1
The G and Opening?
The T ans o ma ion o he Con en o Cul u e Sec ions in Eu opean Newspape s, 1960–2010
Semi Pu honena†, Riie Heikkiläa and I mak Ka ademi Hazi b
a Uni e si y o Tampe e, Finland.
b Ox o d B ookes Uni e si y, UK.
† Co esponding au ho .
Abs ac
This s udy p esen s an analysis o changes in he co e age o cul u e in majo Eu opean newspape s
om 1960 o 2010. Employing a con en analysis o he newspape s, we examine how cul u e
sec ions ha e changed in e ms o he cul u al a eas co e ed. We ask whe he he con en o cul u al
co e age has become mo e he e ogeneous and whe he newspape s embedded in di e en
geog aphical and cul u al con ex s di e in his espec . To assess he e ogenei y, we i s ocus on
he opening o cul u e h ough he inc ease in co e age o eme ging a o ms a he expense o he
co e age o es ablished a o ms. Nex , we u n ou a en ion o music and measu e openness
acco ding o he inc ease o pop- ock con en . The esul s sugges a cul u al opening, albei mos ly
measu ed by he second p oxy. Es ablished a o ms hold hei mains eam posi ion, while
eme ging o ms a e alida ed a a slowe pace han expec ed. Rega ding music, he ans o ma ion
o co e age om classical music o pop- ock is e y d ama ic. The indings challenge expec a ions
abou he o de in which he newspape s mani es he iming and ho oughness o he opening o
cul u e, highligh ing he complexi y o he ac o s shaping newspape s’ cul u al co e age.
Keywo ds
Cul u al legi imacy, classi ica ions, cul u al change, newspape s, popula cul u e, music
This is an accep ed manusc ip . The o iginal a icle has been published in Poe ics 2017, 62,
pp.29-42.DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.poe ic.2017.02.001.
2
The G and Opening? The T ans o ma ion o he Con en o Cul u e Sec ions in Eu opean
Newspape s, 1960–2010
1. In oduc ion
How ha e he classi ica ions and hie a chies o a s and cul u e changed o e he las decades?
Mo e p ecisely, has he “con en ” o legi ima e cul u e become mo e he e ogeneous and open; ha
is, ha e new o ms o (popula ) cul u e been included in he concep ion o legi ima e cul u e in
addi ion o mo e es ablished highb ow a s? I so, wha a e he geog aphic and cul u al limi s o his
pos -1960s cul u al ans o ma ion owa ds inc eased openness and he e ogenei y?
This pape p o ides a bi d’s-eye iew o long- e m changes in cul u al hie a chies and he con en
o legi ima e cul u e h ough he lens o a speci ic ins i u ion in he ield o cul u al p oduc ion:
cul u e sec ions in quali y Eu opean newspape s. We employ a quan i a i e con en analysis o
cul u al co e age in six majo Eu opean newspape s om 1960 o 2010. The analysis o a la ge
sample o newspape a icles on cul u e allows us o assess he ex en o which he he e ogenei y o
cul u al co e age has inc eased o e he las i y yea s, i inc eased he e ogenei y signi ies an
eme gence o new cul u al a eas and a o ms ha ha e become ecognized wi h he s a us o “a ”
o “cul u e,” o , a he i he e ogenei y has inc eased h ough he ans o ma ion o con en inside
he bounda ies o es ablished a s, and, inally, whe he newspape s published in di e en pa s o
Eu ope a e simila ega ding hese ends.
This pape opens wi h a look a di e en pe spec i es h ough which he he e ogeniza ion o he
con en o legi ima e cul u e can been concep ualized, as well as a p e ious wo k analyzing
newspape s as a means o unde s and cul u al change. A e a sec ion cla i ying ou hypo heses, he
compa a i e se ing o he analysis, and he esea ch design, he esul s sec ion will i s ly examine
he possible inc ease in he co e age o eme ging a o ms a he expense o he es ablished a s.
The second analysis will ocus on a icles on music and ask o wha ex en he e has been a shi in
he balance be ween popula music and classical music o e he i y-yea pe iod. The pape
concludes by e lec ing on he esul s and me hodological aspec s o he s udy.
1.1 He e ogeniza ion and he opening up o legi ima e cul u e: Theo e ical pe spec i es
Cul u al hie a chies and classi ica ions a y his o ically and c oss-na ionally (DiMaggio 1982,
1987; Le ine 1988; Pe e son 1997; Daloz 2010; Lamon 2012). Bou dieu amously a gues ha
3
cul u al and social hie a chies a e homological (e.g., ha a as e o “high” a s is highly class
dependen ), esul ing in a si ua ion in which p esc ip ions o legi ima e cul u e con ibu e o he
ep oduc ion o inequali y (Bou dieu 1984). Howe e , a wide ange o s udies cas s in o doub he
ole o adi ional highb ow cul u e as a s a us ma ke and sugges s ha legi ima e cul u e i sel is
becoming mo e inclusi e, combining i ems om bo h highb ow and popula milieus (e.g., Pe e son
1992; Pe e son & Ke n 1996; DiMaggio & Mukh a 2004; Van Eijck & Knuls 2005; P ieu &
Sa age 2011). Mos amously, his end o “opening up” and inc easing he he e ogeniza ion o
legi ima e cul u e’s con en is concep ualized as he ise o he cul u al omni o e (Pe e son 1992,
2005; Pe e son & Ke n 1996; o a e iew, see Ka ademi Hazi & Wa de 2015). The omni o e
schola ship shows ha high s a us g oups end o app ecia e b oad epe oi es o as e, whe eas low
s a us g oups’ as es a e mo e na ow and uni o ous. While his no ion does no necessa y
con adic Bou dieu’s model (i omni o ousness is aken as a new o m o cul u al capi al yielding
a ious bene i s; Liza do & Skiles 2012), i ne e heless implies ha he concep o legi ima e
cul u e has widened and become mo e he e ogeneous.
Omni o ousness, howe e , is only one way o app oach he pos -1960s cul u al ans o ma ion.
The e a e plen y o mo e o less in e wined pe spec i es and esea ch s ands ha concep ualize he
“g and opening” and i s key elemen s: he inc eased he e ogeniza ion o legi ima e cul u e and he
wo sides o ha p ocess, he ise o popula cul u e and he decline o adi ional highb ow
cul u e’s s a us. S udies analyzing cul u al pa icipa ion longi udinally ask whe he audiences o
highb ow a s a e sh inking and aging, hus causing he “mel down” o highb ow a s’ s a us as a
means o dis inc ion (DiMaggio & Mukh a 2004). A mo e ecen discussion on he “eme ging
o ms” o cul u al capi al a gues ha dis inc ions and hie a chies a e inc easingly de eloping wi hin
he ealm o popula cul u e (P ieu & Sa age 2011, 2013; F iedman e al. 2015; Sa age e al.
2015). As a consequence, clea hie a chies s uc u e he ields o popula cul u e (Va iale 2016).
An in e sec ing line o esea ch deals wi h he legi ima ion o popula cul u e ia in ellec ualiza ion
and aes he iciza ion (Rege 1994; Baumann 2001; Schmu z 2005, 2016), highligh ing how new
o ms o cul u e can be ans o med “ om en e ainmen o a ” (Baumann 2007) by ex ending he
high-a c i e ia o e alua i e p ac ices (Van Ven oiij & Schmu z 2010) o by o he p ocesses o
“a i ica ion” (Heinich & Shapi o 2012). Then again, s udies and deba es on he comme cializa ion
o cul u e p obe whe he changes in he balance o es ablished a s and popula cul u e esul om
he compe i ion be ween comme cial legi ima ion and aes he ic legi ima ion, in which comme cial
4
alues migh ake o e a is ic alues and he au onomous s a us o he a s (Bou dieu 1993;
Hesmondhalgh 2007; Sca da ille 2009; Ve boo d 2011; Schmu z 2016).
One ela ed s eam o esea ch ocuses on he ole o cul u al globaliza ion and aes he ic
cosmopoli anism (Tomlinson 1999; Rege 2013; Va iale 2015, 2016, o hcoming). Classical
highb ow a s— he co e con en o adi ional legi ima e cul u e—ha e ep esen ed essen ially a
Eu opean cul u al canon, which has been challenged by global lows and in luences, especially he
eme gence o popula wo ld cul u e. The mos no able example o his is he “pop ockiza ion” o
music h oughou he wo ld, namely, he g owing in luence o Ame ican (and B i ish) pop- ock
music and i s local adap a ions, which is concep ualized as “exp essi e isomo phism” s anda dizing
he na ional peculia i ies in wo ld cul u e (Rege 2013; Va iale 2016). Finally, echnological
changes, especially digi aliza ion, may play a ole in he inc ease o cul u al he e ogenei y, as he
p oli e a ion o dis ibu able and po able cul u al o ms and he ease o consuming hem a e clea ly
ac o s behind he p esen “cul u al abundance” (W igh 2011, 2015).
Wi hou doub , hese my iad aspec s o he he e ogeniza ion o legi ima e cul u e could be
conside ed pa s o a mo e gene al sociological na a i e abou changes in he Wes e n wo ld o e
he la e pa o he wen ie h cen u y, in which he key has been a shi om adi ional and
unques ionable au ho i y o mo e lexible and plu al au ho i ies (be hey aes he ic au ho i ies o
o he ypes o ules o conduc ). This shi can be called, o ins ance, “in o maliza ion” (Wou e s
2007) o “exp essi e e olu ion” (Ma in 1981). In any case, all he ou lined p ocesses con ibu e o
cul u al change which DiMaggio (1987:452) calls a end owa ds “mo e di e en ia ed and less
hie a chical” and “weake and less uni e sal” cul u al classi ica ions.
1.2 Newspape s as as emake s
The media, as an ins i u ion, plays a key ole in how di e en cul u al classi ica ions and hie a chies
appea , sp ead, become legi imized, and a e deba ed (Janssen 1999). Fo his eason, newspape s,
wi h hei p ede ined cul u e o a s sec ions, p o ide use ul da a (Janssen e al. 2008, 2011;
Jaakkola 2015). Mo eo e , sociologis s o en encoun e a lack o sui able da a se s enabling he
acking o long- e m ends o e se e al decades and ac oss a a ie y o na ional con ex s (Pe e son
2005; Ree es 2015), and using newspape da a is a means o sol e his p oblem.
Specialized sec ions on a s and cul u e we e es ablished in many majo Eu opean newspape s
a ound he middle o he wen ie h cen u y (Jaakkola 2015). These o m a s uc u al ame ha
5
enables and moulds as e disposi ions by p oducing symbolic alue and hie a chies (Bou dieu 1993;
Janssen 1999; Jaakkola 2015). Schola s conside quali y newspape s especially in luen ial in
shaping public opinion on he alue and legi imacy o a o ms and cul u al objec s (Ve boo d e al.
2015).1 Cul u al jou nalis s and c i ics a e cul u al in e media ies—bo h ga ekeepe s who selec
wha will be showcased and as emake s who de ine wha coun s as good as e (Bou dieu 1984;
Smi h, Magui e, & Ma hews 2014; Janssen & Ve boo d 2015). Thus, changes in cul u al
legi imacy should be e iden in hei w i ings, o , mo e gene ally, in he cul u al classi ica ions and
hie a chies ep esen ed in he media (Janssen 1999; Jaakkola 2015; Ve boo d e al. 2015).
The e o e, he ela i e amoun o newspape space dedica ed o pa icula a o ms and gen es is
“indica i e o hei cul u al s a us a a gi en poin in ime” (Janssen 1999:330).
Gi en hei po en ial as a longi udinal and compa a i e da a sou ce o esea ch on he supposed
opening o cul u e du ing he las decades, newspape cul u al pages emain su p isingly
unde s udied. A majo excep ion, howe e , is a ecen la ge-scale Du ch esea ch p ojec (e.g.
Janssen e al. 2008, 2011; Ve boo d e al. 2015). This p ojec ’s a ious ou pu s shed ligh on how
he e alua ions o li e a u e (Be ke s e al. 2014); ilm (Ke s en & Ve boo d 2014); music (Schmu z
2009; Schmu z e al. 2010; Van Ven ooij & Schmu z 2010); and ashion p oduc s (Janssen 2006)
ha e changed in di e en na ional con ex s. In addi ion o unde s anding he dynamics o hese
dis inc ields, he p ojec uses newspape con en o e eal how b oade p ocesses o social and
cul u al change—such as globaliza ion—in luence cul u al app ecia ion and hie a chies (Janssen e
al. 2008). Newspape s a e a e ile medium o explo ing such issues, since depic ions o cul u al
p oduc s in di e en na ional con ex s a e la gely consis en wi h coun y-speci ic s uc u al
dynamics. Fo ins ance, he ela i ely less open cul u al classi ica ion sys em iden i ied in he
analysis o Ge man newspape s seems o be in acco dance wi h he Ge man educa ional sys em
(conduci e o cul u al hie a chy), Ge many’s jou nalis ic ield (s a e-domina ed media sys em), and
Ge many’s cul u al policy sys em (decen alized) (Janssen e al. 2011). Mo eo e , newspape s a e a
c ucial da a sou ce because he e seems o be a ela ionship be ween he o m o jou nalis ic
a en ion de o ed o pa icula a o ms and gen es and he loca ion o hose gen es wi hin he
wide cul u al hie a chy. Fo ins ance, he inc ease in popula music e iews—especially ock
music—since he 1960s in he US p ess g an ed hose gen es legi imacy ea lie han in o he
na ional con ex s (Schmu z e al. 2010).
By b oadening geog aphical co e age, ou esea ch con ibu es o exis ing knowledge on changes in
he alua ion and legi ima ion o cul u e h ough he isibili y in quali y newspape s and hus

6
p o ides one answe o he call o “unco e u he na ional o longi udinal di e ences” (Janssen e
al. 2011:161). The inclusion o newspape s om bo h No he n and Sou he n Eu ope—including
one newspape om Tu key, loca ed li e ally on he bo de o Eu ope—allows us o ques ion he
limi s and a ia ions in cul u al declassi ica ion obse ed by Janssen e al. (2011) and Schu z e al.
(2010) as a gene al (albei a ying) end in Cen al Eu ope and he Uni ed S a es. Enla ging he
sample o include na ional con ex s ou side he co e o Eu ope in many ega ds (i.e. he le el o
in eg a ion wi h globaliza ion; his o y o democ a iza ion; and deg ee o in e connec edness in he
ields o poli ics, a , and jou nalism) accen ua es c oss-cul u al di e ences and allows us o es he
cul u al opening hesis mo e ho oughly. Mo eo e , ou esea ch di e s om ea lie s udies
(Schmu z e al. 2010; Janssen e al. 2011) in he sense ha i co e s only newspape s’ cul u al
sec ions a he han hei en i e con en . By concen a ing on explici cul u e sec ions, we can le he
newspape s decide on ou behal wha coun s as cul u e and wha is aluable enough o be included
unde he cul u e sec ion.
1.3 Aims, hypo heses and he compa a i e se ing
We in es iga e i cul u al con en in quali y Eu opean newspape s has become mo e open and
he e ogeneous, as implied by he abo emen ioned a ious deba es in cul u al sociology, om 1960
o 2010 in e ms o he cul u al a eas and a o ms ( opics) discussed in a icles ound in cul u al
sec ions. These newspape s come om six Eu opean coun ies, anging om wo No dic coun ies
(Helsingin Sanoma , he ea e HS, om Finland, and Dagens Nyhe e , DN, om Sweden) o wo
la ge Wes e n Eu opean coun ies (Le Monde, LM, om F ance, and The Gua dian, GU, om he
UK), and, inally, wo Medi e anean coun ies (ABC/El País, ABC/EP, om Spain, and Milliye ,
MIL, om Tu key).
Ou analysis is guided by he hypo hesis (H1) ha , be ween 1960 and 2010, he concep ion o
cul u e has opened in e ms o cul u al a eas and gen es discussed in newspape cul u e sec ions,
e ealing ha he dominance o classical es ablished a s has dwindled. We should be able o ack
his end in wo ways: (H1a) h ough he inc eased he e ogenei y o cul u al con en caused by he
appea ance o eme ging a o ms ha ha e gained space a he expense o adi ional and
es ablished a o ms (which, in o he wo ds, should be mani es ed as an upwa d end in he
p opo ion o a icles discussing eme ging cul u al a eas); and, (H1b) h ough he shi in he
olume o he a icles on classical and popula music (seen as an upwa d end in he p opo ion o
a icles on pop- ock music). Besides ocusing on eme ging cul u al a eas, we concen a e on music
in pa icula because i enables us o measu e he ela i e amoun o space dedica ed o adi ional
7
“high” cul u e and mo e ecen popula cul u al o ms wi hin pe haps he mos es ablished and
ins i u ionalized a o m in mode n Wes e n socie ies (F i h 1996; Pe e son & Ke n 1996; Roy &
Dowd 2010).
Ou second hypo hesis conce ns di e ences be ween newspape s embedded in di e en Eu opean
con ex s cha ac e ized by speci ic cul u al, his o ical, and socio-poli ical ea u es, in addi ion o
di e ences in he newspape s’ ins i u ional and ield-le el (o ganiza ional) cha ac e is ics. This
hypo hesis (H2) s a es ha he e is signi ican a ia ion in he ho oughness and iming o he
opening o cul u al con en among he newspape s s udied (including bo h cases o H1a and H1b).
We do no claim ha he newspape s selec ed a e na ionally ep esen a i e cases and hus di ec ly
exp ess na ional di e ences. Ne e heless, he newspape s a e linked o speci ic Eu opean con ex s
wi h hei own sociohis o ical and s uc u al cha ac e is ics, which he newspape s’ con en e lec s.
The e a e also se e al o he in luen ial ac o s o conside , and we expec he di e ences be ween
he newspape s o signi y a leas h ee socie y-le el dimensions (c . DiMaggio 1987; Van Ven ooij
& Schmu z 2010; Janssen e al. 2011). Fi s , we mus pay a en ion o he di e en loca ions in he
global—and Wes e n-domina ed—cul u al sys em, ou expec a ion being ha he opening happened
ea lie and mo e ho oughly in cen al coun ies (Appadu ai 1996; Janssen e al. 2008). Acco ding
o his dimension, he UK and F ance clea ly ep esen he cen e, whe eas Spain, No dic coun ies
(among which Sweden is clea ly close o he global cul u al cen es han Finland), and especially
Tu key a e examples o mo e pe iphe al loca ions in he global cul u al sys em. Second, we assume
ha he di e en media sys em models play a signi ican ole, ou expec a ion being ha he
opening happened ea lie and mo e ho oughly in “libe al” model coun ies ( ep esen ed in ou
s udy o he UK) a he han “democ a ic co po a is ” (Finland, Sweden) o “pola ized plu alis ”
(F ance, Spain, Tu key) models (Hallin & Mancini 2004). Thi d, we should emembe ha di e en
cul u al policy egimes ha e a s ong in luence on he dynamics o cul u al ields and hie a chies
(Looseley 2011; Ka z-Ge o 2015). Ou expec a ion is ha he opening o cul u e happened la e in
coun ies whe e es ablished and adi ional a o ms we e hea ily s a e subsidized (Janssen e al.
2011). This dimension sugges s ha F ance and No dic coun ies, whe e s a e unding o he
es ablished a s is high (ACE 1998), migh ha e adop ed new cul u al o ms la e han he o he
coun ies examined (UK, Spain, and Tu key).
Taken oge he , and o speci y ou second hypo hesis, hese h ee socie y-le el dimensions sugges
ha he newspape s can be o de ed, acco ding o how hei na ional con ex s ha e acili a ed he
8
opening o cul u e, in a way ha (H2a) he B i ish GU ep esen s he ea lies opening and he
Tu kish MIL ep esen s he las . Among he o he newspape s, we expec (H2b) he Finnish HS o
be he second la es . O e all, ou s udy echoes Fishman and Liza do’s (2013:215) ques ioning o he
assump ion ha he mechanisms and p ocesses behind cul u al change “ope a e in a la gely case-
ee manne .” Thus, we a gue ha di e ences in he geog aphical and cul u al loca ions p o ide he
backg ound o a ui ul compa a i e analysis o he ans o ma ion o he newspape s’ cul u al
con en and, he e o e, o he changes in cul u al classi ica ions and hie a chies o e he las i e
decades.
2. Resea ch design
2.1 Da a
Da a om he cul u e sec ions o ABC/EP, DN, GU, HS, LM, and MIL om 1960 o 2010 we e
collec ed be ween 2013 and 2014. The sample was collec ed a en-yea in e als, including
olumes om six ime poin s (1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010). To elimina e seasonal
a ia ion in a s co e age, he me hod o “cons uc ed weeks” was used (Ri e e al. 1993; Janssen
e al. 2008). Each esea ch yea was di ided in o hi ds om which one ull week was andomly
cons uc ed, o alling h ee weeks pe selec ed yea . The sample includes 18–21 edi ions o each
newspape pe yea (depending on whe he he newspape was published six o se en days a week),
which amoun s o 711 edi ions al oge he .
The da a we e coded, ollowing a p ede ined coding sys em, in o a s a is ical ma ix.2 The uni o
ou con en analysis is an indi idual a icle (N=13,161). The da a only include a icles wi h
jou nalis ic con en published in cul u e sec ions—bo h he co e cul u al pages inside he newspape
as well as hema ic cul u al supplemen s.
All he newspape s analyzed a e na ionally leading quali y pape s wi h compa able le els o
ci cula ion, albei in di e en geog aphical and cul u al egions in Eu ope (c . Janssen e al. 2008;
Jaakkola 2015; Ve boo d e al. 2015). HS, ounded in 1889, has a mode a e social-democ a ic
endency and is Finland’s mos widely ead newspape , wi h almos no na ional compe i ion
(Jaakkola 2015). HS se he model o choosing he o he na ional cases. GU is simila o HS in bo h
i s mode a e cen e-le oice and ci cula ion le els (Taylo 1993). DN is among he bigges
newspape s in Sweden and sha es HS’s poli ical leanings (Hadenius 2002). LM, he mos widely
ead newspape o F ance, sha es he p e iously men ioned newspape s’ mode a e le is poli ical
9
endencies (E eno 2004). In Spain, EP, ounded jus a e he end o F anco’s igh -wing
dic a o ship in 1976, is a logical coun e pa o he o he selec ed newspape s. Howe e , o he
pe iod o 1960 o 1970, wi h no compa able al e na i e a ailable, we had o use he mona chis ,
igh -wing ABC, he mos in luen ial Spanish newspape a he ime (Olmos 2002). Fo Tu key, we
chose MIL because i is he mos widely ci cula ed newspape , published wi hou in e up ions
be ween 1960 and 2010. Mo eo e , MIL is a poli ically cen ed pape ha alls in line wi h he es
o he sample (Topuz 2003). The online supplemen (Table A.1) p esen s mo e in o ma ion on he
newspape s.
Table 1 shows he dis ibu ion o he da a ac oss yea s and among newspape s. The way ou sample
is dis ibu ed by yea o each newspape e eals how he cul u e sec ions ha e been s uc u ed and
changed in e ms o olume (as e lec ed in he numbe o a icles).
O e all, he da a a e qui e e enly dis ibu ed bo h in e ms o yea s and newspape s, albei wi h
some excep ions. The o al numbe o a icles gene ally inc eased owa ds he 2000s. In he sense o
pu e olume, he newspape s all in o wo ca ego ies: la ge (ABC/EP, DN, HS) and smalle (GU,
LM, MIL). Mo eo e , he No dic pape s, HS and DN, di e om bo h he Cen al Eu opean and
Sou he n Eu opean cases in he amoun o jou nalis ic a en ion gi en o cul u e in 1960. In he case
o MIL, he e was qui e a d ama ic inc ease in 2010, whils in he case o EP he e was a clea
dec ease in 2010 compa ed o 2000 o 1990.
Table 1. B eakdown o he da a by yea and newspape (pe cen o o al and numbe o a icles).
ABC/EP
DN
GU
HS
LM
MIL
To al
1960
1.4
(182)
2.7
(355)
2.0
(258)
3.0
(399)
1.4
(186)
0.7
(87)
11.1
(1,467)
1970
3.6
(475)
3.6
(478)
1.1
(145)
3.0
(392)
3.0
(397)
1.0
(128)
15.3
(2,015)
1980
2.4
(311)
2.3
(309)
1.1
(144)
2.5
(334)
2.3
(306)
1.0
(134)
11.7
(1,538)
1990
4.1
(540)
3.3
(430)
3.1
(403)
3.6
(479)
1.8
(237)
1.0
(130)
16.9
(2,219)
2000
7.3
(955)
3.3
(433)
2.6
(348)
4.3
(572)
3.7
(490)
2.0
(260)
23.2
(3,058)
2010
2.3
(305)
3.9
(517)
3.4
(441)
5.0
(660)
2.2
(294)
4.9
(647)
21.8
(2,864)
To al
21.0
(2,768)
19.2
(2,522)
13.2
(1,739)
21.5
(2,836)
14.5
(1,910)
10.5
(1,386)
100.0
(13,161)
16
3.3 Music: The ise o pop- ock
To es he hypo hesis o openness acco ding o he inc ease in popula gen es, we ocus on he
music ield and in es iga e how music co e age is di ided acco ding o di e en musical gen es
and how i has changed o e ime (Table 4).
Two gen es, classical music and pop- ock, di e om he es o he sample ega ding hei size.
Almos 44% o all a icles on music co e classical music, whe eas one- hi d ocuses on pop- ock.
Whils hei p opo ions a e no en i ely di e en om each o he , hey ha e opposi e ajec o ies:
pop- ock co e age has inc eased d ama ically, whe eas classical music co e age has sha ply
dec eased. Jazz, wi h i s 9% co e age, and o he smalle gen es—such as domes ic hi music,
adi ional olk music, and wo ld music—ha e emained ela i ely s able o e ime, apa om he
ac ha wo ld music was ai ly un ep esen ed un il 1990 and ha jazz saw a clea ise om 1960 o
i s heigh in 1980–1990.
Al oge he , pop- ock accoun ed o one- hi d o all music a icles, and he e is a huge and s eady
inc ease in i s p opo ion, as shown in Table 4. Bu how has his p opo ion e ol ed be ween 1960
and 2010 in each o he six newspape s? In he case o he p opo ion o a icles on eme ging
cul u al a eas, a e he e—again—signi ican di e ences in he ic o ious ajec o y o pop- ock?
Table 5 shows ha no only decades bu also newspape s ha e signi ican and powe ul associa ions
wi h he p e alence o a icles on pop- ock. Table 4 e idences he unadjus ed associa ion o ime
poin s, bu he e a e also signi ican di e ences be ween he newspape s, wi h GU, HS, and LM, in
pa icula , ha ing published ewe a icles on pop- ock han ABC/EP (o DN) and MIL clea ly
ha ing published mo e. Mo eo e , he e is a signi ican in e ac ion be ween decade and indi idual
newspape s. In con as o he powe ul in e ac ion when p edic ing a icles on eme ging cul u al
a eas in Table 3, he s eng h o he in e ac ion he e is much mo e modes . As shown by model 2,
Table 4. A icles on di e en musical gen es (o all a icles on music) by he yea (pe cen ages).
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
To al
Pop- ock
1.6
14.9
26.6
26.7
41.7
55.5
33.4
Classical music
83.9
61.5
45.8
50.9
33.4
22.8
43.6
Jazz
2.7
7.5
12.2
11.7
9.1
7.1
8.7
Domes ic hi m
4.7
4.2
4.3
2.0
2.8
4.3
3.6
T adi ional olk
2.4
4.7
3.5
2.7
2.6
1.9
2.9
Wo ld music
0.4
0.5
1.0
2.9
7.1
4.4
3.4
O he
4.3
6.8
6.6
2.9
3.4
4.0
4.4
To al
(N)
100.0
(255)
100.0
(429)
100.0
(395)
100.0
(546)
100.0
(650)
100.0
(773)
100.0
(3,048)

17
only MIL shows a s a is ically signi ican de iance om ABC/EP, his ime sugges ing ha he
inc ease in he p opo ion o pop- ock a icles o e each en-yea in e al is less p onounced in MIL
han in ABC/EP ( he e e ence ca ego y). In ac , i he analysis is e- un excluding MIL om he
da a, he in e ac ion be ween decade and newspape is s a is ically insigni ican .
Table 5. A icles on pop- ock music (o all a icles on music) by yea , newspape and o he
independen a iables (odds a ios and Wald s a is ics om logis ic eg ession analysis).
Unadjus ed
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Decade (Wald)
334.72***
309.55***
48.26***
21.98***
1960=0
1.71***
1.72***
1.77***
1.51***
Newspape (Wald)
209.44***
182.30***
70.04***
64.29***
ABC/EP ( e .)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
DN
1.06
1.39*
1.83
1.52
GU
0.74*
0.66**
0.57
0.65
HS
0.43***
0.42***
0.19***
0.21**
LM
0.29***
0.32***
0.51
0.33*
MIL
2.63***
2.08***
5.49***
5.64**
Decade x Newspape (Wald)
20.27**
22.65***
Decade x ABC/EP ( e .)
1.00
1.00
Decade x DN
0.91
1.10
Decade x GU
1.04
1.01
Decade x HS
1.22
1.26*
Decade x LM
0.87
1.09
Decade x MIL
0.77*
0.74*
Numbe o cul u al pages (Wald)
178.06***
0.94
1–2 ( e .)
1.00
1.00
3–5
1.78***
0.90
6–10
3.29***
0.85
11 o mo e
4.34***
0.82
Supplemen (Wald)
276.41***
48.29***
No supplemen ( e .)
1.00
1.00
Supplemen
4.33***
2.87***
Size o he a icle (Wald)
21.16***
1.06
Smalle han a qua e page ( e .)
1.00
1.00
A leas a qua e bu less han ull page
1.11
1.00
Full page o mo e
2.19***
1.22
Type o he a icle (Wald)
0.00
0.70
O he ( e .)
1.00
1.00
Re iew
1.00
0.92
Cons an
0.11***
0.10***
0.13***
χ² change o he model
***
**
***
Nagelke ke pseudo R² change
0.25
0.01
0.03
N=3,044. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
18
When p edic ing he p e alence o a icles on pop- ock music, he con ol a iables measu ing
di e en elemen s o cul u al con en play a mino ole. The only signi ican ac o when con olling
o o he associa ions is whe he he a icle appea s in a supplemen o in he co e cul u e sec ion;
a icles on pop- ock appea much mo e equen ly in supplemen s han o he ypes o music.
Unadjus ed associa ions also show ha a icles on pop- ock appea mo e equen ly in he longes
cul u e sec ions, as well as in he o m o he longes a icles. All hese ea u es a e ypical o he
2000s when he e we e longe cul u e sec ions, longe a icles and mo e hema ic cul u al
supplemen s— hus, wi h he excep ion o supplemen , hese associa ions disappea when
con olling o he decade (model 3).
Figu e 1. The p opo ion o a icles on pop- ock ( ull line) e sus he p opo ion o a icles on
classical music (dashed line) o all a icles on music by yea , sepa a ely on each six newspape s
(pe cen ages).
19
Figu e 1 speci ies ou in e p e a ion o he in e ac ion be ween ime poin s and newspape s by
con as ing he ise o pop- ock wi h he decline o he p opo ion classical music a icles. This
allows us o inspec he momen s when pop- ock a icles ou numbe ed classical music a icles in
each newspape . The inc ease in he p e alence o pop- ock a icles has occu ed in di e en ways
ac oss he newspape s. This is expec ed, since p e ious esea ch also shows ha he “size and
iming o he shi s owa ds g ea e a en ion o popula music” (Schmu z 2009:305) has a ied
among coun ies, e en i he main end is clea . Howe e , he di e ences a e no en i ely simila o
ou expec a ions.
MIL seems o show he ea lies opening, ye , we should no e ha Wes e n classical music has ne e
had a simila s a us in Tu key as in o he Eu opean coun ies. Thus, we canno expec classical
music o ha e a ac ed mo e jou nalis ic a en ion in ea lie decades. The high and ola ile
p opo ion o pop- ock a icles is due o he ac ha he main ca ego y agains which pop- ock is
analyzed has been so ma ginal in Tu key. Only 16% o all a icles on music in MIL a e on classical
music, whils he p opo ion in all he da a is 44%. As o o he newspape s, DN and ABC/EP
in e es ingly u ned hei a en ion o pop- ock music ea lie han GU, HS, and LM. In he la e
g oup o newspape s, pop- ock does no begin o ou numbe classical music un il he 2000s.
4. Discussion
In his pape , we engaged wi h li e a u e ha sugges s a change in he ways cul u e and a s ha e
been classi ied and alued in ecen decades (DiMaggio 1987; Pe e son & Ke n 1996; Baumann
2007; Janssen e al. 2011). To empi ically explo e he he e ogeniza ion and opening o he con en
o legi ima e cul u e, and o ack ends in a longi udinal manne , we u ilized newspape da a. We
conside newspape cul u e sec ions as a aluable medium o achie ing his goal, especially when
se agains ou ocus on quali y newspape s, as much o he li e a u e is pa icula ly conce ned wi h
high s a us g oups’ as es and p ac ices (c . Janssen e al. 2011:159). Mo eo e , o decades p in
media has been a c ucial ins i u ion o cul u al media ion, capable o a ibu ing symbolic alue by
aming ce ain cul u al o ms as “cul u e” and “a s” when including hem sys ema ically in hei
cul u e sec ions and supplemen s.
Rega ding ou i s hypo hesis (H1a), we ind he inc ease in he co e age o eme gen cul u al
a eas o be e y mode a e. A icles on es ablished cul u al o ms (li e a u e, music, e c.) a e s ill he
backbone o he a s and cul u e con en o newspape s, despi e he p oli e a ion o cul u al o ms in
20
ecen yea s. Howe e , ilm and ele ision anked among he majo cul u al a eas, so hey seem o
ha e managed o c oss o e alida ion bounda ies (c . Baumann 2007; La ie & Dhoes 2015). In
con as , he la e pa o ou i s hypo hesis (H1b) is clea ly suppo ed, since a en ion o “pop-
ock” music (Rege 2013) has almos exponen ially inc eased, whe eas he co e age o classical
music is in sha p decline. This inding echoes Schmu z e al.’s (2010) analysis o he Uni ed S a es,
F ance, Ge many and he Ne he lands (see also Schmu z 2009). When e alua ed wi h his s udy, i
is easie o sugges ha he opening o cul u e ia he di e si ica ion o legi ima e musical gen es
esona es on a wide geog aphical le el ac oss Eu ope. To ecap, he mos s ongly es ablished a
o ms—like music—a e a om being in decline in cul u al sec ions, ye he e a e majo shi s in
he balance be ween adi ional highb ow cul u e and mo e popula o ms wi hin he well-
es ablished a s.
When in e p e ing hese indings, we mus emembe he na u e and con ex o ou esea ch objec :
Eu opean quali y newspape s and hei cul u e sec ions. These a e a kind o “home cou ” o
classical highb ow a s h ough which many people ollow he a s e en when hey lack in e es in
hem o he wise (c . Jaakkola 2015; Janssen e al. 2008, 2011). As such, i is pe haps no so
su p ising ha es ablished a o ms s ill domina e, ye music co e age’s ans o ma ion can be
conside ed e y d ama ic. Many o he a ious heo e ical pe spec i es on cul u al he e ogeniza ion
discussed in he in oduc ion o e po en ial in e p e a ions and concep ual ools o u he
in es iga ions o his si ua ion. The key ques ion, in line wi h deba es on eme ging o ms o cul u al
capi al and he legi ima ion p ocesses o popula cul u e, would ask, unde he ci cums ances o
inc eased he e ogenei y and, in music, e en he dominance o pop- ock, wha he majo hie a chies
a e and how hey a e a icula ed. Is i a ma e o ex ending he high-a c i e ia o e alua ion o he
sphe e o popula cul u e, o a e he e o he bases o making dis inc ions (c . Van Ven oiij &
Schmu z 2010; P ieu & Sa age 2013)? Fu he mo e, om he poin o iew o aes he ic
cosmopoli anism, wha a e he coun ies o o igin o he pop- ock music ha has appea ed on
cul u al pages o newspape s? How a e di e en coun ies o o igin ela ed o legi imacy and
hie a chies? And is he expansion o pop- ock eally a ma e o uni o m “global cul u e”, o has i
been domes ica ed di e en ly in di e en pa s o he wo ld (c . Rege 2013; Va iale 2016)?
Ques ions like hese ha e al eady gene a ed esea ch, bu mo e is s ill needed, and his pape ’s
bi d’s-eye iew o ends—as well as he da a se —migh be use ul o u he analyses. I is also
clea ha ou quan i a i e con en analysis is a om exhaus i e; a he , i maps he o e all ends
ha me i close a en ion and analysis. Thus, u u e esea ch also needs o employ quali a i e
app oaches o cla i y such ques ions.
21
While ou indings suppo ou second majo hypo hesis—ou selec ed Eu opean newspape s show
a iance in he iming and ho oughness o he opening o legi ima e cul u e— he manne in which
he newspape s di e ed was no o ally in acco dance wi h ou expec a ions (H2a–b). When he
e olu ion o he p opo ions o eme gen e sus es ablished a o ms o e ime is used as a p oxy
o cul u al opening, he newspape s in ou sample can be placed in he ollowing o de o
app oxima e openness: (1) ABC/EP, DN, (MIL); (2) LM; (3) GU; and (4) HS. Howe e , when he
be ween-gen e e olu ions wi hin an es ablished a o m—in his case, classical e sus pop- ock
music—is aken as a p oxy o cul u al opening, he o de is sligh ly di e en : (1) DN, (MIL); (2)
ABC/EP; (3) GU; and (4) LM, HS. In bo h cases, he posi ion o GU as a ela i e la ecome was
unexpec ed, since he UK is mo e cen ally posi ioned in he global sys em han o he coun ies in
he sample, i s media sys em is a guably mo e libe al, and i is no included among he coun ies
whe e s a e unding o he es ablished a s is high (H2a). In o he wo ds, a he han indica ing
socie y-le el dimensions, he esul ela es o he cha ac e is ics and posi ion o The Gua dian i sel .
Mo eo e , MIL can be anked in he i s ca ego y in bo h measu es, bu i s posi ion eally me i s
he b acke s; he jou nalis ic a en ion ha MIL shows o eme gen cul u al o ms and pop- ock
oday is no pa o a g adual opening p ocess, since Wes e n highb ow cul u e was ne e canonized
in Tu key (Belge 1996). Ra he , Tu key occupies a pe iphe al posi ion in he globaliza ion scale,
and he s a e’s a emp o Wes e nize i s cul u al sphe e ollowing he ounda ion o he secula
epublic was ne e e ec i e enough o heigh en es ablished a o ms.6 In ha sense, while MIL
appea s o be among he mos open case in ou sample, i demons a es he geog aphical and
cul u al limi s o he Wes e n cul u al canon a he han sugges ing a end owa ds cul u al
declassi ica ion. Thus, he main lesson aken om MIL in his s udy is ha , while MIL does no
show he same Eu opean ends e iden in o he newspape s, i can ne e heless be in e p e ed as
indi ec ly alida ing he esul s on he opening o legi ima e cul u e in o he Eu opean coun ies.
Taken oge he , ou esul s a e qui e di e gen when i comes o he h ee socie y-le el dimensions
discussed: he newspape ’s posi ion in he global cul u al sys em (Appadu ai 1996), media sys em
models (Hallin & Mancini 2004), and cul u al policy egimes (Looseley 2011). Fo ins ance,
Eu opean (and e en global) cen es o popula cul u e, such as he UK and F ance, ha e, in he
cases o GU and LM, a a he adi ional ou look on cul u e. In addi ion, Finland and Sweden,
simila coun ies bo h poli ically and policy-wise, show clea di e ences h ough DN and HS,
i espec i e o he ac ha bo h newspape s a e embedded in a simila cul u al policy egime and
democ a ic-co po a is media sys em. One may ask whe he he compa a i e media sys em model

22
app oach is ul ima ely a sui able amewo k in he case o hese kinds o “close” compa isons o
cul u e and a s co e age in quali y newspape s, as he model hea ily ocuses on media sys ems’
ins i u ional, legal, and poli ical dimensions (Hallin & Mancini 2004).
The da a ne e heless e lec some s uc u al simila i ies. Fo ins ance, he peculia poli ical his o y
o F ancois Spain could be aced h ough he cul u al co e age o ABC/EP, u ning apidly om a
conse a i e pe spec i e owa ds popula cul u e. Also, he di e ence be ween DN and HS—HS
( oge he wi h LM) ep esen ing he mos conse a i e newspape s in his sense and DN being
cha ac e ized by i s ea ly b eak h ough o pop- ock co e age—is again illus a i e. Though HS and
DN sha e simila media sys em models and cul u al policy egimes, he di e ence may be due o
Sweden’s mo e cen al posi ion in he global (and Eu opean) cul u al sys em, as expec ed (H2b).
Mo eo e , a he han being educed o any o he h ee socie y-le el dimensions conside ed, he
di e ence could be be e accoun ed o wi h ield-speci ic and ins i u ional ac o s. As o music,
Sweden has deepe oo s in he popula music indus y (Seab ook 2015), whe eas, in Finland’s ield
o music and gene al cul u e, he posi ion o classical music has been e y s ong h oughou he
wen ie h cen u y (Ko honen 2002). Fu he mo e, he di e ence migh be due o gene a ional
changes inside cul u al depa men s (Jaakkola 2015).
Thus, i is di icul o dema ca e he oles o ield-speci ic cha ac e is ics and socie y-le el
cha ac e is ics in he shaping o newspape s’ cul u al co e age. I may be emp ing o o e es ima e
he ole o he la e , whe eas he o ganiza ional o ield-le el ac o s may sound ele an only when
he esul s a e no in line wi h socie y-le el expec a ions. Pe haps no su p isingly, p e ious s udies
by Janssen e al. (2011) and Schmu z e al. (2010) iden i y he same issue. Janssen e al. show ha
shi s om highb ow o popula cul u al co e age in Eu opean newspape s we e no en i ely
consis en wi h socie y-le el ac o s. They conclude ha he “‘popula iza ion’ o a s jou nalism
may be p ima ily associa ed wi h ield-le el a he han socie y-le el ac o s” (2011:160). We can
only wholehea edly concu , while also ag eeing wi h Schmu z e al. ha “ he e is conside able
a ia ion in he cul u al hie a chies o he [ ou ] coun ies, e en hough he o e a ching end has
been owa ds mo e ‘gene al alida ion’ o popula music as indica ed by i s inclusion in he pages
o eli e newspape s” (2010:507).
O e all, we see ha newspape s a e a good sou ce o s udying shi s in cul u al legi imacy and
hie a chies, while di e en ex a-cul u al con ex s (whe he socio-cul u al, his o ical, policy ela ed,
o ganiza ional, o simply he esul s o edi o ial decisions) also play a ole in wha newspape s
23
legi imize and p esen as a and cul u e. The pa adox o such da a is pe haps his: on he one hand,
newspape cul u e sec ions a e sensi i e o di e en ypes o ends and changes in how cul u e is
alued and e alua ed (which is he eason o s udy cul u e sec ions in he i s place); ye , his
sensi i i y can simul aneously lead o muddled esul s i he e a e la ge-scale and apid
ans o ma ions occu ing in he newspape s’ socio-poli ical en i onmen s. On he o he hand, he
en i e p emise o s udying cul u al change h ough newspape cul u e sec ions es s on he idea ha
he s a us and he ole o newspape s as ins i u ions a e ela i ely s able. O he wise, i would be
impossible o use newspape s as a ixed poin o depa u e enabling he in es iga ion o la ge, long-
e m p ocesses ha a e o in e es o cul u al sociologis s, such as he de-hie a chiza ion,
popula iza ion, and globaliza ion o cul u e (c . Baumann 2007; Janssen e al. 2008; Fishman &
Liza do 2013). The case o Tu kish MIL exempli ies he social sensi i i y o he newspape da a in
he i s sense, whe eas he o he newspape s ep esen he ela i e s abili y o he ins i u ion,
allowing us o show how he opening and expansion o he sphe e o legi ima e cul u e has aken
place in di e en pa s o Eu ope since he 1960s.
Endno es
1 In he las ew yea s, he In e ne and o he digi al de ices ha e become signi ican compe i o s o
adi ional p in newspape s (McChesney 2011). I is ye unknown wha his means o newspape s’
and adi ional c i ics’ au ho i y as cul u al media o s (Ve boo d 2010). This new si ua ion
ob iously a ec s ou da a, albei only ega ding he las yea (2010) in ou sample.
2 The da a we e collec ed as pa o a la ge esea ch p ojec aiming o analyze he changing
ela ionship be ween cul u al and social s a i ica ion in pos -1960s Eu ope (Pu honen, 2012;
Pu honen e al., 2015).
3 Following a ca e ul planning o he coding sys em, he da a we e coded (by ele en code s
al oge he ) be ween 2014 and 2015. Be o e he inal coding p ocedu e, a p elimina y, mo e
es ic ed coding sys em was es ablished and es ed on GU and HS using only h ee sample yea s
(Pu honen e al., 2015).
4 Because an a icle may include a discussion on mul iple cul u al a eas, he coding sys em de ined
he “p ima y cul u al a ea” o he a icle as he cul u al a ea men ioned i s , p e e ably deducible
om he headline (o simila ) o he a icle i sel .
24
5 I ime poin s had been used as a ca ego ical a iable, i would ha e esul ed in oo many
in e ac ion e ms o be easonably epo ed.
6 The inding ega ding he ise o eme gen cul u al o ms can also ela e o he peculia posi ion o
MIL in he Tu kish media ield (Adakli 2009). MIL was known o lean in o he social democ a ic
adi ion un il i was bough by a majo indus ial conglome a e in Tu key in he 1980s, which led o
a change in he pape ’s publishing s yle. Mo eo e , he business g oup ha bough MIL es ablished
a TV channel in 1993, which has become one o he mos popula p i a e channels in Tu key. I is
likely ha an impo an po ion o he pape ’s d ama ic inc ease in TV a icles s ems om he
economic ield’s monopoly o e media and cul u al jou nalism.
Acknowledgemen s
This is a e ised e sion o a pape p esen ed a he annual mee ing o he Ame ican Sociological
Associa ion ( egula session o he Cul u e Sec ion), Sea le, USA, 20–23 Augus 2016, and a some
o he semina s and mee ings. We a e g a e ul o all hose who commen ed on he ea lie e sions o
he manusc ip , especially Clay on Child ess, Philippe Coulangeon, Jukka G onow, Susanne
Janssen, Tina Lau onen, Ca los J. Fe nández Rod íguez, Ma c Ve boo d, Alan Wa de and Da id
W igh . The esea ch ca ied ou in his s udy has been made possible by he inancial suppo om
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