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Lea ning o Cycle : A C oss-Cul u al and C oss-Gene a ional Compa ison
© 2022 he Au ho s
Published e sion
Co do il, Ri a; Me cê, C is iana; B anco, Ma co; Lopes, F ede ico; Ca ela, Da id;
Hasanen, Elina; Laukkanen, A o; To ella, Pa izia; Fumagalli, Guido; Sá, C is ina;
Jido se , Bo is; Zeuw s, Linus; De Mees e , An; Ba did, Fa id; Fujikawa, Rica do;
Veldman, Sanne; Zla a , Sil ija; Es e an, Isaac
Co do il, R., Me cê, C., B anco, M., Lopes, F., Ca ela, D., Hasanen, E., Laukkanen, A., To ella, P.,
Fumagalli, G., Sá, C., Jido se , B., Zeuw s, L., De Mees e , A., Ba did, F., Fujikawa, R., Veldman,
S., Zla a , S., & Es e an, I. (2022). Lea ning o Cycle : A C oss-Cul u al and C oss-Gene a ional
Compa ison. F on ie s in public heal h, 10, A icle 861390.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3389/ pubh.2022.861390
2022
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 28 Ap il 2022
doi: 10.3389/ pubh.2022.861390
F on ie s in Public Heal h | www. on ie sin.o g 1Ap il 2022 | Volume 10 | A icle 861390
Edi ed by:
Paul Kelly,
Uni e si y o Edinbu gh,
Uni ed Kingdom
Re iewed by:
Sol eig No dengen,
Wes e n No way Uni e si y o Applied
Sciences, No way
Maa en K oesen,
Del Uni e si y o
Technology, Ne he lands
*Co espondence:
Ri a Co do il
[email p o ec ed]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Child en and Heal h,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Public Heal h
Recei ed: 24 Janua y 2022
Accep ed: 05 Ap il 2022
Published: 28 Ap il 2022
Ci a ion:
Co do il R, Me cê C, B anco M,
Lopes F, Ca ela D, Hasanen E,
Laukkanen A, To ella P, Fumagalli G,
Sá C, Jido se B, Zeuw s L, De
Mees e A, Ba did F, Fujikawa R,
Veldman S, Zla a S and Es e an I
(2022) Lea ning o Cycle: A
C oss-Cul u al and
C oss-Gene a ional Compa ison.
F on . Public Heal h 10:861390.
doi: 10.3389/ pubh.2022.861390
Lea ning o Cycle: A C oss-Cul u al
and C oss-Gene a ional Compa ison
Ri a Co do il1*, C is iana Me cê1,2, Ma co B anco 1,2, F ede ico Lopes3, Da id Ca ela4,
Elina Hasanen5, A o Laukkanen5, Pa izia To ella 6, Guido Fumagalli 7, C is ina Sá 8,
Bo is Jido se 9, Linus Zeuw s10, An De Mees e 11, Fa id Ba did12, Rica do Fujikawa 13,
Sanne Veldman 14,15, Sil ija Zla a 16 and Isaac Es e an 17
1Cen o In e disciplina de Es udo da Pe o mance Humana, Faculdade de Mo icidade Humana, Uni e sidade de Lisboa,
Lisbon, Po ugal, 2Depa amen o de A i idade Física e Saúde, Escola Supe io de Despo o de Rio Maio , Ins i u o
Poli écnico de San a ém, Rio Maio , Po ugal, 3Depa amen o de Despo o e Saúde, Faculdade de Mo icidade Humana,
Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Po ugal, 4Cen o de In es igação em Qualidade de Vida, Escola Supe io de Despo o de
Rio Maio , Ins i u o Poli écnico de San a ém, Rio Maio , Po ugal, 5Facul y o Spo and Heal h Sciences, Uni e si y o
Jy äskylä, Jy äskylä, Finland, 6Depa men o A , Music and Mo emen , Facul y o Educa ion, F ee Uni e si y o Bolzano,
Bolzano, I aly, 7Depa men o Diagnos ics and Public Heal h, Cen e o Resea ch on Mo o De elopmen in In ancy,
Uni e si y o Ve ona, Ve ona, I aly, 8Depa amen o de Ciências Do Mo imen o Humano, Uni e sidade Fede al de São Paulo,
San os, B azil, 9Resea ch Uni o a Li e-Cou se Pe spec i e on Heal h and Educa ion, Uni e si y o Liège, Liège, Belgium,
10 Depa men o Mo emen and Spo Sciences, Ghen Uni e si y, Ghen , Belgium, 11 Depa men o Physical Educa ion,
Uni e si y o Sou h Ca olina, Columbia, SC, Uni ed S a es, 12 School o Educa ion, Uni e si y o S a hclyde, Glasgow,
Uni ed Kingdom, 13 Real Cen o Uni e si a io Esco ial Ma ia C is ina, Mad id College o Chi op ac ic, Mad id, Spain,
14 Depa men o Public and Occupa ional Heal h, Ams e dam Public Heal h Resea ch Ins i u e, Ams e dam Uni e si y
Medical Cen e (Ams e dam UMC), V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam, Ams e dam, Ne he lands, 15 Heal h Beha iou and Ch onic
Diseases and Me hodology, Ams e dam Public Heal h, Ams e dam, Ne he lands, 16 Kinde ga en Ma ije Gupca, Zag eb,
C oa ia, 17 AFIPS Resea ch G oup, RIIDASS Ne wo k, Depa men o Teaching o Music, Visual and Co po al Exp ession,
Uni e si y o Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Backg ound: Lea ning o cycle is an impo an miles one o child en, bu he popula i y
o cycling and he en i onmen al ac o s ha p omo e he de elopmen and p ac ice o
his ounda ional mo emen skill a y among cul u es and ac oss ime. This p esen s udy
aimed o in es iga e i coun y o esidence and he gene a ion in which a pe son was
bo n in luence he age a which people lea n o cycle.
Me hods: Da a we e collec ed h ough an online su ey be ween No embe 2019
and Decembe 2020. Fo his s udy, a o al o 9,589 esponses we e ob ained o
adul s (sel - epo ) and child en (pa en al epo ) li ing in 10 coun ies (Po ugal, I aly,
B azil, Finland, Spain, Belgium, Uni ed Kingdom, Mexico, C oa ia, and he Ne he lands).
Pa icipan s we e g ouped acco ding o hei yea o bi h wi h 20-yea pe iods
app oxima ely co esponding o 3 gene a ions: 1960–79 (gene a ion X; n=2,214);
1980–99 (gene a ion Y; n=3,994); 2000–2019 (gene a ion Z; n=3,381).
Resul s: A wo-way ANOVA showed a signi ican e ec o coun y, F(9,8628)
=90.17, p<0.001, η2
p=0.086, and gene a ion, F(2,8628) =47.21, p<
0.001, η2
p=0.122, on he age a which indi iduals lea n o cycle. Coun ies
wi h he lowes lea ning age we e he Ne he lands, Finland and Belgium and
coun ies wi h he highes lea ning age we e B azil and Mexico. Fu he mo e,
he age a which one lea ns o cycle has dec eased ac oss gene a ions. The e
was also a signi ican coun y x gene a ion in e ac ion e ec on lea ning age,
F(18,8628) =2.90, p<0.001; howe e , his e ec was negligible (η2
p=0.006).
Co do il e al. Lea ning o Cycle
Conclusions: These indings suppo he socio-ecological pe spec i e ha lea ning o
cycle is a p ocess a ec ed by bo h p oximal and dis al in luences, including indi idual,
en i onmen and ime.
Keywo ds: cycling, coun y, gene a ion, ac i e a el, child en
INTRODUCTION
Lea ning o cycle is an impo an miles one in childhood ha
has impo an implica ions o u u e li e (1,2). Ac oss many
cul u es, he use o bicycles is he i s pe sonal ac i e a eling
beha io o child en o ex end hei e i o ial scope, anging
om home o school and o he meaning ul places (3–6). Being
able o cycle ex ends child en’s possibili ies o ac i ely play
ou doo s and inc eases hei au onomy, allowing o independen
a el a longe dis ances and highe speeds han walking (7).
Cycling is conside ed o be a ounda ional mo emen skill, since
i impac s an indi idual’s capabili y o be physically ac i e and
can p omo e physical ac i i y and heal h ac oss he li espan (8).
Mo eo e , cycling is associa ed wi h ex ensi e heal h, economic
and en i onmen al bene i s (9,10). In some con empo a y ci ies,
as people s a aluing sus ainabili y and belie ing ha he ca ’s
liabili ies ou weigh i s bene i s, he bicycle has eme ged as an
al e na i e o he ca , mainly o commu ing (11,12). Cycling
as a means o ac i ely commu e, has se e al posi i e heal h
implica ions such as enhancemen o ca dio espi a o y i ness
(13). Addi ionally, bicycles a e a non-pollu ing (o low-pollu ing
in he case o elec ic bicycles), highly ene gy-e icien mode
o ac i e and sus ainable anspo . As such, cycling can be
conside ed cen al o di e en sus ainable de elopmen goals
ou lined by he Uni ed Na ions, including p omo ing heal hy
li es and well-being o all and making ci ies and communi ies
inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable (14).
Al hough he bene i s o cycling a e highly ecognized,
he popula i y o cycling among people, as well as he
s a us o cycling in anspo in as uc u e and policy, ha e
a ied ac oss ime and cul u es (15–18). This has po en ially
in luenced he impo ance placed on lea ning o cycle in di e en
coun ies ac oss di e en gene a ions. The in luence o ime
and cul u e in he p ocess o lea ning o cycle can be amed
by B on enb enne ’s bioecological heo y (19). This heo y
s a es ha de elopmen occu s h ough an e ol ing p ocess o
ecip ocal in e ac ions be ween he pe son and mul idimensional
le els o he en i onmen . Speci ically, B on enb enne ’s P ocess-
Pe son-Con ex -Time (PPCT) model can be used o heo e ically
desc ibe he p ocess o lea ning o cycle. Lea ning o cycle can be
seen as a p oximal p ocess ha is dependen on he ecip ocal
in e ac ion be ween he pe son and he en i onmen , which
occu s on a ai ly egula basis o e an ex ended pe iod o ime
(19,20). F om his pe spec i e, he indi iduals who each he
child o cycle as well as he bicycle i sel a e impo an elemen s
o he immedia e en i onmen wi h which he child in e ac s
egula ly du ing he lea ning p ocess.
Acco ding o he PPCT model, he p ocess o lea ning o cycle
will also be in luenced by he pe sonal cha ac e is ics o he child
who is lea ning (e.g., age, skill le el o mo i a ion). Each child will
lea n a a di e en pace. This indi idual lea ning p ocess is also
impac ed by he child’s en i onmen , in ol ing ou in e ela ed
sys ems, om p oximal o dis al: (a) he mic osys em, (b)
he mesosys em, (c) he exosys em and (d) he mac osys em.
The mic osys em e e s o he en i onmen s whe e ace- o- ace
in e ac ions occu , such as he child’s home, school, o pee g oup.
I people in hese mic osys ems (e.g., pa en /ca egi e ) alue
cycling and o e he child oppo uni ies o egula ly p ac ice
cycling, he lea ning p ocess is enhanced (21). The mesosys em
e e s o he in e ac ions be ween di e en mic osys ems (e.g.,
amily- and pee ela ionships). The exosys em e e s o he
con ex s ha ha e an indi ec in luence on a child’s de elopmen ,
e en hough he child is no an ac i e pa icipan in hese con ex s
(e.g., pa en s’ wo k con ex ). Finally, he mac osys em e e s o
he social and cul u al con ex in which he child is imme sed,
wi h i s se o alues and adi ions. I , in a gi en cul u e, cycling
is alued and bicycle- iendly in as uc u es (e.g., bike lanes, sa e
pa hs) allowing child en o cycle sa ely a e a ailable, i is expec ed
ha mo e child en will use hei bicycles o a el o school o
o hang ou wi h iends han when hose condi ions a e no
p esen (22). The inal concep o he PPCT model is ime. Time is
ela ed o he ch onosys em, which consis s o he socio-his o ical
con ex he child li es in, as well as he changes ha occu o e
he child’s li e cou se. Fo example, he impo ance gi en o
cycling and ac i e anspo a ion has changed ac oss di e en
gene a ions (15,23) as well as he ype o bicycles a ailable o
lea ning (15,24). E en wi hin he same gene a ion, he a e age
age a which child en a e gi en hei i s bicycle could a y and
his will in luence he lea ning p ocess (19,20).
The social, cul u al and geog aphic in luence on he
de elopmen o ounda ional mo emen skills is also conside ed
in he li elong physical ac i i y model p oposed by Hul een
e al. (8). The au ho s sugges ha ounda ional mo emen skills,
such as cycling, should be iewed h ough a “socio-cul u al and
geog aphical” il e . Tha is, he impo ance placed on lea ning
ce ain skills will a y ac oss di e en cul u es and geog aphic
loca ions (i.e., coun ies, egions). As such, cycling may be
conside ed a mo e impo an ounda ional skill in coun ies
whe e cycling is highly alued, compa ed o coun ies whe e a
cycling cul u e is less p esen (23,25,26). Fo ins ance, in he
Ne he lands cycling is equen ly used o commu e om home
o school o wo k and lea ning o cycle is an impo an i s s ep
o main ain heal h-enhancing physical ac i i y habi s ac oss he
li espan; howe e , in o he coun ies (e.g., B azil), lea ning how o
play socce is cul u ally conside ed as a be e way o ul ill ha
pu pose. Lea ning a ounda ional mo emen skill—a esul o a
simul aneously p oximal and dis al p ocess—needs o be amed
by i s cul u al geog aphy. Tha is, whe e cycling is conside ed
F on ie s in Public Heal h | www. on ie sin.o g 2Ap il 2022 | Volume 10 | A icle 861390
Co do il e al. Lea ning o Cycle
a socially alued a el mode, also enabled by bicycle– iendly
u ban planning, i can help inc ease he pe cei ed impo ance
o lea ning and de eloping such a ounda ional skill. As no ed
by Hul een e al. (8), hese cul u al cons ain s can in luence he
iming and onse o cycling.
The adop ion o B on enb enne ’s bioecological heo y (1995)
and Hul een and colleagues’ concep ual model o physical ac i i y
ac oss he li espan (2018) p o ides a comp ehensi e app oach
o unde s anding he p ocess ha enables a child o lea n o
cycle. In he p esen s udy, we ocus speci ically on s udying
he in luence o he mac osys em and he ch onosys em in
he lea ning p ocess. Mo e speci ically, an in e na ional online
su ey was c ea ed o in es iga e he associa ion o (1) he
coun y o esidence (mac osys em), and (2) he his o ical ime o
gene a ion in which a pe son was bo n (ch onosys em) in he age
o lea ning how o au onomously cycle (wi h pedals and wi hou
aining wheels). I was hypo hesized ha he age o lea ning how
o cycle would di e ac oss geog aphical loca ions o esidence
and gene a ion o bi h (8,20).
METHODS
Su ey
The in e na ional p ojec L2Cycle (Lea ning o Cycle) aims o
assess di e en aspec s ela ed o he p ocess o lea ning o cycle
in di e en coun ies (e.g., lea ning age, lea ning pa hs, ype o
bicycles used, people in ol ed in he lea ning p ocess). Fo his
pu pose, a su ey was c ea ed on LimeSu ey and i was hos ed
a he Facul y o Human Kine ics (Uni e si y o Lisbon) se e .
The su ey was app o ed by he Facul y o Human Kine ics
e hics commi ee (p ocess numbe 22/2019), launched online
on No embe 22, 2019 and publicized h ough social media
(Facebook, Ins ag am, Twi e and Wha sApp), and by email.
In addi ion, pa ne ships wi h cycling ede a ions, child en’s and
pa en s’ magazines and non-p o i cycling o ganiza ions we e
es ablished in di e en coun ies o dissemina ion on hei
websi es and in pape magazines. Da a o he cu en s udy we e
collec ed be ween No embe 22, 2019 and Decembe 2, 2020.
A a i s s age, an ini ial e sion o he su ey was de eloped
by a g oup o ou expe s in child de elopmen and was es ed
online among 485 pa icipan s. A sub-sample o 30 pa icipan s
was addi ionally asked abou he comp ehension o he su ey.
Adjus men s we e made acco dingly (e.g., dele ing ques ions
ela ed o age o achie ing ce ain mo o miles ones, and some
ques ions we e e o mula ed e ining ques ions o imp o e
cla i y). A a second s age, he su ey was discussed wi h a g oup
o i e in e na ional expe s who p o ided u he sugges ions
(e.g., adding ques ions ega ding mo he language and di e en
seasons o he yea ). Finally, he su ey was ansla ed in o 10
di e en languages [Po uguese (Po ugal and B azil), English,
Ge man, C oa ian, Finnish, F ench, Du ch, I alian, Japanese and
Spanish], by expe s on mo o beha io o mo o de elopmen ,
and alida ed by coun y speci ic na i e speake s.
The inal o m o he su ey ook app oxima ely 5 o 15min
o comple e (depending on he numbe o child en), could be
answe ed anonymously, and comp ised h ee sec ions:
1. “Abou you”-Ques ions abou he pa icipan ’s own cycle
expe ience and biog aphical da a (e.g., place o esidence, age,
sex, physical ac i i y habi s, i hey know how o cycle, i no –why
no , i yes-when did hey lea n how o cycle, wha ypes o bicycles
we e used and in wha sequence, whe e did hey lea n, who augh
hem, how o en do hey cycle, wha do hey use i o ).
2. “Abou you oldes child” ( o be comple ed only i he
pa icipan has a leas one child)-These ques ions a e he same
as he ques ions in he i s g oup bu ega ding he pa icipan ’s
oldes child.
3. “Abou you younges child” ( o be comple ed only i
he pa icipan has mo e han one child)-These ques ions a e
he same as he ques ions in he i s g oup bu ega ding he
pa icipan ’s younges child.
Sample
A o al o 10,640 esponses ega ding adul s and child en
(pa en al esponses) li ing in 29 coun ies we e comple ed
online. Fo he pu pose o his s udy, only coun ies wi h mo e
han 80 esponses we e conside ed. This numbe was based
on a sample size calcula ion pe o med using he G ∗Powe
3.1.7 So wa e (Uni e si ä Düsseldo , Ge many), conside ing
he analysis o a iance (Ano a–one way), o a powe o 0.8,
alpha signi icance le el ≤0.05, and es ima ed e ec size o 0.25
(minimum di e ence o be de ec ed =2.05 and es ima ed SD =
10). In o de o analyze di e ences in ea lies independen cycling
age ac oss gene a ions, pa icipan s we e g ouped acco ding o
hei yea o bi h conside ing 20-yea pe iods ha oughly
co espond o 3 gene a ions: 1960–79 (gene a ion X; n=2,214;
1980–99 (gene a ion Y, o he millennials; n=3,994); 2000–2019
(gene a ion Z; n=3,381). Responses ega ding child en bo n in
2020 ( oo young o be able o ide a bicycle) o adul s bo n be o e
1960 - a limi ed numbe in many coun ies-we e no included in
his s udy. Desc ip i e da a o he pa icipan s included in his
s udy is p esen ed in Table 1.
S a is ical Analysis
Desc ip i e s a is ics and equency analysis we e used o
cha ac e ize he inal sample. Fo he subsequen analysis, a wo-
way ANOVA was pe o med o in es iga e he e ec s o coun y
o esidence ( en coun ies), gene a ion ( h ee gene a ions), and
he in e ac ion be ween coun y and gene a ion, on he age a
which indi iduals lea ned o cycle independen ly (i.e., iding a
adi ional bicycle wi h pedals and wi hou aining wheels). Due
o non-homogenei y o a iances, unequal N HSD pos hoc es s
we e used o u he in es iga e signi ican in e ac ion and main
e ec s. The signi icance le el was se a 0.05.
RESULTS
Lea ning Age Ac oss Coun ies
The coun y o esidence signi ican ly in luences he age a
which one lea ns how o cycle independen ly wi h pedals and
wi hou aining wheels, F(9,8628) =90.17, p<0.001, η2
p=
0.086. Signi ican di e ences we e ound in lea ning age among
mos coun ies (Figu e 1). Mo e speci ically, ou indings show
di e en “lea ning age-geog aphical” landscapes.
In he Ne he lands and Finland, lea ning age was signi ican ly
lowe han in all o he coun ies, excep o Belgium (no
signi ican di e ences). In Belgium, lea ning age was signi ican ly
F on ie s in Public Heal h | www. on ie sin.o g 3Ap il 2022 | Volume 10 | A icle 861390
Co do il e al. Lea ning o Cycle
TABLE 1 | Sample dis ibu ion (n), means and s anda d de ia ions o age (yea s), sex dis ibu ion (%), and equency o people who know how o ide a bicycle (%) in he
sample o s udy.
Coun y nAge (yea s) Sex (%) Able o cycle (%)
To al Gen X Gen Y Gen Z M (SD) Female Male No Yes
Po ugal 2,386 562 828 996 26.05 (15.36) 57.4 42.6 12.5 87.5
I aly 1,585 370 714 501 27.60 (14.88) 64.7 35.3 9.0 91.0
B azil 1,455 381 650 424 29.06 (14.91) 64.2 35.8 13.1 86.9
Finland 906 240 367 299 28.82 (16.00) 56.0 44.0 5.0 95.0
Spain 884 153 381 350 25.77 (14.77) 49.4 50.6 9.3 90.7
Belgium 703 240 223 340 24.40 (16.15) 56.8 43.2 7.8 92.2
UK 630 239 265 126 34.17 (15.03) 49.4 50.6 3.5 96.5
Mexico 552 43 318 191 23.69 (8.72) 62.4 37.6 12.1 87.9
C oa ia 369 71 180 118 26.31 (14.12) 65.3 34.7 7.0 93.0
Ne he lands 119 15 68 36 27.38 (13.01) 68.9 31.1 2.5 97.5
To al 9,589 2,214 3,994 3,381 27.30 (15.07) 58.9 41.1 9.7 90.3
FIGURE 1 | Mean age o lea n how o cycle independen ly by coun y. E o ba s ep esen 95% CI.
lowe han in he o he coun ies, excep o he Ne he lands,
Finland and I aly (no signi ican di e ences). In I aly, lea ning
age was signi ican ly highe han in he Ne he lands and Finland,
and signi ican ly lowe han in all o he coun ies; i was
no signi ican ly di e en han in Belgium, UK and C oa ia.
In he UK, lea ning age was signi ican ly highe han in he
Ne he lands, Finland and Belgium, and signi ican ly lowe han
in Po ugal, B azil and Mexico, bu no signi ican ly di e en
han in I aly, Spain and C oa ia. In C oa ia, lea ning age
was signi ican ly highe han in he Ne he lands, Finland and
Belgium, and signi ican ly lowe han in B azil and Mexico, bu
no signi ican ly di e en han in I aly, UK, Spain and Po ugal.
In Spain, lea ning age was signi ican ly highe han in he
Ne he lands, Finland, Belgium and I aly, and signi ican ly lowe
han in B azil and Mexico, bu no signi ican ly di e en han
in he UK, C oa ia and Po ugal. In Po ugal lea ning age was
signi ican ly highe han in he Ne he lands, Finland, Belgium,
I aly and UK, and signi ican ly lowe han in B azil and Mexico,
bu no signi ican ly di e en han in C oa ia and Spain. In B azil
and Mexico, lea ning age was signi ican ly highe han in all
o he coun ies.
Lea ning Age O e Gene a ions
The e was a signi ican main e ec o gene a ion on he age a
which a pe son lea ns o cycle, F(2,8,628) =47.21, p<0.001,
η2
p=0.122. As shown in Figu e 2, he lea ning age was lowe
in younge gene a ions. Pos hoc analysis showed he e we e
signi ican di e ences in lea ning age be ween all gene a ions.
Speci ically, Gene a ion X (i.e., bo n in 1960–79) lea ned o cycle
independen ly a a la e age compa ed o Gene a ion Y (i.e.,
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Co do il e al. Lea ning o Cycle
FIGURE 2 | Mean age o lea n how o cycle independen ly by gene a ion. E o ba s ep esen 95% CI.
bo n in 1980–99) (p<0.001), as did Gene a ion Y compa ed o
Gene a ion Z (i.e., bo n in 2000-19) (p<0.001).
Lea ning Age by Gene a ion and Coun y
The e was a signi ican gene a ion x coun y in e ac ion e ec on
lea ning age, F(18,8,628) =2.90, p<0.001. Gene a ional changes
di e ed sligh ly among coun ies wi h he decline in lea ning
age being less e iden in coun ies in which he lea ning age has
been consis en ly low ac oss gene a ions (e.g., he Ne he lands;
see Figu e 3), bu he in e ac ion e ec size was negligible (η2
p
=0.006). The lea ning age o independen cycling is gene ally
lowe in la e gene a ions in all coun ies, and coun ies gene ally
main ained hei ank ela i e o he o he s ac oss ime.
DISCUSSION
In he p esen s udy we con i med he hypo hesized in luence
ha he mac osys em and he ch onosys em ha e on he age o
lea ning o cycle (20). Resul s indica ed ha age o lea n how
o cycle di e s ac oss geog aphical loca ions o esidence and
he gene a ion o bi h, as discussed in g ea e de ail in he
nex sec ions.
Lea ning Age in Di e en Coun ies
Based on he esul s o he p esen s udy, we can di ide he
pa icipa ing coun ies in h ee main g oups acco ding o he
age a which child en lea n o cycle independen ly: g oup 1 ( he
Ne he lands, Finland and Belgium), g oup 2 (I aly, UK, C oa ia,
Spain and Po ugal), and G oup 3 (B azil and Mexico).
These g oup di e ences sugges he e a e geog aphical, social,
cul u al and poli ical aspec s unde lying he s a us o ac i e a el
and cycling in di e en coun ies. These aspec s a e linked o
spa ial p ope ies and ea u es wi hin he buil en i onmen ,
which make he places o child en o lea n how o cycle mo e
o less in i ing (27). The g oups and he o de o he coun ies
wi hin each g oup in ou s udy also seem o e lec he cycling
modal sha e in each coun y. Eu opean epo s and s a is ics
(28,29) indica e ha wi hin Eu ope, he sha e o cycling as
a a el mode a ies be ween 27.0% in he Ne he lands and
0.5% in Po ugal. The o de o he Eu opean coun ies in he
cycling modal sha e s a is ics is he same as in ou esul s (excep
o C oa ia o which he e was no in o ma ion on he modal
sha e). The La in Ame ican coun ies a e also known o ha e
low le els o cycling modal sha e (26,30). In ac , Goel e al.
(26) s udied cycling beha io in 17 coun ies ac oss six con inen s
and concluded ha among he s udied coun ies, he Ne he lands
had he highes le el o cycling modal sha e (26.8%) and B azil
had he lowes (0.8 %) (Mexico was no included in he s udy).
Thus, i seems ha in coun ies wi h a highe cycling modal sha e,
child en end o lea n o cycle ea lie han in coun ies whe e
cycling is less popula .
In g oup 1 ( he Ne he lands, Finland and Belgium), measu es
o ac i e anspo a ion and en i onmen al sus ainabili y seem
o be mo e a he hea o poli ical conce ns han in he o he
wo g oups, and he e o e mo e embedded wi hin he socio-
cul u al issue. No he n Eu opean coun ies seem o be leading
ini ia i es o ansi ion om mo o ized ehicle anspo o
ac i e a el, e.g., Finland has se goals o inc ease cycling and
walking by 30% in 2030 (31) and o become ca bon neu al by
2035 (32). Con e sely, in Sou he n Eu opean o La in Ame ican
coun ies such ini ia i es a e only now s a ing o eme ge, which
migh explain why child en in hese coun ies lea n o cycle a a
la e age.
Among all pa icipa ing coun ies in his s udy, Ne he lands,
Finland and Belgium ha e he highes g oss domes ic p oduc
(GDP) pe capi a (33). This indica es ha amilies in hese
coun ies may be mo e likely o own bicycles, which in u n
p o ides mo e oppo uni ies o child en o lea n and p ac ice
o cycle. The Global Ma ix o Physical Ac i i y Repo Ca ds
(34,35) show ha he Ne he lands and Finland pe o m be e
on ac i e anspo a ion compa ed o o he coun ies in he
p esen s udy. In he Ne he lands, cycling has been embedded
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Co do il e al. Lea ning o Cycle
FIGURE 3 | Mean age o lea n how o cycle independen ly by gene a ion and coun y. E o ba s ep esen 95% CI.
in he cul u e o o e 100 yea s, ha ing been p omo ed as a
decen and sa e mode o anspo o ’good ci ilians’ since ea ly
1900 (36). Finland’s ac i e anspo a ion among child en and
you h is anked as he second highes compa ed o he o he
coun ies in he p esen s udy. Ac i e anspo a ion among
child en is closely linked o child en’s independen mobili y
(CIM), which is p ominen in Finland (37). Fu he mo e, CIM
and ac i e anspo a ion a e bo h dependen on communi y
and buil en i onmen (37), an issue which also sepa a es he
Ne he lands and Finland om he o he coun ies o he p esen
s udy. Child en and you h li ing in he Ne he lands, Finland,
and Belgium sha e good esul s ega ding he oppo uni ies o
ac i e play (34). Ac i e play, especially i pe o med ou doo s,
is associa ed wi h g ea e mode a e- o- igo ous physical ac i i y
and lowe seden a y le els (38), hus con ibu ing o he
de elopmen o a be e mo o compe ence (39). I is also wo h
no ing ha ou doo play is common in Finnish child en’s daily
li e a home and in ea ly childhood educa ion se ings (40), and
he snowy and icy win e mon hs o e addi ional s imuli o
mo o lea ning.
Belgium is he coun y wi h he highes lea ning age in
g oup 1, p esen ing non-signi ican di e ences wi h I aly (i.e.,
he i s coun y in g oup 2). Belgian esponden s on a e age
lea ned o cycle a ound he age o i e. The cu en esul s,
he e o e, con i m he indings o p e ious s udies ega ding
he de elopmen o cycling skills in Flemish child en (i.e.,
child en li ing in he no he n egion o Belgium) (41,42).
Belgian child en ypically mas e iding a bike when p og essing
om kinde ga en o p ima y school, al hough some egional
di e ences exis .
Resul s ound in g oup 2 (I aly, he UK, C oa ia, Spain
and Po ugal) e lec a lowe le el o poli ical commi men
and in es men owa d ac i e anspo a ion, en i onmen al
sus ainabili y and child- iendly policies among hese coun ies.
A clea example ela ed o iding a bike as a cul u al and
in insically in eg a ed aspec o ci izen’s li es is ac i e anspo
in u ban en i onmen s, which is also linked o CIM. Findings
om he in e na ional s udy on CIM ac oss 16 coun ies (37)
e ealed ha England occupies he 7 h posi ion, while Po ugal
and I aly sha e he 14 h posi ion, as he coun ies in Eu ope wi h
lowe le els o CIM licenses. Al hough I aly sha es he 14 h place
wi h Po ugal in he Eu opean CIM ank, he bicycle cul u e
seems o be mo e embedded in I aly whe e child en lea n o ide a
bicycle ea lie han in Po ugal. Be ween 1800 and 1900 I aly was
essen ially an ag icul u al coun y and he mos popula spo
was cycling, which was conside ed a “symbol o p og ess”. Now
he bicycle is he mos economical way o anspo . ISTAT da a
om 2015 (43) showed ha he bicycle was used by only 3.6% o
he popula ion and ha cycling has inc eased une enly on I alian
e i o y. In C oa ia, abou 5% o all ips a e made by bicycle and
cycling is he leas popula me hod o a el o going o wo k
o o school (44). In Spain, only a ound 1.5% o child en and
3% o adul s cycle daily (45–48) and cycling is s ill classi ied as
eme ging (45). Po ugal is he coun y in g oup 2 wi h he highes
epo ed lea ning age. Acco ding o Shaw e al. (37), in Po ugal
bicycles play a sca ce ole on child en’s mobili y—ei he alone
o accompanied by pa en s—in e ms o jou neys be ween home
and school. The easons explaining he low le els o ac i e and
independen a eling in Po ugal a e ela ed o s ange dange
and he pa en s’ pe cep ion o a ic haza ds (49).
In coun ies om g oup 2, he e ha e been e o s o p omo e
sus ainable mobili y h ough he p oli e a ion o so modes o
a el in u ban cen e s and he planning o in as uc u e o
p omo e hese beha io s (e.g., inc easing bike lanes, bicycle sha e
p og ams, e c.), and a numbe o cycling ela ed communi y
p ojec s and ini ia i es ha e eme ged [e.g., (50,51)]. Howe e ,
he majo i y o people op o passi e mo o anspo , wi h
nega i e impac o heal h. Also, habi s o using o he modes o
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Co do il e al. Lea ning o Cycle
anspo (i.e., passi e mo o anspo ) ha e a nega i e impac on
bicycle use. Adul s who use passi e mo o anspo (i.e., ca o
mo o bike) as he mos equen ype o anspo o commu e a e
he mos s ongly opposed o cycling (52). Al e na i ely, leisu e
cyclis s a e likely o be commu e cyclis s in he u u e (45,52).
So, inc easing he cycling expe ience (in he leisu e- ime and/o
spo ac i i ies) inc eases he alua ion o a i udinal belie s and
dec eases he ba ie s o cycling as a way o anspo a ion.
G oup 3 comp ises he wo La in Ame ican coun ies in ou
s udy (B azil and Mexico), in which child en lea ned o cycle
independen ly a a la e age. B azil and Mexico a e he wo
only coun ies in ou s udy ha a e no conside ed high-income
coun ies acco ding o he GDP da a o he wo ld bank (33).
Possibly, buying a bicycle in hese coun ies does no ep esen a
p io i y in he amilies’ domes ic budge . In B azil, un il 1999, he
use o bicycles was ela ed o h ee aspec s: (1) leisu e, widesp ead
in all socioeconomic le els; (2) compe i i e o non-compe i i e
spo ing ac i i y; (3) oys, ep esen ing he de elopmen o mo o
skills and expe iencing he i s momen s o eedom o child en
be ween 6 and 12 yea s old (53). In he las decade, he e
ha e been some changes o p omo e he use o bicycles (e.g.,
cons uc ion o bike lanes and implemen a ion o bicycle sha ing
sys ems in la ge ci ies and in ou is ci ies). This has mo i a ed
amilies o encou age child en o ide hei bicycles be o e he age
o 5/6; a o ing he pe o mance o leisu e ac i i ies in he amily,
gene a ing g ea e well-being and inc eased physical ac i i y o
all amily membe s; in addi ion o he use o bicycles as a means
o anspo (u ban mobili y) by amilies o all socioeconomic
le els (54).
In Mexico, he use o he bicycle does no seem o be popula
o widesp ead. A ecen s udy based on he na ional in e censal
su ey o 2015 (30), showed ha al hough ac i e anspo a ion
o school is ai ly common among Mexican schoolchild en and
adolescen s, cycling is no (66.2% o he s uden s walk o school
whe eas only 1.6% cycles). Mo eo e , when conside ing ac i e
and passi e anspo a ion modes, he bicycle alls in o he las
posi ion in all s a es o Mexico.
Lea ning Age O e Gene a ions
The e could be some impo an and uni e sal elemen s a ec ing
he lea ning age o cycling (e.g., coope a ion o lea ning, ime
on ask, p omp eedback, e c.) ha can be applied a ound he
globe in di e se popula ions. Gene a ion X lea n o cycle la e
han gene a ion Z, which could be due o less inancial a ailabili y
o p e ious gene a ions o acqui e bicycles and o less sha ed
leisu e ime be ween pa en s and child en o hose gene a ions.
In ac , pa en s and ela i es o people in gene a ion X had limi ed
leisu e ime and consequen ly less ime o suppo child en in
lea ning his mo o ask. Changes in he numbe o child en pe
amily, in he cul u al ideals o pa en hood and o pa en al le els
o supe ision and engagemen in play should also be conside ed
(55). Fo ins ance, i has been shown ha younge siblings
usually lea n o cycle ea lie han olde siblings and only child en
(56). Homes, amilies and schools a e powe ul en i onmen s
o empowe ing cycling encul u a ion (45). Speci ically, amily
can be he social g oup wi h he mos posi i e in luence on
he decision o use he bicycle (52) and/o lea n o cycle. To
do so, iding a bike should no only be seen as a mode o
anspo , guided by adul a ionali y, bu as a o m o ac i e
play, leisu e, ec ea ion o spo , which lays he ounda ion o
posi i e p ac ical expe iences (45). Mos child en lea n o cycle
wi h he help o hei amilies. Al hough s uc u ed p og ams
wi h cycling lessons exis , hey seem o be mo e equen o
child en wi h disabili ies (57). Howe e , o all child en, lea ning
is enhanced when (1) i is mo e like a eam e o han a solo ace,
(2) equen oppo uni ies o pe o m and ecei e sugges ions o
imp o emen exis and/o (3) lea ne s use ealis ic amoun s o
ime o e ec i e lea ning (58). When a child pe sis s, he/she can
lea n how o cycle. Howe e , in addi ion o pe sis ence, when
he child is suppo ed by an adul who p o ides eedback and
encou agemen o help him/he lea n how o cycle, he pa h o
lea ning migh inc ease. In addi ion, he design o bicycles and
hei size ha e become mo e child- iendly ac oss gene a ions. I
is possible ha many child en om gene a ion X did no ha e
access o bicycles co ec ly body-scaled o hem (59), and ins ead
hey had o use adul bicycles. A e en e ing he new millennium,
ou indings e eal ano he d op in he age ha child en lea n
how o cycle independen ly. Possibly, his is due no only o
he mo e cen al place he bike adop s wi hin he amily con ex
nowadays, bu also due o he ansi ion om lea ning how o
cycle wi h aining wheels o he use o he balance bikes (55,60).
In many coun ies, cycling is conside ed a adi ional leisu e ime
ac i i y du ing childhood as many pa en s o e bikes o hei
child en o playing when hey a e young. Mo eo e , cycling
has become inc easingly alued o i s po en ial o imp o e
physical li e acy/mo o skills and physical ac i i y (61). Also, he
g ea e impo ance ha has been gi en in he ecen decades o
policies ha p omo e heal hy li es yles and ac i e anspo (62)
is p obably ano he ac o ha in luences he cycling lea ning age.
The esul s o he p esen s udy e eal he in luence o changes
in he mac osys em and ch onosys em dimensions in p oximal
p ocesses ela ed o lea ning how o cycle, be ween gene a ions
X and Z. These changes a e essen ial o he child o be able
o cycle in he public space, alone o wi h o he child en,
wi hou adul supe ision. This is one o he main licenses o
independen mobili y and a p i ileged componen in a child-
iendly communi y (63).
As a way o low-ca bon ci y s a egies a ound he Wo ld,
policy and decision make s a e engaged in he planning o
ini ia i es ha p omo e cycling (46) and he e has been inc eased
a en ion o cycling and i s in as uc u e o mee clima e
goals (64).
Lea ning Age O e Gene a ions by Coun y
The bike is inc easingly being conside ed an enjoyable,
cheap, ecological and e icien mode o anspo a ion, which
p omo es heal h and well-being. Du ing you h, app op ia e
cycling p omo ion is associa ed wi h empowe ing con idence,
knowledge, compe ence and a i udes (65).
Ou indings e ealed a signi ican in e ac ion be ween
coun y and gene a ion indica ing ha gene a ional changes
di e ed sligh ly among coun ies wi h he decline in lea ning age
being less e iden in coun ies in which he lea ning age has been
consis en ly low ac oss gene a ions.
I is no su p ising ha in coun ies om g oup 1 (especially
in he Ne he lands), he lea ning age has no changed as much
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Co do il e al. Lea ning o Cycle
o e gene a ions as in coun ies om g oup 2 o 3, in which
in es men s in in a-s uc u es and policies ha p omo e cycling
a e mo e ecen . Howe e , i should be no ed ha he in e ac ion
e ec was negligible (η2
p=0.006). Whils lea ning age o
independen cycling is gene ally lowe in la e gene a ions,
coun ies gene ally main ained hei ank ela i e o one ano he
ac oss ime. Al hough na ional go e nmen s ha e inc eased hei
suppo o cycling in he pas decades, he e a e o he ac o s ha
may hinde o acili a e cycling. Fo ins ance, he pe cep ion o
oad sa e y has changed ac oss gene a ions, and ea s abou sa e y
ha e o en been men ioned as a eason o no cycle, especially in
coun ies om g oup 2 (e.g., UK, see 18) and 3 (e.g., Mexico, see
30). The cycling cul u e and he e icacy o cycling campaigns also
a y, and he plans o cycling in es men a e di e se (66). I is
hus clea ha policies and an u ban planning amewo k ha is
iendly o he use o bicycle as an exp essi e daily a el mode
by child en and adul s, as well as aluing he lea ning o cycling
as an educa ional and de elopmen al asse , a e pa amoun o a
widesp ead cycling cul u e and beha io .
S eng hs and Limi a ions
To ou knowledge, his is he i s in e na ional s udy ha
examines he age o lea ning o cycle in di e en coun ies and
ac oss ime. Addi ionally, his s udy has a la ge sample size, which
was made possible h ough a web-based su ey. Howe e , some
limi a ions need o be conside ed when in e p e ing he p esen
indings. Fi s , his c oss-sec ional s udy used e ospec i e sel -
epo and pa en al epo s, which a e p one o esponse bias.
Fu u e s udies should in ol e longi udinal designs o u he
unde s and when and how (young) child en lea n o cycle.
Second, as pa icipan ec ui men ook place ia social media
and wi h he help o di e en pa ne s (e.g., pa en s’ magazines,
ea ly childhood eache s’ o ganiza ions, cycling ede a ions and
non-p o i o ganiza ions), his may ha e led o sampling bias. Fo
ins ance, membe s o cycling o ganiza ions will cycle mo e han
he gene al popula ions in he espec i e coun ies, which migh
bias he a e age lea ning age o cycling wi hin he s udy sample.
Fu he esea ch should conside pe sonal/demog aphic ac o s
(e.g., socio-economic s a us, e hnici y) and psychosocial ac o s
(e.g., a i udes, habi s, pe cep ions) o gain be e insigh s in o
lea ning o cycle (67). Thi d, he e we e some la ge di e ences in
sample size and a iance be ween coun ies al hough unequal N
HSD pos -hoc es s ha e been used o add ess he issue o unequal
g oup size and he e ogenei y o a iance. Finally, he p esen
s udy ocused on compa ing lea ning ages o cycling among bu
no wi hin coun ies. As cycling le els ha e been shown o a y
wi hin coun ies (68,69), u u e s udies should explo e po en ial
di e ences in lea ning age wi hin coun ies and egions.
CONCLUSIONS
Lea ning o cycle is associa ed wi h physical, social and emo ional
bene i s; as such, he ea lie a child can ide a bike independen ly,
he soone hey will expe ience hose bene i s. The p esen s udy
speci ically examined he in luence o he mac osys em and
ch onosys em-as no ed in B on enb enne ’s bioecological heo y
(1995)-and hei in e ac ion, on he lea ning age o cycling. The
in e ac ion e ec be ween coun y and gene a ion was negligible,
bu ou esul s show ha he di e ence in age o lea ning o
cycle independen ly can a y by abou 3 yea s (usually be ween
4 and 7 yea s o age), depending on he coun y whe e he child
li es (mac osys em) and he ime o bi h (ch onosys em). A
child om gene a ion Z bo n in a high-income coun y whe e
he bicycle use is cul u ally imbedded (e.g., he Ne he lands
o Finland), will on a e age lea n o cycle independen ly a
a much younge age han a child om gene a ion X bo n
in a middle-income coun y wi hou a s ong cycling cul u e
(e.g., B azil o Mexico). This la e g oup o coun ies would
bene i he mos om cycling p omo ion campaigns, policies ha
imp o e pe cei ed public and oad sa e y, and in es men s in
in as uc u es o p omo e ac i e modes o anspo . Finally,
lea ning o cycle depends mos ly on he child’s mic osys em—
speci ically, he ace- o- ace in e ac ions be ween he child en
and he adul s ha suppo hem o cycle. Ou esul s indica e
ha he cycling cul u e, exp essed by he cycling modal sha e
ha exis s in a gi en coun y and a gi en ime, seems o be
closely ela ed o he age a which child en lea n how o cycle,
highligh ing he in e dependency be ween he di e en le els o
a pe son’s en i onmen (19,20).
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The aw da a suppo ing he conclusions o his a icle will be
made a ailable by he au ho s, wi hou undue ese a ion.
ETHICS STATEMENT
The s udies in ol ing human pa icipan s we e e iewed and
app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o he Facul y o Human
Kine ics (p ocess numbe 22/2019). The pa ien s/pa icipan s
p o ided hei w i en in o med consen o pa icipa e in
his s udy.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
RC, CM, MB, FL, and DC concei ed he p ojec and es ed
he i s e sion o he su ey. RC was esponsible o a
i s da a analysis and a i s d a o he manusc ip , bu
all au ho s con ibu ed o he analysis and w i ing p ocess
and iden i ied and ec ui ed he in e na ional pa ne s. All
in e na ional pa ne s (EH, AL, PT, GF, CS, BJ, LZ, AD, FB, RF,
SV, SZ, and IE) examined he su ey, eached a consensus o he
inal e sion, and we e esponsible o ansla ing he su ey and
es ing i in hei own coun ies. All au ho s con ibu ed o he
dissemina ion o he su ey in hei own coun ies and ead and
app o ed he inal manusc ip .
FUNDING
RC, CM, and MB we e pa ly suppo ed by he Po uguese
Founda ion o Science and Technology, unde G an
UIDB/00447/2020 o CIPER—Cen o In e disciplina pa a
o Es udo da Pe o mance Humana (uni 447); DC was pa ly
suppo ed by he Po uguese Founda ion o Science and
Technology, unde p ojec No. UID/CED/04748/2020.
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