Sma and secu e bo de s h ough au oma ed bo de con ol
sys ems in he EU? The iews o poli ical s akeholde s in he
Membe S a es
Pinja Leh onen and Pami Aal o
School o Managemen , Uni e si y o Tampe e, Tampe e, Finland
ABSTRACT
The Eu opean Commission launched he “Sma Bo de s”policy
p ocess in 2011 o enhance bo de secu i y in he Eu opean Union
(EU) using echnologisa ion and ha monisa ion. This includes he
use o au oma ed bo de con ol (ABC) sys ems. The Membe
S a es c ucially shape he p ocess, weighing secu i y echnologies
and cos s, p i acy and igh s, and u he ins i u ional choices. We
examine he iews o poli ical s akeholde s in ou Membe S a es
by conduc ing a sys ema ic empi ical and compa a i e s udy
unp eceden ed in he exis ing, poli ical- heo y-inspi ed esea ch.
In ou Q me hodological expe imen s, poli ical s akeholde s in
Finland, Romania, Spain and he UK ank-o de ed a sample o
s a emen s on Sma Bo de s, ABC and ha monisa ion. The ac o
analysis o he esul s yielded h ee main iews: he i s c i icising
ABC as a secu i y echnology, he second welcoming he secu i y
gains o au oma ion and he hi d opposing ha monised bo de
con ol. While impeding ha monisa ion, he esul s o e a
consensus acili a ing common policy.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 8 Oc obe 2016
Accep ed 20 Decembe 2016
KEYWORDS
Au oma ed bo de con ol;
bo de secu i y; Eu opean
Union; ha monisa ion;
Q me hodology; Sma
Bo de s
In oduc ion
Bo de secu i y has become a salien policy issue ac oss Eu ope. The unexpec ed in lux o
“i egula ”mig an s in o se e al Eu opean Union (EU) Membe S a es om he neighbou -
ing egions since 2015 adds o he secu i y conce ns ela ed o unau ho ised o e s ays,
c oss-bo de e o ism and c ime. A he same ime, bo de -c ossings in and ou o he
EU a e inc easing and may each 887 million by 2025 (Eu opean Commission 2016a, p. 2),
while he bo de con ol esou ces canno keep pace. These ends d i e he echnologisa-
ion and digi alisa ion o bo de secu i y. In addi ion o GPS and sa elli e-assis ed su eil-
lance o “p e- on ie ”a eas, a he bo de echnologisa ion includes he use o passpo
eade s, biome ics o iden i y e i ica ion, au oma ed p ocesses and moni o ing o lows
o people h ough au oma ed bo de con ol (ABC). This shi unde pins he ongoing
deba e on new bo de con ol policies, bo de -c ossing p ac ices and mo e widely he
© 2017 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i a i es License
(h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which pe mi s non-comme cial e-use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any
medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, and is no al e ed, ans o med, o buil upon in any way.
CONTACT Pinja Leh onen [email p o ec ed] School o Managemen , Uni e si y o Tampe e, 1 Kansle in inne,
Tampe e 33014, Finland
EUROPEAN SECURITY, 2017
VOL. 26, NO. 2, 207–225
h p://dx.doi.o g/10.1080/09662839.2016.1276057
ole o he secu i y indus y in Eu ope (Vaughan-Williams 2015, pp. 21–28). As a esul ,
bo de con ol has e ol ed om “na ow”p o ec ion o e i o y by he bo de gua d o a
complex high- echnology p ocess, leading o a wide concep o bo de secu i y including
la ge-scale da a managemen in cybe space (Heiskanen 2014, pp. 69–70).
Meanwhile, he policy deba e on bo de con ol in Eu ope ea u es he e ec s o di e -
en ia ed in eg a ion, whe eby EU-le el ha monisa ion e o s coexis wi h di e en iews
among he Membe S a es (see Le u h 2015). Twen y- wo ou o 28 EU Membe S a es
belong o he Schengen a ea. They ollow he Schengen Bo de s Code, which has abol-
ished in e nal bo de con ols and in oduced co-ope a ion on ex e nal bo de s and
isas. While he Schengen Membe s ha e g an ed he F on ex agency ce ain sup ana-
ional powe s o co-o dina e he echnical s anda ds o bo de con ol, hese s a es con-
inue o ha e na ional policies (Boulanin and Bellais 2014, pp. 235–236). A he
beginning o 2016, se e al Schengen Membe s s a ed o e-es ablish bo de con ols in
esponse o immig a ion- ela ed h ea pe cep ions. By e oding us and common iden-
i y, hese unila e al decisions may e en ually dissol e he secu i y communi y upon
which he Schengen a ea s ands (Alkophe and Blanc 2016).
Ha monisa ion, he e o e, hinges on he decisions o Membe S a es. A key p ocess in
his is he “Sma Bo de s”policy he Eu opean Commission in oduced in 2011. I seeks o
be e secu e he Union’s ex e nal bo de s and s eamline bo de -c ossing by elying
inc easingly on au oma ed in o ma ion sha ing and sel -se ice. This includes he legisla-
i e p oposal o Ap il 2016 on a common en y/exi sys em (EES) o hi d-coun y
na ionals and co esponding amendmen s o he Schengen Bo de s Code, and concomi-
an sugges ions o u he echnologisa ion (Eu opean Commission 2016a,2016b). The
No embe 2016 p oposal o a Eu opean T a el In o ma ion and Au ho isa ion Sys em
(ETIAS) ex e nalises bo de con ol owa ds “policing a a dis ance”(Sklepa is 2016,
p. 107), by subjec ing isa- ee passenge s o digi alised ad ance checks o secu i y
and i egula mig a ion. Fu he p oposals include a Passenge Name Reco d Di ec i e,
enhanced secu i y ea u es in a el documen s, mo e sys ema ic checks on EU ex e nal
bo de s and enhancemen o he Schengen In o ma ion Sys em (Eu opean Commission
2016c). A issue is a con en ious mix u e o policy issues in ol ing secu i y, cos s, mobili y,
undamen al igh s and p i acy (e.g. Bigo e al. 2012).
He e we add ess he complex nexus o ABC echnologies; he p i acy, igh s and legal
issues in ol ed; and u he ins i u ional choices as subjec i ely pe cei ed by Membe
S a es’poli ical s akeholde s. This is a no el line o enqui y in h ee majo espec s. Fi s ,
i esponds o Hills’(2006, p. 67) call a decade ago o mo e empi ical e idence: “Bo de
secu i y is an empi ical mani es a ion o a s a e’s adap a ion in o i s poli ical en i onmen ”,
while “ unc ional secu i y”is “neglec ed by he academy”, and hus esea ch on he empi i-
cal dimensions o bo de secu i y is needed o “ ebalance he deba e”. Second, while many
s udies concen a e on EU-le el policies, we conside he Membe S a es, as ye li le
add essed in he li e a u e. They sha e he compe ence wi h he Union in bo de con ol,
pa icipa e in he Sma Bo de s policy p ocess, and de elop and implemen policies a
he na ional le el. Membe S a es also p oduce compe ing poli ical impe a i es on ac ual
EU-le el policies. Fo example, a ecen single-case s udy highligh s how na ional-le el
secu i isa ion o bo de -c ossing isks illibe al p ac ices a he EU bo de s (Sklepa is 2016).
Thi d, while c i ical bo de s udies o en e ince a poli ical heo y-in o med c i ique o
policies (see nex sec ion), we empowe some o he ac o s “in he ield”,examining
208 P. LEHTONEN AND P. AALTO
and compa ing he subjec i e iews o poli ical s akeholde s is-à- is ABC in ou EU
Membe S a es: Finland, Romania, Spain and he UK. We ocus mos ly on Membe s o Pa -
liamen , because na ional pa liamen s deba e he EU ini ia i es, epo back o he EU ins i-
u ions and make he espec i e na ional budge alloca ions. Ou e o is b oadly
in o med by he “p ac ice u n”in c i ical secu i y and bo de s udies in concen a ing
on a g oup o ac o s s ee ing he de elopmen and deploymen o secu i y echnologies.
This helps us o ocus on he meaning o policies “as unde s ood by he ac o s in hese
ields”, and o s udy hese secu i y p ac ices h ough hei “sha ed unde s andings and dis-
ag eemen s”which “make up bo de secu i y”(Cô é-Bouche e al. 2014, pp. 197–198).
To gain an empi ical insigh in o he sha ed iews and con en ions o Membe S a es’
poli ical s akeholde s, we apply Q me hodology, he eby enabling pa icipan s o ques ion
he secu i y echnologies om hei own subjec i e s andpoin s. Impo an ly his a o ds
an empi ically g ounded idea o he poli ical conce ns and incen i es ega ding he
echnologisa ion and ha monisa ion o bo de secu i y o complemen poli ical heo y-
in o med c i ique. We unde s and he secu i y echnologies sc u inised as esul s o in e -
ac ion among ac o s wi h di e en iews. Because he echnologies unc ion on behal o
he use go e nmen s, he Membe S a es’s akeholde s can assign no ma i e and poli ical
conside a ions o hem ha in u n dese e sys ema ic empi ical esea ch (see Amicelle
e al. 2015, p. 297, Valkenbu g and an de Ploeg 2015, pp. 327–329). Hence ou con i-
bu ion is d i en less by heo y and mo e by me hodology (see Cô é-Bouche e al.
2014), p io i ising he empi ical e idence in he subjec i e iews o poli ical s akeholde s.
We he e o e ask he ollowing: (1) Wha iews do poli ical s akeholde s in Finland,
Romania, Spain and he UK ha e on he de elopmen o ABC sys ems? (2) Can we iden i y
any common g ound among hese iews on which o build Eu opean bo de con ol pol-
icies? We i s in oduce ou me hodological choices and hen ou line ou esul s ea u ing
h ee di e en iews on ABC and he common g ound among hem, along wi h policy ec-
ommenda ions based on he consensus and he wide implica ions o Eu opean bo de
con ol policies.
Resea ch design: he Q me hodological app oach o iews o poli ical
s akeholde s
Case s udy coun ies
Ou case s udy coun ies Finland, Romania, Spain and he UK display a wide a ia ion o
bo de challenges and policies in e ms o membe ship o he Schengen ag eemen , ins i-
u ionalisa ion o ABC and posi ions on he Sma Bo de s p ocess. While a ou -coun y
compa ison is no ep esen a i e o all EU Membe S a es, i illus a es he po en ial
ange o iews.
Rega ding bo de challenges, all ou cases ha e signi ican ex e nal en y poin s o he
EU (F on ex 2013). Finland and Romania ha e much a e sed land bo de s. The e is
occasional conges ion on he Finnish–Russian bo de , likewise on he bo de be ween
Romania and Molda ia, and also on ha wi h Uk aine. In he UK and Spain, he majo
ex e nal en y poin s o he EU a e he ai po s, namely London Hea h ow, London
Ga wick, Manches e and Mad id Ba ajas. The Spanish au onomous communi ies o
Ceu a and Melilla in No h A ica a e also majo ga eways o he EU. The sou he n
EUROPEAN SECURITY 209
bo de s o he EU, alongside he bo de s wi h he Middle Eas , mani es a complex in e -
sec ion o bo de secu i y issues anging om immig a ion and e o ism o undamen al
igh s (Del Sa o and S eindle 2015).
Rega ding policy, hese coun ies we e no chosen o model he numbe o incoming
asylum seeke s, which ose d ama ically in 2015 (F on ex 2015), bu a he he a ia ion in
he de elopmen o bo de con ol policies including ABC. The UK has a Schengen op -ou ,
and will no pa icipa e in he Sma Bo de s policies. In June 2016, i also o ed o exi he
EU. The coun y is ne e heless in e es ing, being pe haps he mos ins i u ionalised case
o Eu opean ABC use, wi h au oma ed sys ems a mos ai po s and plans o acqui e elec-
onic ga es o seapo s and ailway s a ions. Finland, a Schengen membe , conside s
Sma Bo de s o enable mo e ex ensi e ABC use, which could expedi e he Fenno-
Russian bo de a ic, which since 2014 has su e ed om he sanc ions imposed by he
EU and Russia. Finland u ilises ABC sys ems a he main a ic hubs a ai bo de s, and
some land and sea bo de s. Spain and Romania ha e endo sed he Sma Bo de s EES,
which would help hem o de ec possible o e s ays. Spain, a Schengen membe , has
ecen ly expanded ABC o co e he mos impo an ai po s, along wi h one land
bo de and one seapo . Romania is only pu suing Schengen membe ship and plans o
pilo ABC sys ems a he land bo de wi h Se bia and a Bucha es Ai po .
Modelling he ABC deba e
We modelled he ABC deba e on he all-Eu opean le el by i s exhaus i ely e iewing he
exis ing li e a u e and policy documen s. We hen o ma ed he eme ging iews in o 230
sho s a emen s. To disce n he c ucial echnological app oaches in he ABC deba e, we
d ew on guideline documen s (e.g. hose p oduced by F on ex and he In e na ional Ci il
A ia ion O ganisa ion) and academic a icles mos ly discussing biome ic au hen ica ion
(e.g. Kwon and Moon 2008, Jain and Kuma 2012). We ex ac ed EU-le el policy p e e -
ences om publica ions by he Eu opean Commission, he Eu opean Da a P o ec ion
Supe iso and he Biome ic Eu opean S akeholde s Ne wo k, among o he s. To comp e-
hend he public poli ical deba e, we used Sma Bo de s e alua ions (e.g. Bigo e al. 2012,
Hayes and Ve meulen 2012) and consul ed na ional and EU newspape a icles along wi h
p ess eleases by a ious Eu opean Pa liamen g oups and independen ad ocacy g oups.
Fo he wide expe deba e on bo de policy, we e iewed he exis ing esea ch, which
o en d aws upon poli ical heo y and is qui e c i ical o ABC and ela ed echnologies. Fo
example, some au ho s we e ala med by mode n s a es’p oac i e use o isk managemen
echnologies (Ceyhan 2008, Sklepa is 2016). These obse e s associa e such echnologies
wi h secu i isa ion, ha is, p ocesses in which issues a e b ough unde he secu i y logic o
eme gency measu es, delimi ing public deba e and in ol emen (Lodge 2004, Mulle
2011). Schola s c i icise he secu i isa ion o mig a ion, especially in he pos -9/11
con ex (Alkophe and Blanc 2016), and he ensuing en anglemen o secu i y and immi-
g a ion policies (Mulle 2004, Dijs elbloem e al. 2011), po en ially unde mining, o
example, asylum seeke s’ igh s (Palm 2013). The esea ch also iden i ies h ea s o
use s’p i acy due o biome ic iden i ica ion and Eu opean da abases (B oede s 2007,
Ha el 2009, an de Ploeg 2009, F iedewald e al. 2010, Mo dini and Rebe a 2012).
We di ided his deba e in o h ee hemes. The i s , “ echnological op ions”(A),
includes s a emen s on ABC echnology, including i s cos s. The second heme,
210 P. LEHTONEN AND P. AALTO
“p i acy, igh s and legal issues”(B), includes s a emen s on p o ec ing p i acy, human
igh s and he law ul use o ABC. The hi d heme, “ins i u ional p ocesses”(C), conce ns
he wide ins i u ional choices in ol ed and some poli ical economy issues. Each o he
hemes con ained h ee ypes o s a emen s: ep esen a i e (as in decla a i e, desc ibing
he s a us quo) (a), explici ly no ma i e (b) and a policy ecommenda ion (c). We c oss-
abula ed he deba e hemes and s a emen ypes o c ea e a heu is ic model o he
policy deba e (Table 1). The pu pose o he model is p ac ical: o help loca e as
di e se s a emen s as possible and selec om hese a balanced, ele an sample (see
B own 1986). We placed he 230 s a emen s in o he cells o he model (Aa, Ab, e c.)
and hen selec ed an equal numbe o s a emen s om each cell. To es ablish which
s a emen s we e o he g ea es p ac ical ele ance, we es ed a sample o 43 s a emen s
empi ically wi h 19 Finnish poli ical s akeholde s, who ank-o de ed he s a emen s and
commen ed on hem in in e iews (Leh onen and Aal o 2015). We hen ine- uned he
s a emen s and educed hei numbe o 34 in o de o “ligh en he cogni i e bu den”
o he pa icipan s (see D yzek e al. 1989, p. 484). The comple e Q sample is lis ed in
he Appendix, wi h indica ions as o which cell o he model each s a emen belongs.
Pa icipan s
The impo ance o he iews o poli ical s akeholde s on ABC s ems om he inc easing
salience o bo de secu i y. While he EU le el ea u es policy co-o dina ion e o s,
decisions o commission and in oduce ABC sys ems a e aken by na ional go e nmen s
and hei agencies. Na ional pa liamen s discuss bo h EU-le el and na ional policies and
alloca e he unds; decisions ega ding ABC and Sma Bo de s a e mos o en delibe a ed
in commi ees on jus ice and home a ai s. We selec ed he pa icipan s, p ima ily
Membe s o Pa liamen , acco ding o hei commi ee membe ships, poli ical a ilia ions
and backg ounds. The aim was o include well-in o med pa icipan s able o eac o
ou s a emen s and ep esen ing he mos impo an poli ical pa ies in he case coun ies.
We included 44 pa icipan s, which sui s he small-N Q me hodology well: i is essen ial o
include ep esen a i es o all pe inen ca ego ies o pe spec i es, ins ead o a quan i a -
i ely ep esen a i e sample o indi iduals (D yzek e al. 1989). Typically Q s udies ea u e
20–40 ca e ully selec ed pa icipan s. Ou s udy co e ed he poli ical spec um and cu en
ends such as he ise o he igh -wing and populis , immig a ion and EU-c i ical pa ies in
he UK and Finland
1
(Auel and Raunio 2014, Le u h 2015).
Twen y o he 44 pa icipan s we e membe s o na ional pa liamen s (MPs), one sena o
and h ee Membe s o he Eu opean Pa liamen (MEPs). Twel e we e senio o icials o
hei espec i e poli ical pa ies and in ol ed in commi ee wo k on issues ele an o
he s udy. The emaining eigh we e non-pa isan, high-le el expe s in bo de con ol,
da a p o ec ion, echnology policy and public as well as immig a ion law con ibu ing
Table 1. The heu is ic model o he policy deba e.
Technological
possibili ies (A)
P i acy, igh s and legal
issues (B)
Ins i u ional
p ocesses (C)
Rep esen a i e (a) Aa Ba Ca
No ma i e (b) Ab Bb Cb
Policy ecommenda ion (c) Ac Bc Cc
EUROPEAN SECURITY 211

o he deba e. In he case o he UK, we included h ee expe s wo king o hink anks
conside ed o be Conse a i e and Unionis Pa y-inclined, al hough o icially non-pa i-
san, because he Conse a i e MPs and poli ical s a declined o pa icipa e.
Al oge he 18 poli ical pa ies we e ep esen ed h ough hei elec ed and employed
agen s, co e ing he majo pa ies in each case coun y. Rega ding na ionali y, he e
we e 16 pa icipan s om Finland, 10 om he UK, 8 om Romania and 7 om Spain.
As con ol cases is-à- is he conse a i e, Eu oscep ic pa ies and co espondingly he
Eu opean Pa liamen g oup he G eens/ he Eu opean F ee Alliance o moni o s andpoin s
agains da a collec ion and Sma Bo de s, we u he included one Du ch, one Danish and
one La ian pa icipan (Table 2).
The Q so ing expe imen s
All pa icipa ing poli ical s akeholde s conduc ed indi idual, online Q so ing expe imen s,
whe e hey anked he inal 34 s a emen s o he Q sample. The expe imen s ook place
be ween Feb ua y and No embe 2014, when he Membe S a es deba ed he Commis-
sion’s 2011 Sma Bo de s p oposal, as an inpu in o he Commission’s second Sma
Bo de s package in 2016 and be o e he o e in he UK on lea ing he Union. Wi h his
imeline, he esul s o he expe imen s also add ess some o he p oblems and delays
in he Sma Bo de s p ocess.
The pa icipan s accessed he passwo d-p o ec ed Q so ing pla o m and ecei ed
ins uc ions h ough he FlashQ p og amme, which hen sa ed he expe imen da a on
a se e . The pa icipan s so ed he s a emen s isualised as ca ds acco ding o hei
ag eemen o disag eemen , elying on hei cu en , subjec i e iews, which would p e-
sumably be implemen ed in hei ad iso y and/o decision-making oles. They made a
p ima y so in o h ee ca ego ies, “ag ee”,“neu al”and “disag ee”, hen a de ailed so ,
placing each s a emen in an emp y slo on he o ced “no mal dis ibu ion”g id
anging om −4 h ough 0 o 4. In his way, we modelled he p io i isa ions hey would
no mally choose in he ele an policy issues. We e i ied he alidi y o he da a by
eques ing pa icipan s o explain in w i ing why hey had placed s a emen s in he
ex eme columns. This ensu ed ha he pa icipan s unde s ood he s a emen s simila ly
and so ed hem acco ding o hei opinions, which gua an ees he in e -compa abili y
and eliabili y o he Q so s.
Analysis o he da a
We analysed he Q so da a wi h he PQ Me hod p og amme o iden i y he mos dis-
inguishable and in e p e able ac o s o iews on ABC. Ha ing expe imen ed wi h
a ious combina ions o ac o ex ac ion and o a ion me hods, we chose a h ee- ac o
solu ion p oduced wi h p incipal componen analysis and judgemen al o a ion. The
ac o s accoun al oge he o a sa is ac o y 50% o he a ia ion among he Q so s.
The emaining Q so da a we e oo agmen ed, wi h iews which we e oo idiosync a ic
o yield ac o s amenable o eliable in e p e a ion.
Two indica o s a e decisi e in Q me hodological da a: he loading o a pa icipan on
each ac o and he ac o Q sco es. The pa icipan s’loadings indica e he ex en o
which hey ag ee wi h a ac o : a loading o 1.00 would signi y o al ag eemen and
212 P. LEHTONEN AND P. AALTO
−1.00 absolu e disag eemen . The minimum alue o a s a is ically signi ican loading a
he p< .01 le el was se a 0.44 using B own’s(1986, p. 64) o mula. Pa icipan s’ ac o
loadings a e lis ed in Table 2, wi h he signi ican ones ma ked X. To keep he iews he
ac o s exp essed as dis inc as possible, pa icipan s loading signi ican ly on mul iple
ac o s (pa icipan s 19, 34, 36 and 44) we e excluded om he de ini ion o he ac o s,
along wi h pa icipan s 8, 24 and 42 loading less han 0.44 on all ac o s.
Table 2. Pa icipan s and hei ac o loadings, signi ican loadings lagged wi h an X.
Pa icipan Loading on ac o s
Na l. Posi ion Pa y/o ganisa ion Pa y de ini ion F1 F2 F3
1 UK Poli ical s a Libe al Democ a s R 0.58X 0.21 0.24
2 ES MP Socialis Wo ke s’Pa y L 0.65X 0.35 0.26
3 ES MP Uni ed Le L 0.50X 0.06 0.28
4 ES MP People’s Pa y R 0.29 0.63X 0.37
5 UK Poli ical s a Labou L 0.79X −0.12 0.22
6 RO MP Dem. All. o Hunga ians Min. 0.31 0.46X 0.26
7 ES MP People’s Pa y R 0.11 0.69X 0.14
8 UK MP Labou L −0.06 0.20 −0.22
9 UK Expe Na ional Audi O ice –0.19 0.51X 0.15
10 RO Poli ical s a Social Democ a ic Pa y L 0.12 0.69X 0.32
11 ES MP People’s Pa y R 0.26 0.59X 0.19
12 ES MP Socialis Wo ke s’Pa y L 0.67X 0.34 −0.02
13 FI Expe Uni e si y –0.29 0.74X 0.19
14 FI Expe Non-Go e nmen al O g. –0.62X −0.09 0.21
15 FI Expe Go e nmen Agency –0.68X 0.23 0.10
16 FI Poli ical s a Social Democ a ic Pa y L 0.66X 0.42 −0.02
17 FI MP Le Alliance L 0.77X −0.23 −0.15
18 FI Expe Uni e si y –0.88X −0.15 −0.01
19 FI Poli ical s a Cen e Pa y C 0.21 0.58 0.51
20 FI MP Cen e Pa y C 0.08 0.61X −0.14
21 FI MP Social Democ a ic Pa y L 0.76X −0.08 0.05
22 FI Poli ical s a Na ional Coali ion Pa y R −0.04 0.48X 0.33
23 FI MP Le Alliance L 0.64X 0.32 0.01
24 FI MP Na ional Coali ion Pa y R −0.24 0.10 0.40
25 FI Poli ical s a The Finns Pa y RR/An i-EU 0.08 0.05 0.44X
26 FI MP The G eens En ./C 0.77X −0.12 0.01
27 RO MP Social Democ a ic Pa y L −0.04 0.76X 0.17
28 RO MEP Na ional Libe al Pa y R 0.31 0.45X 0.26
29 RO MP Social Democ a ic Pa y L 0.23 0.68X 0.16
30 FI MP The Finns Pa y RR/An i-EU 0.12 0.16 0.79X
31 RO MP Social Democ a ic Pa y L 0.59X 0.03 0.21
32 UK MEP UK Independence Pa y RR/An i-EU 0.11 0.65X 0.25
33 NL Poli ical s a Re o med Poli ical Pa y R 0.22 0.39 0.45X
34 FI MP The Finns Pa y RR/An i-EU −0.44 0.53 −0.09
35 UK MEP UK Independence Pa y RR/An i-EU 0.00 −0.38 0.60X
36 RO Poli ical s a New Republic Pa y R −0.27 0.57 0.56
37 RO Sena o Na ional Libe al Pa y R 0.43 0.49X 0.16
38 UK Expe Think ank (R) 0.55X −0.08 0.41
39 LV Poli ical s a G eens/EFA En . 0.88X −0.19 −0.06
40 ES Poli ical s a Socialis Wo ke s’Pa y L 0.70X −0.03 0.00
41 UK MP Libe al Democ a s R 0.50X 0.14 0.40
42 UK Expe Think ank (R) 0.25 0.40 0.15
43 DK Poli ical s a G eens/EFA En . 0.76X 0.00 0.08
44 UK Expe Think ank (R) 0.44 0.27 0.65
Explains he a iance among Q so s a 24% 17% 9%
No es: Pa y de ini ions: cen e (C), en i onmen al (En .), Eu oscep ic (An i-EU), le (L), mino i y igh s (Min.), adical igh
(RR), igh (R). Sou ces o he de ini ions: B ack and S a in (2015), Halikiopoulou and Vasilopoulou (2014), Hloušek and
Kopeček (2010), Ro ny (2014), S an (2013). The abb e ia ed na ionali ies: B i ish, UK; Danish, DK; Du ch, NL; Finnish, FI;
La ian, LV; Romanian, RO; Spanish, ES.
EUROPEAN SECURITY 213
The ac o Q sco es ep esen he “ideal alues”o an imagina y esponden o ally
ag eeing wi h he ac o , calcula ed om he de ining, signi ican ly loading Q so s.
They ange he e om −4 o 4, he equi alen spec um along which he pa icipan s
so ed he s a emen s. The Q sco es indica e (dis)simila i ies be ween ac o s and help
o c ea e a na a i e o he con en o each ac o , a “ ac o iew”sha ed by he de ining
pa icipan s. Ex emely high and low sco es, along wi h he di e ence o simila i y o
sco es be ween ac o s, me i a en ion (see Appendix). In addi ion o he Q sco es, we
used pa icipan s’w i en commen s in he na a i e c ea ion.
Resul s: h ee iews on ABC
The esul s o ou Q me hodological analysis e ealed h ee dis inc i e ac o iews, illus-
a ed in e ms o he ac o sco es and pa icipan s’commen s (P1–P44, see Table 2).
Fi s iew: p i acy igh s mus be sa egua ded
The i s iew explains 24% o he a ia ion among Q so s, gaining he suppo o 19 pa -
icipan s. View 1 was subsc ibed o by all he case na ionali ies and de ined by social
democ a , le -wing, en i onmen al and libe al poli icians and pa y s a , likewise by
law and da a p o ec ion-o ien ed expe s.
Pa icipan s sha ing View 1 deemed he decisions ega ding ABC poli ical in na u e, as
hey ha e implica ions o undamen al igh s. This iew was opposed o le ing expe s
and scien is s s ee he au oma ion o bo de con ol. I called o he ha monisa ion o
EU legisla ion and clea , uni ied policies on ABC based on he no ion o he Union
ha ing one ex e nal bo de . EU e ugee policy was c i icised (P12), wi h a call o inco po -
a e he jus ea men o asylum seeke s in o he design o he o hcoming ABC sys ems
and da abases; his e e ed o he isk p o iling used in ABC, which, acco ding o View 1,
migh lead o disc imina ion.
The goal o ABC o he i s iew is “ o inc ease he knowledge ha s a es ha e abou
people a elling”(P5), ha is, he “in ellec ual expansion o he cen al s a e”(P1), no
me ely o acili a e a el. The iew asse s ha ensu ing secu i y is compa ible wi h he
indi idual’s igh o p i acy (P1, P37 and P39). I calls o he pe sonal igh no o disclose
in ima e, biome ic da a e en o he au ho i ies. Pa icipan s s ongly opposed S a e-
men 1, claiming ha hones people should ha e no eason o objec o hei biome ics
being collec ed and used in bo de con ol (P2, P12 and P31). The s a emen eminded
Spanish Pa icipan 2 o he dic a o ial and au ho i a ian a gumen a ion o he F anco
adminis a ion, while Romanian Pa icipan 31 was wa y o biome ic da a becoming “a
ool o he Go e nmen agains i s ci izens”. Finge p in ing hi d-coun y na ionals a
bo de -c ossings o Sma Bo de s also appea ed ala ming o hose subsc ibing o View
1; i comp omises he p esump ion o innocence. Suppo e s o his iew s essed ha
he e was mo e han enough p oo o da a misuse om he pas . Pa icipan 41 made a
case o e e yone ha ing he igh o “disappea and eboo ”:
E en he mos secu e and compa men alised da a will be sha ed e en ually, because o
na u al cu iosi y o g eed o pa anoia […] i should he e o e as a ma e o p inciple be as
skele al as is compa ible wi h achie ing he published p ima y aims o i s collec ion.
214 P. LEHTONEN AND P. AALTO
S ic da a usage limi a ions should apply, allowing da a collec ed by bo de con ol o be
used o ha pu pose only; he fi s iew is e y wa y o “su eillance c eeps”, ha is, he
wide use o a echnology o a sys em beyond i s o iginal scope po en ially enc oaching on
p i acy.
2
Law en o cemen au ho i ies in he EU should acco dingly no ha e access o
bo de con ol da abases, no e en o comba e o ism. This goes agains he Ap il
2016 Sma Bo de s p oposal, which would allow he access e en in he case o hi d-
coun y na ionals (Eu opean Commission 2016a, p. 11). The “di e en ”legal sys ems o
EU Membe S a es would no gua an ee he exclusi e legi ima e use o he da a (P31),
as “co up ion, low o no accoun abili y o w ongdoing and disc imina ion p e ail
among he au ho i ies o many Membe S a es”(P14). Fo View 1, his gi es eason o
be c i ical o an EU-wide biome ic da a sys em. Fu he , ABC and Sma Bo de s ep esen
a dange o inc eased, unjus ified su eillance o EU ci izens. The pa icipan s conside ed i
e y emp ing o Membe S a es o use he bo de con ol da a o o he pu poses (P26,
P39 and P41). A loophole in he supe iso y a angemen s o only one s a e o bo de
agency in he EU could ha e di e consequences (P41). View 1 mo eo e in ol ed p opo -
ionali y: “since we don’ finge p in e e yone o figh ing c ime, he p inciple o
p opo ionali y should also be applied o bo de con ols”(P39). Acco dingly, hidden con-
ols o ca ch po en ial agg esso s we e ejec ed. Pa icipan 41 poin ed ou he ola ili y o
he concep o e o ism:
Eu opean ideas on wha e o ism is ha e changed: he Hi le bomb plo and he F ench esis -
ance being he oic, and he ube suicide bombe s being cowa dly. Some EU coun ies gi e
sanc ua y o hose ha o he s a es seek o ex adi e o e o ism. Fashions in hese hings
change, bu he da a emains on eco d.
Second iew: ABC will enhance secu i y and ad ance Eu opean in eg a ion
The second mos explana o y iew, a 17% and wi h 13 pa icipan s loading signi ican ly
on i , was suppo ed mainly by igh -wing and cen e- igh poli ical pa ies in all ou case
coun ies, al hough he Romanian pa icipan s suppo ed he iew mo e widely.
Fo he second iew, bo de secu i y was pa amoun and could be enhanced by au o-
ma ing bo de con ol. The EU should hus s i e o be a he o e on in acqui ing he
mos mode n, e icien and sa es echnological solu ions in bo de con ol. The secu i y
a ibu es o ABC sys ems we e belie ed o o e ide o he conside a ions, such as he
speeding up o bo de -c ossing, as he EU was seen o “a ac illegal c oss bo de
h ea s and o he sou ces o ins abili y om ou side he Union”(P10). This is why View
2 demands a isk-based app oach in bo de con ol, e e ing o “di ec ing bo de
gua ds a hose deemed he iskies […] no spending ime checking he passpo s o
e y low- isk passenge s”(P9). Au oma ed isk p o iling was conside ed an ad an age o
ABC, especially gi en he “shee olumes o people a elling, and p ojec ions o g ea e
numbe s in he u u e”(P9).
The second iew accep ed he use o a elle s’biome ics a mo e ex ensi ely han
he i s iew. Ad oca ing EU-wide iden i ica ion da abases in ABC and deeming he e -
i ica ion o passenge s’iden i y insu icien , View 2 was also in a ou o using hese da a-
bases in sol ing se ious c imes and comba ing e o ism by sha ing hei in o ma ion wi h
law en o cemen au ho i ies. The use o biome ics in ABC and Sma Bo de s was encou -
aged: his iew included no no ion o po en ially unjus i ied su eillance o EU ci izens o
EUROPEAN SECURITY 215
No es on con ibu o s
Pinja Leh onen is a esea che and doc o al candida e a he School o Managemen , Uni e si y o
Tampe e, Finland. She is cu en ly wo king on a se ies o Q me hodological s udies on Eu opean
bo de con ol policies o he EU F amewo k P og amme 7 p ojec “FASTPASS –A Ha monized,
Modula Re e ence Sys em o All Eu opean Au oma ed Bo de C ossing Poin s (2013–16)”.
Pami Aal o is p o esso o In e na ional Rela ions a he School o Managemen , Uni e si y o
Tampe e, Finland. Along wi h bo de policies, his esea ch conce ns he EU, no he n Eu ope,
Russia, he A c ic and Eas Asia; likewise ene gy policy, in e disciplina i y and in e na ional socie y.
He leads he Uni e si y o Tampe e eam in he Fas Pass p ojec , which is co-o dina ed by he Aus-
ian Ins i u e o Technology.
ORCID
Pinja Leh onen h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-1173-1813
Pami Aal o h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-1559-8175
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Appendix. S a emen sample wi h Q so alues o each ac o / iew. The
posi ion o each s a emen in he model appea s in pa en heses.
S a emen s associa ed wi h a ac o in he analysis appea in bold ace.
Consensus s a emen s appea in bo h bold ace and i alics.
S a emen F1 F2 F3
1. Hones people who ha e no hing o hide ha e no eason o e use hei biome ic da a (such as
inge p in s) being collec ed and used in bo de con ol (Aa)
−411
2. I would be bes i he passenge s did no know whe e, when and which con ols a e happening a
bo de s, so ha po en ial a acke s would be caugh (Ab)
−2−23
3. Clea s a emen s mus be p o ided o he a elle s, on exac ly how hei biome ic da a a e used,
wi h whom hey a e sha ed and o wha pu pose (Bb)
323
4. The EU should no go o wa d wi h ABC because i is oo expensi e, conside ing he big budge
cu s (Cc)
−1−30
5. Eu opean bo de gua ds despe a ely need au oma ed echnology o be able o manage he
inc easing passenge lows and o concen a e on checking isky a elle s (Aa)
−21−1
6. Membe S a es ha ha e o in es mo e han o he s in implemen ing he common s anda ds on
au oma ed, ex e nal bo de con ols should be compensa ed by he EU (Cc)
0−12
7. The EU should be a pionee in ge ing he mos mode n, mos e icien and sa es echnological
solu ions in bo de managemen (Ac)
021
8. The ABC p ocesses and ga es ha e o be as simila as possible h oughou Eu ope o make he
sys ems easy and as o use, and hus cos -e icien (Aa)
12−2
9. The p oblems o co up ion and disc imina ion by bo de gua ds can be a oided by au oma ising
bo de con ols (Ab)
−110
10. People bound o wheelchai s mus accep ha hey will no be able o use ABC ga es (Ab) −4−4−2
11. Eu opean companies should be hea ily p io i ised when o de ing ga es and so wa e o ABC in
he EU (Ac)
−100
12. Decisions ega ding echnical issues, such as biome ics in bo de con ol, should be le in he
hands o expe s and scien is s (Ab)
−3−1−1
13. In ABC, he decisions o allow en ance a e made by p o iling g oups o people as isky, which may
lead o disc imina ion on g ounds o na ionali y, e hnic o igin, skin colou , e c. (Ba)
30−2
14. De eloping applica ions also sui able o land and ma i ime c ossings should be a p io i y in he
p ocess o au oma ising bo de con ols (Ac)
−112
15. Claiming ha ci izens ha e o gi e up p i acy igh s o he go e nmen s o be able o keep hem
sa e is en i ely alse and c ea es an a mosphe e whe e people no longe know hei igh s (Ba)
100
16. In many EU Membe S a es, he da a p o ec ion sys ems a e cu en ly no eliable enough o be
used in ABC (Ca)
102
17. ABC and Sma Bo de s may lead o inc eased, unjus i ied su eillance o EU ci izens, whose
mo emen s can easily be eco ded and s o ed in he u u e (Bb)
3−31
(Con inued)
224 P. LEHTONEN AND P. AALTO
Appendix.Con inued.
S a emen F1 F2 F3
18. I is enough o e i y ha he passenge ’s biome ics ma ch he da a in he passpo a he bo de .
No EU-wide iden i ica ion da abases a e needed (Bb)
1−3−1
19. The goal o ABC is simply o make a elling as and easy (Cb) −21−1
20. The leas possible amoun o biome ic da a can be collec ed o speci ied, explici and legi ima e
pu poses and mus no be u he used o o he pu poses (Bc)
442
21. Be o e c ea ing new EU-wide IT sys ems o bo de con ol, binding legal ins umen s and
moni o ing mechanisms o con ol he IT sys ems mus be ag eed on (Bc)
233
22. When designing ABC sys ems and da abases o he EU, hei e ec s o he jus ea men o
people seeking in e na ional p o ec ion a he bo de s mus be conside ed ho oughly (Bc)
220
23. Be o e p oceeding wi h ABC, he plans mus ha e democ a ic legi imacy in each Membe S a e a
leas on he Pa liamen le el and p e e ably among ci il socie y (Bc)
434
24. The use o highly e ec i e echnologies a pa s o he bo de may igge he inc eased use o
o he , mo e dange ous illegal en y poin s (e.g. ma i ime ou es) (Ba)
001
25. Collec ing biome ic in o ma ion and eco ding he en y and exi o all hi d-coun y na ionals
c ossing he EU’s ex e nal bo de s will inc ease he ime mos a elle s spend a bo de con ols,
no ma e how much new echnologies a e able o speed up he p ocess (Ca)
0−1−1
26. ABC and Sma Bo de s a e p esen ed mainly as echnological de elopmen s, which hides hei
as poli ical and legal implica ions (Ca)
2−14
27. The inc easing use o biome ics in bo de con ol is in he in e es s o poli ical ha dline s who
iew immig a ion as a h ea o he EU’s homeland secu i y (Ca)
1−2−3
28. Opposing ABC o igina es om he adical idea o oppose all kinds o go e nmen al su eillance,
including bo de con ol (Cb)
−2−1−3
29. I is a con adic o y EU policy o ge id o isas and a he same ime igh en he bo de con ols
wi h echnology (Cb)
0−2−3
30. ABC echnology will be expensi e a i s , bu in he long un i is a be e in es men han hi ing
mo e bo de gua ds (Aa)
−14−2
31. Go e nmen s o de eloping coun ies canno p oduce biome ic passpo s, which will b ing
unjus i ied suspicion on o hei ci izens in ABC (Cb)
00−4
32. Ga he ing inge p in s om hi d-coun y na ionals a bo de -c ossings makes a elle s suspec s,
which h ea ens he democ a ic p esump ion o innocence (Bb)
2−2−4
33. EU laws should be a oided in bo de con ol because hey ep esen EU ede alisa ion (Cc) −3−40
34. Law en o cemen au ho i ies in EU Membe S a es mus be able o access all exis ing and new
biome ic EU da abases used in bo de con ol, in o de o sol e se ious c imes and comba
e o ism (Cc)
−331
EUROPEAN SECURITY 225