017). Enhancing wellbeing 7
wi h psychological asks along o es ails. U ban Fo es y & U ban G eening, 26, 25-30. 8
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1016/j.u ug.2017.06.004 9
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Acknowledgemen s 11
The es ablishmen o he o es ails and da a collec ion was unded by he Eu opean Ag icul u al 12
Fund o Ru al De elopmen and he Council o Tampe e Region (in Finland). We a e g a e ul o 13
he olun ee s who pa icipa ed in he s udy. 14
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Kale i Ko pela (co esponding au ho ), P o esso o Psychology, D . Psychol.; 17
kale i.ko pela@u a. i; el: + 358-50-3186 130 18
1 Facul y o Social Sciences / Psychology, 33014 Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland; 19
2 Na u al Resou ces Ins i u e Finland (LUKE) / 39700 Pa kano 20
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E-mails: ei a-maija.sa[email p o ec ed]; [email p o ec ed]; y[email p o ec ed]; 22
[email p o ec ed] 23
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Highligh s 32
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 We in es iga ed he ole o awa eness-enhancing asks in na u e expe iences. 34
 We ound no coun y di e ences in he es o a i e expe iences a e o es walks. 35
 Sa is ac ion wi h he asks was linked o es o a i e change and mood enhancemen . 36
 Na u e-connec edness did no mode a e ei he ou come. 37
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Abs ac 39
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The pu pose o he s udy was o in es iga e whe he delibe a e psychological asks, in ended 41
o ocus people’s a en ion on he in e ac ion be ween hemsel es and na u al su oundings, a e 42
linked wi h mood enhancemen and sel - epo ed es o a ion. In ou Eu opean coun ies (Finland, 43
F ance, Luxembou g, Sweden), we su eyed he expe iences o olun ee s (N = 299) who walked 44
o es ails and ca ied ou psychological asks p in ed on he signpos s along hem. We 45
in es iga ed he simila i ies and di e ences o he ail expe iences be ween he coun ies. Via 46
mul ig oup modeling, we u he examined he mode a ing ole o na u e-connec edness in 47
ela ionships be ween sa is ac ion wi h he con en s o he psychological asks, mood enhancemen , 48
and es o a i e bene i s. The esul s showed ha , independen o age and gende , pa icipan s we e 49
mo e sa is ied wi h he ails in Sweden and Luxembou g han in Finland. We de ec ed no eliable 50
di e ences in he es o a i e expe iences o willingness o ecommend he ail o o he s. In he 51
mode a ion model, sa is ac ion wi h he signpos s’ con en s was connec ed o posi i e es o a i e 52
change and mood enhancemen . The mode a o e ec s o na u e-connec edness we e no signi ican 53
o ei he ou come. Thus, i is likely ha sa is ac o y asks will wo k equally well o people a ying 54
in na u e-connec edness. This is a p omising p ospec o public heal h p omo ion. The ai ly high 55
le el o na u e-connec edness among he pa icipan s limi s he gene alizabili y o ou esul s. 56
Conclusions conce ning he ole o na u e-connec edness should be made wi h cau ion due o he 57
limi ed co e age o he concep in ou measu e. Fu u e s udies ha sepa a e he e ec o 58
psychological asks om he es o a i e e ec s o na u e i sel a e needed. 59
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Keywo ds: engagemen ; psychological asks; o es ail; mood; es o a ion; na u e-connec edness 61
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In oduc ion 66
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Links be ween na u e and wellbeing, and pa icula ly bene i s o mood, s ess educ ion and 68
a en ion es o a ion, a e well-explo ed in he li e a u e wi hin en i onmen al psychology (see 69
Ha ig, Mi chell, de V ies, & F umkin, 2014, o a e iew). Howe e , i is no eliably known 70
whe he delibe a e asks in ended o ocus people’s a en ion o he in e ac ion be ween hemsel es 71
and na u al su oundings can enhance mood and es o a ion om s ess. Such an engagemen -based 72
app oach has been used, howe e , in wo s udies (Du all, 2011, 2013). To es whe he conscious 73
engagemen s a egies enhance he bene i s o na u e walks, Du all (2011) conduc ed a wo-week 74
walking expe imen wi h wo ea men condi ions: “schedule se ing” and “awa eness plans”. All 75
pa icipan s we e gi en he goal o aking a leas h ee 30-minu e ou doo walks du ing each o he 76
subsequen wo weeks. The schedule se ing g oup iden i ied he days and imes hey in ended o 77
walk whe eas hose who we e assigned o he engagemen g oup we e ins uc ed o ocus on 78
awa eness plans du ing hei walks. These awa eness plans ins uc ed he pa icipan s o ocus on 79
he su ounding physical en i onmen in a a ie y o ways, such as ocusing on hei senses o 80
aking on a new ole (e.g., imagining you a e an a is looking o inspi a ion). The esul s showed 81
ha using awa eness-enhancing asks inc eased sa is ac ion and sel - epo ed a en ional 82
unc ioning, and dec eased eelings o impa ience and i i a ion. This sugges s ha di ec ing 83
a en ion and in e ac ion consciously in e e yday na u e expe iences migh p omo e well-being. 84
To in es iga e he po en ial o awa eness-enhancing asks in na u e expe iences, we unde ook 85
an in e na ional p ojec oge he wi h pa icipan s om Finland, F ance, Luxembou g, and Sweden 86
du ing 2012-2013 (Sa onen & Ko pela, 2013). Signpos s wi h psychological guidance o 87
pe cei ing he su oundings, s ess-alle ia ion, and es o a ion we e pu up along he o es ails in 88
he ou coun ies. Ou a ionale was ha i es o a ion om s ess can be enhanced wi h 89
psychological asks along o es ails, such in e en ions could be ca ied ou on a la ge scale o 90
bene i public heal h p omo ion in an a emp o educe he accumula ion o s ess cos -e ec i ely. 91
Scien i ic in es iga ions abou he e ec i eness o such ails a e nonexis en excep o a 92
p elimina y use su ey o he Finnish ail (Va ulainen e al., 2011). In ha su ey, 69% o he 93
pa icipan s epo ed ha hey we e calme , mo e ale and mo e away om e e yday wo ies han 94
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be o e walking. Se en y- h ee pe cen o he isi o s we e e y o qui e sa is ied wi h he ail hey 95
walked (Va ulainen e al., 2011). 96
In he p esen s udy, we su ey he expe iences o he olun ee s who walked he o es ails 97
and ca ied ou he psychological “ asks” along hem. A his poin , we we e no able o se up an 98
expe imen al design o ease ou he e ec s o comple ing he asks e sus walking he ails wi hou 99
hem. Howe e , by compa ing he su ey answe s om he di e en coun ies ou i s aim is o 100
in es iga e whe he di e en ails – wi h di e en ypes o o es s and landscapes and cul u ally 101
di e en pa icipan s – p oduce simila expe iences. Simila i ies in expe iences migh a ise om he 102
ac ha all pa icipan s ca ied ou he same psychological asks while walking on he ails. 103
The con en s o he asks we e planned acco ding o an a en ion es o a ion heo y (ART) by 104
he Kaplans (1989) and s ess educ ion heo y (SRT) by Ul ich (1983). Bo h mood bene i s and 105
es o a i e changes a e na u e exposu e a e well-documen ed in he cu en li e a u e (B a man, 106
Hamil on & Daily, 2012; Ha ig e al., 2014). A consis en inding in expe imen al s udies is ha 107
e en passi e iewing o u ban pa ks o woodlands (compa ed o buil u ban en i onmen s) a e 108
nega i e an eceden condi ions, such as a en ional a igue (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) and 109
psychophysiological s ess (Ul ich e al., 1991), p oduces g ea e physiological changes owa d 110
elaxa ion, g ea e changes o posi i ely- oned sel - epo ed emo ions, and as e eco e y o 111
a en ion-demanding cogni i e pe o mances (Ha ig e al., 1991; Pa sons, e al., 1998; Tsune sugu 112
e al., 2013; Ty äinen e al., 2014; Ul ich e al., 1991). E idence o imp o ed a en ional 113
unc ioning, emo ional gains, lowe ed blood p essu e, and sali a y co isol has also been epo ed in 114
ield expe imen s using ac ual walks in u ban pa ks o woodlands and epea ed measu es o 115
physiological, emo ional, and a en ional ou comes (Ha ig e al., 1991, 2003; Pa k e al., 2010). 116
In planning he o de o he asks, we paid a en ion o he cu en knowledge o he o de o 117
appea ance o he es o a i e ou comes. The imeline o he appea ance o es o a i e, non-s essing 118
ou comes a e he exposu e (wa ching o walking) o he na u al en i onmen (pa k, o es ) ollows 119
he physiological and cogni i e esponse pa e ns epo ed o s ess- ela ed changes: a dec ease in 120
hea a e, muscle ension and skin conduc ance wi hin ou o se en minu es (Ul ich e al., 1991), 121
lowe blood p essu e and imp o ed mood a e 20 minu es (Ha ig e al., 2003; an den Be g e al., 122
2003), and be e a en ional pe o mance a e 10-55 minu es (Be man e al., 2008; Ha ig e al., 123
2003; Fabe Taylo & Kuo, 2009). Acco ding o ART, a pe son may pass h ough successi e le els 124
o he es o a i e expe ience (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). The i s le el in ol es ‘clea ing he head’, 125
leading o inc eased di ec ed a en ion capaci y. The second en ails acing accumula ed ma e s on 126
one’s mind. The hi d is e lec ion on one’s p io i ies, p ospec s, ac ions, and goals in li e. 127
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In addi ion o es o a ion heo ies, we u ilized en i onmen al sel - egula ion heo y based on 128
a ou i e place s udies (Ko pela, 1989) in de eloping he asks. Fa ou i e places a e places o which 129
people a e emo ionally a ached and, o example, in Finland, 40% - 48% o adul s who li e in ci ies 130
ha e epo ed ha hei e e yday a ou i e o posi i e places a e in na u al se ings (Ko pela e al., 131
2001; Ky ä e al., 2013). Fa ou i e places a e sough ou o es o a i e and sel - egula o y bene i s 132
in he se ice o coping wi h e e yday s ess and pe sonal wo ies a ising om, e.g., social, 133
inancial o wo k- ela ed ma e s (Ko pela e al., 2010). 134
The e is e idence ha sel - epo ed “connec edness wi h na u e” in luences he p ocess 135
whe eby na u e a ec s mood and es o a i e ou comes (Capaldi, Dopko, & Zelenski, 2014). We 136
ook his as a second ocus o ou s udy. Connec edness wi h na u e (Maye & McPhe son F an z, 137
2004) o na u e ela edness (Nisbe , Zelenski, & Mu phy, 2009) can be de ined as people’s in e es 138
in and desi e o na u e con ac ; a ai -like o s a e-like subjec i e connec ion o na u e o eeling in 139
communi y wi h na u e ( o a e iew, see Capaldi e al., 2014). Expe imen al s udies ha e ound 140
ha inc eases in emo ional well-being h ough na u e exposu e a e pa ially due o inc eased s a e-141
like na u e connec edness, indica ing a media ion e ec (Maye , McPhe son F an z, B uehlman-142
Senecal, & Dolli e , 2009). Con e sely, some s udies ha e ound ha exposu e o na u e inc eases 143
posi i e a ec which media es he inc ease in s a e-like na u e connec edness (Nisbe & Zelenski, 144
2011). Howe e , he e ec o con ac wi h na u e on wellbeing (posi i e a ec and eelings ela ed 145
o ele a ion) has no been mode a ed by ai -like na u e connec edness in an expe imen al s udy 146
(Passmo e & Howell, 2014). Thus, he e is limi ed knowledge abou whe he connec edness wi h 147
na u e is he p ima y cause o a mode a ing o a media ing ac o in he p ocess h ough which 148
na u e a ec s mood and es o a i e ou comes (B a man e al., 2012). Mo e esea ch on media ion 149
and mode a ion by na u e connec edness has been explici ly called o (Capaldi e al., 2014). Ou 150
in e es in his s udy is in he mode a ing ole o na u e-connec edness which seems o be non-151
exis en acco ding o a p e ious, expe imen al s udy (Passmo e & Howell, 2014). We wan o know 152
whe he na u e-connec edness mode a es mood enhancemen di e en ly om o he es o a i e 153
expe iences ( elaxa ion, a en ional and cogni i e es o a ion). We wan o know whe he he 154
po en ial es o a i e and mood enhancing e ec s o he psychological asks along he ails ha a e 155
in ended o he gene al public a e hea ily dependen on na u e-connec edness. This migh mean 156
ha only people wi h a s ong in e es in and desi e o na u e migh bene i om such asks and he 157
ails migh no se e he gene al public as widely as would be desi able. 158
In sum, we aim o in es iga e he simila i ies and di e ences o he ail expe iences be ween 159
he coun ies. Ou second aim is o in es iga e ela ionships be ween na u e-connec edness, 160

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sa is ac ion wi h he signpos con en s, mood enhancemen , and es o a i e bene i s. We in es iga e 161
whe he na u e-connec edness mode a es he e ec s o sa is ac ion wi h he signpos con en s on 162
bo h mood and es o a i e change. 163
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Me hod 165
Sample and p ocedu e 166
The s udy was conduc ed in di e en yea s as a su ey s udy in Finland, Sweden, 167
Luxembou g, and F ance nea he well-being ails (Table 1). 168
Table 1 he e 169
The i s well-being ail was opened in May 2010 in Finland. The ail ollows hiking acks 170
and na ow coun yside oads in a o es , along lakeside and in a cul u al landscape. I includes a 171
pleasan iew om a high cli , o e looking a lake bay. The well-being ail in Luxembu g was 172
opened in Ap il 2013. The ail goes along he al eady exis ing, well-es ablished hiking ails in 173
sp uce and beech o es s, and leads o a small illage oad opening on o a iew o nea by ields. The 174
Swedish well-being ail was opened in Sep embe 2012. I is loca ed in sp uce and bi ch o es s, 175
whe e i ollows a skiing ack used o walking only in a limi ed pe iod ou side he skiing season. 176
The F ench ail was es ablished in o he a iable coni e ous and deciduous o es s in Sep embe 177
2013. The ail ollows na ow coun yside oads and o es pa hs, and has pleasan , open iews 178
o e ag icul u al land. 179
The ques ionnai es we e a ailable a he nea by camping/communi y/spa ecep ion desks o , 180
in Finland, in he boxes in he beginning and end o he ail. In addi ion o he a iables epo ed in 181
his pape , he ques ionnai e included open-ended ques ions abou place o esidence, easons o 182
isi he ail, a signpos emembe ed well, and si ua ions whe e he asks migh sui a pe son bes . 183
The pa icipan s illed in he ques ionnai e immedia ely a e he walk. A o al o 299 people 184
pa icipa ed in he s udy. The numbe o pa icipan s in he ou coun ies we e 164 in Finland, 54 in 185
Sweden, 65 in Luxembou g and 16 in F ance; in all ou coun ies, mo e emales han males 186
comple ed he su ey (Table 2). 187
Table 2 he e 188
Well-being ails in each o he coun ies con ained he same nine signpos s, se up a in e als 189
and e e ing o ehea sal asks o be unde aken along he ail. The i s and he las ehea sals 190
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con ained sel - a ed i ems abou es o a i e expe iences (see Measu es). Rehea sal wo deal wi h 191
elaxing and le ing he en i onmen ascina e he walke . The ollowing is a sho example o he 192
beginning o he ins uc ions o he elaxa ion ask: “B ea he slowly and le you shoulde s elax. 193
Take a look a ound you and le you mind be a ac ed by some pleasan spo s o de ails on he 194
g ound, in he woods o in he sky…”. A signpos h ee, he walke was encou aged o obse e 195
na u e and one’s mood and eel i imp o e. An ex ac om he mood ins uc ion is: “Le he 196
scene y a ec you mood. Lis en o he sounds o na u e o he silence and le you mind d i away 197
om he e e yday ca es/hassles…”. Rehea sal ou deal wi h inding a quie place in he 198
su oundings. Rehea sals i e and six we e ela ed o a ou i e places. The walke was u ged o ind 199
a a ou i e place and hen o sha e i wi h o he s o , i alone, o y o o m a clea men al image o 200
he place o be emembe ed in he u u e. Rehea sal se en deal wi h obse ing and ecognizing 201
cu en mood. A ehea sal signpos eigh he walke was u ged o obse e su oundings and ind a 202
me apho ha cap u ed hei cu en li e si ua ion. To enhance he po en ial wellbeing e ec s, he 203
language used on all o psychological signpos s was sugges i e and in i e signpos s con ained 204
ph ases such as “Feel you mind and body becoming calm” and “Feel you mood imp o e” 205
(Sinclai , Solda & Ryan, 1997; Wilson & F ench, 2014; Wiseman & G eening, 2005). 206
Measu es 207
Res o a i e change. Res o a i e change was measu ed wi h ou i ems apping elaxa ion, 208
ene gy, and a en ional and cogni i e es o a ion in acco dance wi h he p e ious measu es and 209
indings o es o a i e ou comes (Ha ig, Lindblom, & O e el , 1998; Kaplan, Ba dwell & Slak e , 210
1993; Ko pela, Ylén, Ty äinen & Sil ennoinen, 2008; S aa s, Kie ie , & Ha ig, 2003). The i ems 211
(“I'm eeling calm and elaxed”, “I'm ale and ocused”, “I'm en husias ic and ene ge ic”, “All my 212
e e yday conce ns and wo ies a e away”) we e p in ed on he signpos s a he s a and in he end 213
o he ail. The pa icipan s we e asked o a e hei es o a i e expe iences on i e-poin Like 214
scales (1 = no a all, 2 = a li le, 3 = qui e much, 4 = e y much, 5 = ully) and o calcula e he sum 215
o hei assessmen and o w i e i down. A he end o he ail hey we e asked o e alua e hei 216
expe ience again wi h he same i ems and p ocedu e and epo he ex ac ion o hese wo sums 217
(end – beginning). The ex ac ion ep esen s he change in he es o a i e expe ience, nega i e 218
alues ep esen ing wo sening and posi i e alues ep esen ing imp o emen o es o a ion. 219
Mood enhancemen . Mood enhancemen was asked wi h a single i em (“To wha deg ee was 220
you mood enhanced a e walking he well-being ail?”) wi h a 5-poin esponse scale (5 = e y 221
much, 4 = a he /qui e much, 3 = mode a ely, 2 = no e y much, 1 = no a all). 222
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Sa is ac ion wi h he con en s, loca ion and numbe o he signpos s and wi h he ail o e all. 223
Sa is ac ion was asked wi h single i ems (“How sa is ied a e you wi h he con en s / loca ion / 224
numbe o he psychological ehea sals along he ail / wi h he ail in all?”). Sa is ac ion wi h 225
con en s and loca ion was assessed wi h 5-poin esponse scales (5 = e y sa is ied, 4 = qui e 226
sa is ied; 3 = mode a ely sa is ied; 2 = no e y sa is ied, 1 = unsa is ied). Sa is ac ion wi h he 227
numbe o signpos s was assessed wi h a 3-poin scale (1= I would p e e ewe signpos s, 2 = his 228
was a sui able numbe o signpos s, 3 = I would p e e mo e signpos s). 229
Willingness o e isi and ecommend o iends. These we e asked wi h single i ems (“How 230
willingly would you isi and walk he ail again?”, “Would you ecommend he ail o you 231
iends and acquain ances?”) and esponded wi h 5-poin scales (1 = no a all, 2 = no e y 232
willingly, 3 = mode a ely willingly, 4 = qui e willingly, 5 = e y willingly). 233
Na u e connec edness. As ou ques ionnai e in ield condi ions had o be b ie we de eloped a 234
na u e connec edness scale o he pu poses o his s udy in line wi h ea lie s udies on place 235
a achmen , connec edness o ela edness wi h na u e (c . Kyle, Mowen, & Ta an , 2004; Maye & 236
McPhe son F an z, 2004; Nisbe e al., 2009; Ty äinen e al., 2007), and u ban- ela ed iden i y 237
(Lalli, 1992). Na u e connec edness was measu ed wi h h ee i ems selec ed o he p esen s udy (“I 238
p e e o be physically ac i e ou doo s in na u e“, “I some imes eel a compelling u ge o ge o 239
na u e”, “I p e e o spend my ee ime in pa ks and g een spaces a he han in he u ban (buil ) 240
en i onmen ”) and we e a ed on a i e-poin Like scale (1=To ally disag ee, 2=Disag ee qui e 241
much, 3=Nei he disag ee no ag ee, 4=Ag ee qui e much, 5=To ally ag ee; C onbach’s alpha = .80 242
in Finland, .71 in Sweden, and .55 in Luxembou g). We used he mean summa y sco e o he scale 243
in ANOVAs. 244
Age and gende . Age (“My age is...”) was asked open-endedly and gende wi h wo op ions 245
(male/ emale). 246
247
S a is ical analyses 248
One-way ANOVAs and ANCOVAs we e used o compa isons be ween Finland, Sweden and 249
Luxembou g. F ance was excluded om hese analyses due o small sample size. We calcula ed he 250
sample size wi h Gpowe ( e sion 3.1.9.2, Faul, E d elde , Lang, & Buchne , 2007) using he e ec 251
size o .31 epo ed by McMahan & Es es (2015) o posi i e a ec a e na u e exposu e. Fo one-252
way ANCOVA wi h h ee coun ies and wo co a ia es, he equi ed sample size o de ec ing 253
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g oup di e ences a a .05 isk le el and wi h .95 powe is 164. Fo pos hoc compa isons, we used 254
Bon e oni es and wi h unequal a iances Dunne ’s T3 es . 255
Mode a ion analyses we e conduc ed using Mplus e sion 7 wi h WLSMV es ima o ha 256
allows he es ima ion o o de ed ca ego ical ou comes. To examine coun y-le el di e ences, we 257
i s es ed mul ig oup models wi h all pa hs sepa a ely es ima ed in each coun y. Then, he pa hs 258
we e cons ained o equal ac oss coun ies, one a a ime, un il all pa hs we e he same in each 259
coun y and a single model ins ead o a mul ig oup model was speci ied. The mode a ion model ha 260
had he bes o e all i wi h he da a (based on χ2 di e ence es s) was in e p e ed. Howe e , he 261
i s (wi h h ee sepa a e mode a ions in each coun y) and he inal (single) models we e sa u a ed, 262
ha is, hei deg ees o eedom was 0, and no i indices could be calcula ed o hem (Bollen, 263
1989). The o he models we e conside ed accep able i hey sa is ied he ollowing c i e ia: he 264
χ2 es (Bollen, 1989), Compa a i e Fi Index (CFI) wi h alues g ea e han .95, Roo Mean Squa e 265
E o o App oxima ion (RMSEA) wi h alues smalle han .05, and he absolu e alues o he 266
co ela ion esiduals smalle han .10 (Kline, 2016). 267
Fo he analyses, wo cases we e dele ed due o ex eme es o a i e changes, om no eeling 268
es o ed a all by any o he indica o s o eeling comple ely es o ed by all he indica o s (o ice 269
e sa) which we ound implausible. Mood enhancemen , being measu ed wi h a 5-poin scale, was 270
speci ied as an o de ed ca ego ical ou come in mode a ion analyses. In mode a ion analyses, na u e-271
connec edness and sa is ac ion wi h he signpos s’ con en s we e cen e ed so ha hei in e ac ion 272
could be examined. In he inal model, we in e p e ed es ima es and hei 95% boo s apped 273
con idence in e als. 274
275
Resul s 276
277
The means o he ou come a iables we e compa ed be ween Sweden, Luxembou g and 278
Finland (Table 3). ANOVA e ealed signi ican F- es alues in he change in es o a i e 279
expe iences, o e all sa is ac ion wi h he ail, willingness o ecommend he ail o iends, and 280
sa is ac ion wi h he numbe o he signpos s. Al hough he o e all ANOVA was signi ican in he 281
es o a i e change and willingness o ecommend he ail o iends, acco ding o he Dunne ’s es 282
(Bon e oni in he la e ) pai wise compa isons be ween he coun ies did no each s a is ical 283
signi icance. Howe e , pa icipan s om Finland a ed he o e all sa is ac ion lowe han Sweden 284
16
Wiseman, R., & G eening, E. (2005). I ’s s ill bending: Ve bal sugges ion and alleged 482
psychokine ic abili y. B i ish Jou nal o Psychology, 96, 115–127. 483
h p://doi.o g/10.1348/00071 2604X15428 484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
FIGURE LEGENDS 496
497
Figu e 1. Mode a ion model wi h WLSMV es ima o ; s anda dised es ima es and hei 95% 498
boo s apped con idence in e als. Solid lines: es ima e di e s om 0. 499
500
501
502

17
Figu e 1. 503
504
505
506
507
508
18
Table 1. Cha ac e is ics o he o es ails in he ou coun ies. 509
Coun y
A ea
Loca ion
T ail
leng h
(km)
Da a collec ion pe iod
Pa icipan s
Finland
Pi kanmaa
Ikaalinen spa
4.4 o
6.6
Aug 2010 – Oc 2010
164
Sweden
Sunne,
Vä mland
Selma spa
5.0
Oc 2012 – No 2013
54
Luxembou g
Mülle hal
egion
Nomme n
4.3
May 2013 – Ap il 2014
65
F ance
B ou elieu es
F émi on aine
4.7
No 2013 – June 2014
16
510
19
Table 2. The equencies and pe cen ages o he esponden s’ gende and he means, ange, s anda d de ia ions and medians o he ail isi o s’
age in yea s by coun y.
Female
Male
To al
Age, y s
n
%
n
%
N
M
Range
SD
Md
Sweden
46
85.2
8
14.8
54
45.4
17-73
15.0
48.5
Luxembou g
44
67.7
21
32.3
65
48.0
13-82
14.1
49.0
F ance
10
62.5
6
37.5
16
59.3
23-80
17.8
65.5
Finland
120
73.2
44
26.8
164
47.4
13-66
11.1
50.0
To al
220
79
299
20
Table 3. Analyses o a iance (ANOVA) and pos hoc pai wise compa isons in h ee coun ies (N = 283; F ance excluded).
Coun y
ANOVA
Pai wise
compa isons
Sweden
Luxembou g
Finland
Scales 1-5:
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
F
d
p
Res o a i e change
2.42
2.07
3.02
3.41
1.76
2.20
4.47
2, 206
.042
n.s.
D
Mood enhancemen
3.25
.96
3.32
.96
3.12
.85
1.26
2, 274
.287
O e all sa is ac ion wi h he ail
4.21
.95
4.13
.85
3.80
.75
7.05
2, 274
.001
S>F .005
L>F .02
B
B
Willingness o e isi
3.62
1.06
3.92
1.15
3.69
1.01
1.46
2, 278
.233
Willingness o ecommend
4.09
.92
3.92
1.09
3.72
1.01
3.08
2, 279
.047
n.s.
B
Sa is ac ion wi h he con en s o he
psychological signpos s
3.53
.85
3.63
.83
3.45
.76
1.09
2, 277
.338
Sa is ac ion wi h he numbe o he
psychological signpos s
1.83
.545
2.08
.378
2.14
.398
10.67
2, 275
<.001
F>S .001
L>S .017
D
D
Na u e connec edness (1-5)
4.16
.74
4.19
.67
4.31
.76
1.18
2, 280
.310
No e. D = Dunne ’s T3 es o unequal a iances, B = Bon e oni es
21
Table 4. Spea man co ela ions ( ho) o he s udy a iables (n = 214-295).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1. Res o a i e change
2. Mood enhancemen
.42**
3. O e all sa is ac ion
wi h he ail
.29**
.47**
4. Willingness o e isi
.29**
.57**
.63**
5. Willingness o
ecommend
.31**
.47**
.64**
.76**
6. Sa is ac ion wi h he
con en s o he signpos s
.24**
.32**
.52**
.50**
.49**
7. Sa is ac ion wi h he
numbe o he signpos s
-.06
-.05
-.04
.002
-.03
.08
8. Na u e connec edness
.14*
.22**
.16**
.20**
.24**
.13*
-.03
No e. * p < .05 , ** p < .01