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S uden eache s and hei iden i y cons uc ion and awa eness o mul ilingualism : e-
isi ing h ee s udies
© 2019 SEDLL.
Published e sion
Kalaja, Paula
Kalaja, P. (2019). S uden eache s and hei iden i y cons uc ion and awa eness o
mul ilingualism : e- isi ing h ee s udies. Lenguaje y ex os, 49, 67-84.
h ps://doi.o g/10.4995/ly .2019.11470
2019
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TO CITE
THIS ARTICLE:
KALAJA, P. (2019). S uden eache s and hei iden i y cons uc ion and awa eness o mul ilingualism: e- isi ing h ee s udies.
Lenguaje y ex os, 49, 67-84. h ps://doi.o g/10.4995/ly .2019.11470
Sección Monog á ica | S uden eache s and hei iden i y cons uc ion and awa eness o mul ilingualism: e- isi ing h ee […]
S uden eache s and hei iden i y
cons uc ion and awa eness o
mul ilingualism: e- isi ing h ee
s udies
Paula Kalaja | Uni e si y o Jy äskylä (Finland)
ch is ian.helmchen@uni-hambu g.de
This a icle e- isi s h ee s udies ha o iginally ocused on belie s abou second language (L2) lea ning and
eaching held by s uden eache s. The s udies ha e been conduc ed in he same educa ional con ex ( ha
is, a a Finnish uni e si y). The pa icipan s in he s udies a e majo s o mino s in English, Swedish, Ge man,
e c., and hey ange om i s -yea s uden s o i h-yea s uden s abou o g adua e as quali ied L2 eache s.
Da a ha e been collec ed by a a ie y o means o e he pas ew yea s (ques ionnai es, sen ence-comple-
ion asks, d awings), and pa ly longi udinally. The pools o da a ( e bal and isual) will be e-analysed
om he pe spec i e o iden i y cons uc ion and awa eness o aspec s o mul ilingualism and indings c i -
ically e-e alua ed.
Key wo ds: iden i y, mul ilingualism, s uden eache s, longi udinal, isual na a i es.
La cons ucción de la iden idad y la oma de conciencia sob e el
mul ilingüismo de los docen es en o mación: e isión de es es udios
Es e a ículo e isa es es udios que o iginalmen e se cen a on en las c eencias que ienen los u u os do-
cen es sob e el ap endizaje y la enseñanza de una segunda lengua (L2). Los es udios se han ealizado en el
mismo con ex o educa i o (es deci , en una uni e sidad inlandesa). Los pa icipan es en los es udios son
es udian es de p og amas de especialización, o de op a i idad, en inglés, sueco, alemán, e c., y an desde
es udian es de p ime o has a es udian es de quin o año, a pun o de g adua se como p o eso es de L2 cual-
i icados. Los da os se han ecopilado en los úl imos años, u ilizando di e sos ins umen os (cues iona ios,
a eas pa a comple a ases, dibujos) y, en pa e, de mane a longi udinal. Los da os ( e bales y isuales) se
ol e án a analiza desde la pe spec i a de la cons ucción de la iden idad y de la oma de conciencia en
elación con aspec os del mul ilingüismo, y los esul ados se ee alua án de mane a c í ica.
Palab as cla e: iden idad, mul ilingüismo, docen es en o mación inicial, longi udinal, na a i as, isuales..
Kalaja, P.68 |
©2019 SEDLL. Lenguaje y Tex os, 49, 67-84
In oduc ion
This a icle e- isi s h ee closely ela ed
s udies conduc ed (mos ly) wi h s uden s
o English, s udying on he same i e-yea
MA p og amme a a Finnish uni e si y and
e en ually g adua ing as quali ied each-
e s, and c i ically econside s hei indings
om a new pe spec i e, i.e., ha o iden i y
cons uc ion and becoming mul ilingual.
To s a wi h, o he pu poses o his
a icle, wo key e ms need elabo a ing:
iden i ies and mul ilingualism.
Fi s ly, in his con ex , iden i y wo k is
done by he pa icipan s in he h ee s ud-
ies, i.e., wha sense hey make o hem-
sel es as second-language (L2) s uden s
and u u e eache s. Impo an ly, hei
iden i ies a e closely ela ed o he belie s
hey hold abou aspec s o L2 lea ning and
eaching (which he s udies o be e-exam-
ined we e mainly abou ). Recen ly, a de i-
ni ion o L2 eache iden i y was p oposed
by Ba khuizen (2017), based on a e iew o
some 40 chap e s on he opic as pa o a
book ha he had edi ed. The de ini ion can
easily be ex ended o apply o L2 lea ne s,
as ollows:
… iden i ies a e cogni i e, social, emo ion-
al, ideological and his o ical – hey a e bo h
inside he eache /lea ne and ou side in
he social, ma e ial and echnological wo ld.
L2 eache /lea ne iden i ies a e being and
doing, eeling and imagining, and s o ying.
They a e s uggle and ha mony: hey a e
con es ed and esis ed, by sel and o he s,
and hey a e also accep ed, acknowledged
and alued, by sel and o he s. They a e co e
and pe iphe al, pe sonal and p o essional,
hey a e dynamic, mul iple, and hyb id, and
hey a e o eg ounded and backg ound-
ed. And eache /lea ne iden i ies change,
sho - e m, and o e ime – discu si ely in
social in e ac ion wi h eache educa o s,
lea ne s, eache s, adminis a o s and he
wide communi y, and in ma e ial in e -
ac ion wi h spaces, places and objec s in
class ooms, ins i u ions and online (adap ed
om Ba khuizen, 2017, p.4).
This de ini ion is indeed a e y com-
p ehensi e one, and i is clea ha no sin-
gle s udy could possibly add ess all o i s
aspec s.
To de ine he o he key e m1, we
can s a by compa ing mul ilinguals wi h
monolinguals. T adi ionally, monolinguals
we e hough o be speake s o a i s lan-
guage (L1) o na i e speake s, and hey
we e assumed, i s ly, o ha e acqui ed
he L1 om bi h, and secondly, o ha e
ull compe ence in he language (O ega,
2014). In con as , mul ilinguals we e no
only speake s o an L1 bu also use s o one
o mo e addi ional languages (labelled as
L2, L3, e c.), ha ing lea n hese a a la e
s age in hei li es, and hey we e no ex-
pec ed o a ain ull compe ence in any o
hese. In addi ion, as non-na i e speake s,
hey we e conside ed o be ‘less han’ na-
i e o L1 speake s, and as lea ne s o be
de ici : hei compe ence in any addi ional
language would always be lacking in some
espec s. I was ypical o mul ilinguals
o eso o code-swi ching and -mixing,
nei he o which was, howe e , iewed in
e y posi i e e ms, and so needed o be
a oided. I is only g adually being acknowl-
edged ha i is, in ac , mul ilinguals ha
1 Ano he se o e ms has been ad oca ed, e.g., by he Council o Eu ope (2001, 2007), including plu ilingualism, plu icul u alism
and plu ilingual compe ence.
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o m he majo i y o people in he wo ld,
no monolinguals.
Thus, some o he adi ional as-
sump ions ha e been challenged (e.g.,
O ega, 2014), including he monolingual
bias – wi h i s wo assump ions discussed
abo e. Besides, mul ilinguals a e iewed
o be ‘ a he mo e han less’ compa ed
wi h monolinguals o na i e speake s. In
ac , i is a gued ha hey should no be
compa ed wi h hese a all, bu wi h o he
mul ilinguals o ensu e ai e compa isons.
Mul ilinguals a e now iewed o be indi-
iduals ha do anslanguaging (O heguy,
Ga cia, & Reid, 2015). They ha e a epe oi e
o linguis ic (and o he semio ic) esou ces,
and so hey can d aw on hei knowledge
in any language hey happen o know, de-
pending on he si ua ion. Thei aim is in ac
o a ain mul icompe ence, o iginally used
by Cook (1992), o knowledge in mo e han
one language bu o di e en deg ees, and
o lea n o app ecia e his cons an ly e ol -
ing and unique compe ence o hei s.
In addi ion, becoming o being mul-
ilingual can be looked a om wo pe -
spec i es (O heguy e al., 2015). F om he
pe spec i e o ou side s, he languages o
a mul ilingual a e iewed as sepa a e and
ixed en i ies and associa ed wi h na ion
s a es. In con as , om he pe spec i e o
inside s, he languages o a mul ilingual a e
assumed o o m one single en i y in his o
he mind, aspec s o which he o she can
d aw on selec i ely om one si ua ion o
ano he .
Finally, i is claimed ha he e a e
wo app oaches o mul ilingualism (e.g.,
K amsch, 2009). The objec i e app oach
ocuses on igu ing ou he mechanisms
inside a mul ilingual’s mind and acing de-
elopmen s in his o he knowledge o any
language (and possible s ages in he p o-
cess) in e ms o mas e y o a language as
a sys em (e.g., g amma and lexicon), o in
e ms o an abili y o communica e o in e -
ac wi h o he s in he language. The subjec-
i e app oach, in con as , a emp s o ind
ou how a mul ilingual him- o he sel eels
abou becoming o being mul ilingual, o
wha he di e en languages and hei use
mean o him o he pe sonally.
The h ee s udies o be e-examined
app oach iden i ies (as well as belie s) as
discu si ely and/o mul imodally con-
s uc ed on speci ic occasions and mul i-
lingualism as subjec i ely expe ienced, o
as li ed, and bo h pa ly longi udinally.2 In
he ollowing, S udies 1–3 a e i s con ex-
ualised, hen summa ised, and inally he
indings a e discussed om he new pe -
spec i e o iden i ies and mul ilingualism.
Con ex ualising he h ee s udies
The eaching o L2s in Finland is guided
by a numbe o documen s: Eu opean, na-
ional and local. In he pas decade, he na-
ional co e cu iculums o Basic Educa ion
o G ades 1–9 (Finnish Na ional Boa d o
Educa ion, 2003, 2014) and o uppe sec-
onda y schools o G ades 10–12 (Finnish
Na ional Boa d o Educa ion, 2004, 2015)
ha e been e ised wice. In e es ingly, he
h ee main aims ha e been e e sed in hei
o de (o impo ance), and hei emphasis
and scope e ised (Table 1).
2 When summa ising he indings he e minology is ha ci ed in o icial guidelines/documen s o he ime o as used by he
pa icipan s. So e ms, such as i s language (L1), second language (L2), o eign language, and mo he ongue, a e used ins ead o
addi ional languages, o example.
Kalaja, P.70 |
©2019 SEDLL. Lenguaje y Tex os, 49, 67-84
Now he i s aim in eaching English
(and o he o eign languages) is o inc ease
lea ne s’ language awa eness in gene al,
and hei app ecia ion o mul ilingualism
and mul icul u alism, in pa icula . The sec-
ond aim is o p o ide lea ne s wi h p ac ice
in lea ning- o-lea n skills, including lea n-
ing s a egies. The hi d aim is o de elop
hei p o iciency in English in h ee abili ies,
i.e., in he abili y o in e ac , in e p e , and/
o p oduce ex s in di e en modes. Also,
o he i s ime, i is acknowledged ha
he s a us o English is di e en om ha
o o he o eign languages in he coun y:
English is conside ed a lingua anca o a
global language. As a esul , compa ed wi h
lea ne s o o he o eign languages, lea n-
e s o English a e expec ed o each highe
le els in any abili y on he s anda d CEFR
scale o A1–C2 (Council o Eu ope, 2001).
In addi ion, eaching con en h ough
he medium o English o Con en -and-
Language-In eg a ed-Lea ning (CLIL) is
encou aged, as is looking o in o ma ion in
English, e.g., on he In e ne .
These e isions ha e been impo an
issues o add ess wi h s uden eache s
when hey ha e been a ending cou ses
(wi h us) ha deal wi h he eaching and
lea ning o English (see also Kalaja, Alanen,
& Du a, 2018). A he ime o S udies 1
and 2, he p e ious co e cu iculums we e
s ill e ec i e. When S udy 3 was ca ied ou ,
he cu en na ional co e cu iculums we e
becoming e ec i e in he Finnish educa-
ional sys em.
S udy 1: Compa ing English wi h
Finnish longi udinally
S udy 1 was ca ied ou as pa o he e-
sea ch p ojec “F om No ice o Expe ”, wi h
Riikka Alanen and Hannele Du a as mem-
be s o he esea ch eam. I is a discu si e
s udy wi h a longi udinal esea ch design
(e.g., Kalaja, 2016a) and aces de elop-
men s in he belie s held by uni e si y s u-
den s ega ding English, a language hey
we e s udying, and Finnish, hei L1. While
compa ing he wo languages, hey came
o cons uc hei iden i ies, oo: om mo-
men o momen and o e ime.
We asked a g oup o English majo s
and mino s on an MA p og amme a ou
uni e si y, i espec i e o hei line o spe-
cializa ion, o ill in a ques ionnai e, among
o he hings. The ques ionnai e con ained,
Table 1. Finnish na ional co e cu iculums compa ed.
Na ional Co e Cu iculums (G ades 1–12)
2003/2004 (ea lie ones)
Na ional Co e Cu iculums (G ades 1–12)
2014/2015 (cu en ones)
• Language p o iciency: ou skills (Reading Comp ehension,
Lis ening Comp ehension, W i ing, and Speaking); s a us o En-
glish: a o eign language among o he s; summa i e assessmen
(ou comes)
• Cul u al skills (L1 s. L2 cul u e), espec o O he
• Lea ning s a egies
• Mul ilingualism and mul icul u alism (and awa eness o
languages in gene al)
• Lea ning- o-lea n skills (including lea ning s a egies)
• Language p o iciency: h ee abili ies (abili y o in e ac , in e -
p e and p oduce o al, w i en and mul imodal ex s); s a us o
English: lingua anca; o ma i e o dynamic assessmen (p ocess,
eedback)

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o example, a sec ion wi h hal a dozen
sen ence comple ion asks aimed a com-
pa ing English wi h Finnish, e.g., “In my
opinion, English is/sounds …”, “I you ask
me, compa ed wi h Finnish, English is …”.
The s uden s comple ed he asks wice
– in he i s and inal yea o hei s udies
( ou o i e yea s apa ), he i s ime wi h
pencil and pape (n = 118) while a end-
ing a cou se on “Lea ning o lea n o eign
languages”, and he second ime online
(n = 37) wi h an addi ional mo e open-
ended ques ion “Wha does English mean
o you hese days?”.
The sen ence comple ions a ied in
leng h om one o wo wo ds o sen ences
o hal a page o ex . We ead and e- ead
he pool o w i en da a looking o pa -
e ns in con en and/o o m and iden i ied
a o al o ou in e p e a i e epe oi es (e.g.,
Edley, 2009), o ecu ing ways o desc ib-
ing he wo languages. Wi hin he epe -
oi es he s uden s seemed o adop di e -
en posi ions o iden i ies, when compa ing
he wo languages om one momen o
ano he and om one ound o da a collec-
ion o ano he (Table 2).
Conside Examples 1–5 and 6–9 (all
examples a e ansla ions om Finnish). In
hese samples he s uden s d aw on di -
e en ends o he epe oi es (see Table 2)
and wi hou explici compa isons o he
wo languages:
Examples 1–5
• Finnish is beau i ul, amilia and sa e.
• Finnish is lo ely, home language,
mo he ongue, pa o me, impo -
an .
• Finnish is he language o emo ions
and hinking. A language ha is sui-
able o hese pu poses.
• Finnish is unde a h ea . An impo -
an aspec o my iden i y.
• Finnish is a di icul language o o-
eigne s.
Examples 6–9
• English is a use ul language, a wo ld
language o he Wes . Fun, logical
enough.
• English sounds nice, qui e sys ema-
ic. I is easy o lea n.
• English is an in e es ing language
bu di icul o lea n. An impo an
language (e.g., when a elling).
• English is an impo an means o
global communica ion. A window
o e en a doo o many cul u es and
communi ies. I is e y impo an in
wo king li e now and in he nea u-
u e.
Table 2. The in e p e a i e epe oi es iden i ied in compa ing English wi h Finnish (FL = o eign language) (adap ed om Kalaja, 2016a, p.112).
Repe oi es Dilemmas Iden i ies
1) A ec ion epe oi e Close s. dis an language Use o Finnish as L1/mo he ongue; use o English as FL/L2
2) Aes he ics epe oi e Beau i ul s. ugly language Use o Finnish as L1/mo he ongue; use o English as FL/L2
3) Vi ali y epe oi e Global s. local language Use o English as lingua anca/wo ld language s. use o
Finnish as L1 (in Finland)
4) Challenge epe oi e Easy s. di icul language o acqui e o lea n Lea ne o English as FL (including Finns); acqui e o Finnish
as L1 and lea ne o Finnish as FL
Kalaja, P.72 |
©2019 SEDLL. Lenguaje y Tex os, 49, 67-84
The s uden s discu si ely cons uc ed
he languages as being ei he emo ionally
close o o dis an om hem (A ec ion
Repe oi e), beau i ul o ugly (Aes he ics
Repe oi e), global o local (Vi ali y
Repe oi e), and/o easy o di icul o lea n
(Challenge Repe oi e). O he epe oi es,
Repe oi e 4 was he mos dilemma ic, i.e.,
he s uden s had mixed opinions o belie s
abou he wo languages, and Repe oi e
3 he leas dilemma ic, i.e., he s uden s al-
mos unanimously ag eed ha English was
a widely-sp ead o global language, and
Finnish, in con as , a small o mino i y lan-
guage. The s uden s con inued o d aw on
he ou epe oi es o e he pe iod o ou
o i e yea s, and he dilemmas, o oppo-
si e iews, seemed o emain o he mos
pa un esol ed. This kind o opinions o
belie s and adi ional e minology (such as
mo he ongue, o eign language, English as
a lingua anca, e c.) a e discussed c i ically
(by language-policy make s) o ad ance
plu ilingual educa ion and posi i e accep-
ance o linguis ic and cul u al di e si y in
Eu ope (Council o Eu ope, 2007, pp.16–30).
In addi ion, we managed o ace
some u he de elopmen s ega ding he
s uden s’ iden i ies o e ime, based on e-
sponses o he open-ended ques ion o he
second ound o da a collec ion.
Fi s ly, English is being ealized o ha e
gained he s a us o an L2. Thus, he s u-
den s’ iden i ies ended o shi om lea n-
e s o a o eign language o use s o English
as a lingua anca o a global language, as
illus a ed by Example 10:
Example 10
• I [English] is a language ha opens
he whole wo ld. Pa o my e e y-
day li e. Use ul bo h in spa e ime
and a wo k.
The s uden s may ha e s a ed hei
s udies on he MA p og amme ou o lo e
o in e es in aspec s o English-speaking
cul u es, bu wi h ime hey ealize ha
knowing English can be o ins umen al
alue, oo (see also Example 13 below),
making i possible o hem o communi-
ca e in in e na ional con ex s wi h bo h
na i e and non-na i e speake s o he lan-
guage; o pu sue hobbies and spa e ime
ac i i ies; o a el o li e ab oad; o ind
employmen ; o pu sue a ca ee ; o o do
well in hei job, as language specialis s o
as eache s.
Secondly, he s uden s s a o alk
abou hemsel es as bi- o mul ilingual, al-
bei s ill wi h qui e a adi ional unde s and-
ing o he e m, as illus a ed by Example
11 by a male s uden and Example 12 by
a emale s uden (bo h had s udied a leas
h ee languages a school):
Example 11
• I’m lucky o be almos bilingual.
Example 12
• E en hough I eel like I am mul-
ilingual, Finnish is s ill clea ly my
only mo he ongue and I use i
o exp ess emo ions. My English
could only gain ha kind o s a-
us i I li ed in an English-speaking
coun y o yea s. In my opinion,
my knowledge o English does
no ha e o be compa able o my
compe ence in my mo he on-
gue; my knowledge o English is
a e all p e y good, wi h i s own
weaknesses and s eng hs.
Thi dly, English is becoming an as-
pec o he s uden s’ p o essional iden-
i y. Conside Example 13 om a s uden
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s udying on one line o specializa ion
(i.e., quali ying as an English eache ) and
Example 14 om a s uden on he o he
line o specializa ion (i.e., being a special-
is in English and he English-speaking
cul u es):
Example 13
• [English is] a ool. I is a ool qui e li-
e ally, as I will g adua e as a eache
o English, and English is wha I will
be eaching, eaching abou , and
using as he medium o ins uc ion.
I is also a ool o communica ion.
I o en ealize ha I am hinking in
English, and in e e yday con e sa i-
ons I o en end up using an English
wo d when he Finnish equi alen
doesn’ come o mind o isn’ qui e
“ o he poin ” in ha si ua ion.
Example 14
• I ’s a wo king language ha I hope
o be able o use as a language
specialis . I’m ying o keep up o
imp o e my skills e en a e g adu-
a ion, as I don’ wan o o ge wha
I’ e al eady lea n .
In summa y, S udy 1 wi h i s longi udi-
nal esea ch design p o ides e idence ha
he iden i y o English majo s and mino s
a ies no only om momen o momen
bu also o e ime, depending on he line
o a gumen a ion in comple ing he di e -
en asks as pa o he esea ch p ojec , and
wi h he g adual ealiza ion o he changing
s a us o English in Finland (and elsewhe e).
S udy 2: Imagining a class o English
o o he L2s o be gi en soon a e
g adua ion
S udy 2 (e.g., Kalaja, Alanen, & Du a, 2013;
Kalaja, 2016b) is a ollow-up s udy o
S udy 1. Some o he s uden s ook pa
in bo h s udies, while s udying wi h us.
S udy 1 ocused on he pas expe iences
o u u e eache s, S udy 2, in con as , on
he yea s o come in hei li es. To his end,
we made use o d awings, o isual na a-
i es ( o a de ini ion, see, e.g., Squi e, 2012,
pp.2–4).
We asked a g oup o s uden eache s
(n = 58), majo ing no only in English bu
also in o he o eign languages, including
Swedish, Ge man, F ench and Russian, and
being in he inal s ages o hei MA s udies
a ou uni e si y, o imagine an 3ins ance
o eaching a o eign language in he no -
so-dis an u u e. We ins uc ed hem as
ollows: “D aw a pic u e o ‘My Language
X class a yea a e g adua ion”’. In addi-
ion, on he e e se side o he ask shee ,
we asked he pa icipan s o gi e a b ie
w i en accoun o wha hei class would
be like: “Explain wha is going on in you
class”. The ask was ca ied ou as he inal
in-class assignmen on he e y las session
o hei pedagogical s udies. We subjec ed
he d awings and hei commen a ies o
heo y-guided con en analysis (Tuomi, &
Sa ajä i, 2009, pp.99–124). S udy 2 d ew
on sociocul u al heo y (e.g., Lan ol , &
Tho ne, 2006), hus, in ou analysis o isual
(and w i en) da a we ocused on he en i-
onmen s, a e ac s, and in e ac ion in he
class, and coded he d awings acco dingly.
3 A he ime o S udy 2 he no ion o en isioning had no ye been in oduced o he ield, see S udy 3.
Kalaja, P.74 |
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The en i onmen s in which o eign lan-
guage eaching would ake place anged
om adi ional class ooms ( u nished wi h
desks and a boa d), mode n class ooms
(wi h ca pe s, so as, a mchai s, plan s,
pos e s, e c.) and i ual class ooms ( ia
Skype) o ou -o -class oom con ex s, such
as he school ki chen and he school ya d.
The eache was depic ed ei he s anding
in on o he class oom, in he middle o
he class oom, o engaged in join ac i i y
wi h he pupils; o e ing hus di e en pos-
sibili ies o in e ac ion in he class oom.
Conside Figu es 1–3.
Howe e , o he mos pa , he each-
ing o o eign languages was depic ed by
he s uden eache s as aking place in a
adi ional class oom, u nished wi h desks
and a boa d o one ype o ano he , and
some mode n echnology. In e es ingly,
books, o any kind, would no play as im-
po an a ole in class as be o e. The s uden
eache s would a he use au hen ic ma e-
ials, based on he needs and/o in e es s o
hei s uden s.
Fu he mo e, he u u e eache s, wo k-
ing mos ly on hei own, would emphasize
he p ac ising o o al skills, using a language
o au hen ic pu poses and add essing cul-
u al issues. Impo an ly, he eache would
ake on he iden i y o a guide, ensu ing in-
e ac ion among his o he s uden s, i e-
spec i e o he class oom a angemen s. In
o he wo ds, i was belie ed ha he each-
ing o English and o he o eign languages
would be social in na u e once he s uden s
en e ed he eaching p o ession.
O e all, we managed o iden i y
wo compe ing discou ses in his s udy
(Table 3), suppo ed also by p e ious
Figu e 1. The eache s anding in on o a adi ional class oom, desks in ows (o iginally in ull colou s).
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©2019 SEDLL. Lenguaje y Tex os, 49, 67-84
O e all, we can, i s ly, conclude ha as
lea ne s o English he s uden s’ iden i ies
end o de elop once hey become awa e
o he changing s a us o he language in
Finland (and globally): a shi om lea ne s
o English as a o eign language o use s o
he language as a lingua anca o a global
language, as is e iden om S udy 1.
Secondly, as u u e eache s hey seem
o p e e o ake on qui e a di e en iden-
i y om he eache s o hei school yea s:
wi h a shi om ansmi e s o in o ma ion
o guides, ensu ing in e ac ion in class and
p o iding hei s uden s oppo uni ies o
lea ning ( e lec ed in class oom a ange-
men s). Acco dingly, hey end o assign
hei s uden s qui e di e en iden i ies, oo:
wi h a shi om passi e ecipien s o in o -
ma ion o ac i e pa icipan s wi h agency
o seize s o lea ning oppo uni ies; and
om lea ne s o English o use s o he lan-
guage. These a e, in u n, e lec ed in he
p inciples and p ac ices hey claim hey
would apply in hei eaching once hey
en e he p o ession as quali ied eache s o
English (and o he o eign languages), as is
e iden om S udies 2 and 3. In e es ingly,
S udies 2 and 3 p o ide e idence o an-
o he shi in aims in eaching English by
s uden eache s in hei u u e classes: in-
s ead o ocusing on eaching he language
(i.e., i s o mal aspec s such as g amma and
ocabula y) hey would like o ocus on
communica ion and eaching con en (o
e en CLIL, i.e., eaching o he school sub-
jec s) h ough English as he medium o
ins uc ion.
In e es ingly, aced wi h he challenge
o en isioning gi ing jus a class (le alone
a ull cou se) he decisions by s uden
eache s seem o become mo e com-
plex he mo e ad anced hey a e in hei
s udies on he MA p og amme, including
pedagogical s udies. This is e iden om
S udy 3: o Ada, as a u u e eache , he de-
cision in ol ed simply choosing a speci ic
eaching app oach o apply in he class (i.e.,
To al Physical Response, wi h some misun-
de s andings), o he o he s ( om Nea o
Sue) he decisions o choices we e much
mo e complex and conce ning many mo e
issues ha jus he eaching app oach. In
o he wo ds, he s udies wi h us do seem
o make a di e ence – in s uden eache s’
p o essional hinking.
Conclusions can also be made abou
mul ilingualism.
Fi s ly, S udy 1 p o ides e idence ha
s uden eache s (o he la e 2000s) s ill had
a ough ime conside ing hemsel es mul-
ilingual, based on qui e a adi ional unde -
s anding o he e m. This is because hey
seem o assume ha hey should ha e ac-
qui ed he wo (o mo e) languages ea ly on
(i.e., as child en) and ha e a ull command
o each language. In o he wo ds, hey
(s ill) su e om he monolingual bias (see
In oduc ion). S udy 3 wi h i s ou cases
illus a es he o e all a ia ion in s ances
owa ds mul ilingualism in English classes
gi en by s uden eache s in he u u e:
Ada ad oca es s icking o “English only” in
he class (monolingualism); Mike ad oca es
he use o English and Finnish, he L1, i
needed (bilingualism), o ensu e his s u-
den s would lea n some hing cul u e-wise,
i no language-wise; Nea would like o
expose he s uden s no only o English
bu also o a numbe o o he o eign lan-
guages in he class oom (mul ilingualism)
wi h pos e s and p ojec epo s in F ench,
Spanish, e c. hung on he class oom walls.
Howe e , she is no explici abou he use
o any o he languages (besides English) o

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communica ion o eaching con en (CLIL)
in he class o he d eams. A any a e, he
ou case s udies illus a e ha s uden s
could be exposed o mo e han one lan-
guage o ha mo e han one language
could be used o communica ion in he
class oom. On he o he hand, when en-
e ing he p o ession, s uden eache s will
be aced wi h a new challenge: hese days
he e a e schools (especially in he Capi al
a ea) whe e e en o e hal o he s uden s
speak o he languages as hei L1, and so
he use o Finnish (o Swedish5) in class o
in ex books (including g amma sec ions
and ocabula y lis s) can be p oblema ic.
Bo h ha e been s anda d p ac ice un il
ecen ly.
Secondly, S udies 2 and 3 p o ide
some e idence o s uden eache s being
awa e o language and cul u e going hand-
in-hand, o mul icul u alism. This is e lec ed
in some p inciples and p ac ices hey en-
ision using in hei u u e classes: using
au hen ic ma e ials (including newspape s,
books, mo ies, music, social media, and
games), in i ing isi o s, ha ing s uden s
isi places (such as museums) o people,
co- eaching, e.g., wi h a Home Economics
eache o lea n say abou F ench cuisine,
aking a class o a school ki chen, e.g., o
make cookies o Ame ican s yle. Some o
hese would in ol e s e ching he walls o
a egula class oom – physically o i ually.
O cou se, i is ue ha he ime a eache
can de o e o discussing aspec s o cul u e
in a single class (e en o hei d eams) is
limi ed; a ull cou se could be a di e en
ma e !
To conclude, on a mo e c i ical no e, i
seems ha as eache educa o s we would
need u he discussions wi h ou s uden
eache s o challenge hei cu en (pa ly
nai e) unde s anding o he wo key issues
add essed in his a icle o aise hei awa e-
ness o mo e ecen de elopmen s in he
ields, including he possibili ies o anslan-
guaging pedagogy (e.g., Canaga ajah, 2013;
Ga cia, & Wei, 2013) o e-conside he use
and/o ole o mo e han one language in
hei classes, eaching ma e ials and as-
sessmen p ac ices. This is becoming e en
mo e ele an in he Finnish educa ional
sys em, wi h he e e inc easing numbe
o lea ne s speaking o he languages han
Finnish (o Swedish) as hei L1, and hese
languages a e es ima ed o be close o 140
in numbe (in he Capi al a ea in 2018)! In
o he 6 wo ds, English classes (among o h-
e s) a e ge ing mo e and mo e di e se lin-
guis ically (and cul u ally) in hei s uden
popula ion, bu i emains o be seen how
he u u e eache s’ migh cope wi h his
new challenge.
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